MODULE 3

GEC 008- SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

SPECIFIC ISSUES IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY
This module tackles specific issues in science and technology in the context of the
information age, biodiversity and health, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and
gene therapy, nanotechnology, and climate change and environmental awareness. By
critiquing specific issues in science and technology in the context on how these affect
human lives, the module aims to empower students toward a renewed understanding and
appreciation of science and technology in the present context of society.
Activities on this module shall be accomplished and to be submitted on the
delivery of the next module.

LESSON 2: BIODIVERSITY AND A HEALTHY SOCIETY

LESSON CONTENT
Biodiversity is defined as the variety
of life present in an ecosystem. Biodiversity is
important in how society benefits from it.
There are three different types of
biodiversity: genetic, species, and ecological
diversity. Genetic biodiversity refers to
the variations among organisms of the same
species. These variations are usually passed
down from parents to offspring. Species
diversity refers to the variety of species
within a particular region. Species diversity is
influenced by the environmental conditions
in the region. Species are the normal measure
of biodiversity for these are the basic units of
biological classification. Species are grouped
together in families based on shared
characteristics. Lastly, ecological
diversity refers to the network of different
species in an ecosystem and the interaction of
these species. The variations of climatic and
altitudinal conditions along with varied
ecological habitats are the reasons for the
richness in biodiversity of a particular region.
Figure 28: Marine Biodiversity
https://www.c2st.org/event/the-heart-of-marine-biodiversity-saving-the-verde-island-passage/

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 Society benefits greatly from the richness of biodiversity since humans can source
from nature biological resources such as food, medicine, energy, and more. Biodiversity
in natural ecosystem can also regulate climate, flood, pollination, water and air quality,
water storage, decomposition of wastes, among others. However, these numerous
benefits of biodiversity are vulnerable to exploitation. Humans need to be responsible in
optimizing the benefits of biodiversity through the proper utilization of science and
technology.

Health and Medicine

Since 2600 BC, people have been
using plants to treat illnesses, hence the
practice of herbal medicine. Cupressus
sempervirens (Cypress) and
Commiphora myrrha (myrrh), for
instance, have been used to treat coughs,
colds, and inflammation since the ancient
times. Herbal medicines were also used in
healing rituals and in the treatment of
injuries resulting from wars or accidents.
Various plant-based drugs such as gargles,
pills, infusions, and ointments were used in
Ancient Egypt as well as in Ancient China.
Beginning 100 BC to 300 BC, the Greeks
recorded the collection, storage, and use of
medicinal herbs. During the Dark and
Middle Ages, monasteries in England,
Ireland, France, and Germany preserved the
Western knowledge of treating illness using
herbal medicine. As such, the use of herbal
medicine in ancient civilizations was
dependent on the biodiversity present in
their respective environment.

Figure 29: Salvia apiana or California Sage

https://plantright.org/better-plants/salvia-apiana/

For example, Salvia apiana (California Sage), was an herbal plant used by India
tribes of Southern California to aid in childbirth and was believed to protect the immune
system from respiratory ailments. Another example, Alhagi maurorum (camel thorn),
secretes a sweet and gummy substance from its stems and leaves called manna during
hot days. Manna from the camel thorn contains melezitose, and sucrose, an inverted
sugar. It is believed to have diuretic, diaphoretic, laxative, expectorant, gastroprotective,
antiseptic, and anti-diarrheal properties. Israelis were known to use the roots of the plant
to treat diarrhea. The Konkani people smoked the plant to treat asthma, and Romans used

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 the plant to treat nasal polyps. The plant Ligusticum scoticum (Scottish lovage) is
believed to treat hysterical and uterine disorders. Its seeds are used to relieve flatulence
and to stimulate the senses.
Many medicinal products available in the market today are derived from natural
substances from plants. Salicylic acid, the active ingredient of the anti-inflammatory
drug, aspirin, for example, is derived from the bark of a willow tree. Morphine, one of
the most widely known painkillers which was first marketed and used in the 1800s, is
derived from Papaver somniferum commonly known as opium poppy. Digoxin,
used in the management of congestive heart failure, is derived from Digitalis purpurea
(foxglove) which has already been used to treat heart conditions since the 1700s.
The transmission of disease due to the
movement of organisms amplified the need to
study the environment in relation to human
health. As time went by, information regarding
different diseases and how to treat them has
been extensively documented to come up with
more effective ways of treating them. After
penicillin underwent its clinical trials in 1938
and the first indication of antibiotic resistance
to penicillin was reported in 1941, new
antibiotics from microorganisms and bioactive
natural products continued to be discovered. In
the 1970s, the production of bacterial strains
supersensitive to β-lactams, tests for the
inhibition of β-lactamases, and specificity for
sulfur-containing metabolites led to the
discovery of novel antibiotic structural classes
(i.e., norcardicins, carbepenems, and
monobactam). Fungi and microorganisms
found in trees, grasses, algae, and herbaceous
plants, and living in the intracellular spaces of
plant stems, petioles, root, and leaves have been
widely used in the production of many
important medicinal products today.
Figure 30. Ascomycota
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/ascomycota

In 1994, an oral formulation of pilocarpine was use and approved for the
treatment of dry mouth (xerostamia). In 1998, another drug was approved to manage an
autoimmune disease that damages the salivary and lacrimal glands called Sjogren’s
syndrome. In 2004, the drug quinine was isolated from the bark of Cinchona
succirubra Pav. ex Klotzsch and was approved to treat malaria (Dias et al., 2012). At

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 present, more and more developments are being introduced in the pharmaceutical
industry to produce new drugs to the treatment of diseases.

Food
Food is a basic need for human
survival. During the Stone Age, humans
relied only on hunting and foraging to get
food. They depended on what the ecosystem
could readily provide them. As the Earth’s
population grew, the demand for food
increased. Crops that can be grown were
discovered and cultivated and animals were
domesticated. Throughout history,
agriculture and cultivation evolved from
picking desirable crops and breeding
animals to maintaining stable supply of food
to last for a long periods of time as
preparation for the changing seasons and
the possibility of natural disasters. Ways to
cultivate desired species of crops and
animals suitable for consumption also
evolved throughout time. The increasing
demand for food as the world population
grew also resulted in the development of
more lands for agriculture.
Figure 31: Vegetable crops
https://www.homeperch.com/types-of-root-vegetables/

Farmers and fishermen rely on healthy ecosystems for their livelihood. The
benefits of biodiversity are necessary for the growth of many important crops. About 39
of the leading 57 global crops need birds and insects as pollinators. Agrobiodiveristy
is the result of a careful selection and innovative developments by farmers, fishers, and
herders throughout the years. Harvested crop varieties and non-harvested species in the
environment that support the ecosystems for food production fall under agrobiodiversity.

Energy Humans rely on energy provided by ecosystems to do the necessary

activities in order to survive. In the Stone Age, heat energy from fire was used mainly
for survival against harsh cold environments, for cooking, and for communication with
nearby tribes in the form of smoke. In 1000 BC, coal as a source of energy was used by
people in northeast China for heating and cooking. It eventually became popular in other
civilizations, such as the Romans and Northern Native Americans. In 400 BC, water
energy or hydro power was used by the Ancient Greeks and Romans and for
irrigation. In 347 AD, the earliest known oil wells were developed in China. They made
use of extensive bamboo pipelines with depths of 800 feet for lighting and heating. In 500

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 to 900 AD, the Persians started to use
wind-powered grain mills and water
pumps. By 1300, windmills, taking the
modern pinwheel shape, were developed
in Western Europe, and in 1390, the Dutch
built larger windmills for draining lakes
and marshes in the Shrine River Delta.

Figure 32: Windmills of Pililla, Rizal

https://www.thepoortraveler.net/2016/07/windmills-rizal-wind-farm-pililla-manila/

Wind energy was also used to navigate through bodies of water. During the 1700s to
1800s, at the time of the Industrial Revolution, biomass as a primary source of energy
was replaced with coal and the British discovered that by burning, coal is transformed
into hot-burning coke, a fuel with a high carbon content and few impurities. With this,
the use of coal became widespread all over the world.
In 1820s, natural gas was used as a source of light although the lack of pipeline
infrastructure made its distribution challenging. In 1830s, the electric generator was
developed based on Michael Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetism. In 1850s,
commercial oil was drilled which led to the distillation of kerosene from petroleum.
1860s, Augustine Mouchot developed the first solar powered system for industrial
machinery. In 1892, geothermal energy was first used. In 1942, the first nuclear fission
reactor was designed and built. In the 19th century and 20th century, the utilization of coal
energy shaped the industrialization of the United States, United Kingdom, and other
European countries.
From the development of the use of energy sources throughout history, it can be
seen that there was no direct nor indirect exhaustion of biodiversity in the utilization of
energy resources. However, as early as 1973, the effects on the environment and the risk
of potential accidents when using energy alarmed many environmental organizations. In
1979, a nuclear reactor accident at Three Mile Island near Middletown, Pennsylvania
happened. At the end of 1980, the biggest oil spill in the US waters, the Exxon Valdez oil
spill in Alaska occurred. In the 2000s, a number of catastrophic events transpired, e.g.,
the coil ash spill in Tennessee, oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, and the Fukushima nuclear
crisis in Japan (Battaglia, 2013).
A study conducted by Jones, Pejchar, and Kiesecker (2015) reported the
repercussions of society’s demand for clean and abundant energy on biodiversity and

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 human well-being. The demands for energy created a positive impact on unconventional
ways of producing energy but, in turn, have resulted in adverse effects on biodiversity in
terms of wildlife mortality, habitat loss, fragmentation, noise and light pollution, invasive
species, and changes in carbon stock and water resources.
Water Storage and Flood Control
The earliest recorded
civilization were situated near rivers or
lakes which made their livelihoods
dependent on water. With increasing
demand for potable and drinkable
water along with the discovery of
ground water 2,000 years ago, wells
began to be used in the Middle East.
Water from rivers and lakes was also
used for irrigation. To cope with the
adverse effects of the changing tides,
floodways were utilize to prevent
flooding in nearby communities that
usually result in damaged crops.
Aqueducts were invented and built
by Romans and the Greeks, to
maintain
Figure 33. Aqueduct
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/roman-aqueducts/

stable water supplies to communities that were far from bodies of water. Then, in the late
19th century, with the increasing demand for potable water and irrigation of crops, dams
were built to maintain water supply in communities.
Biodiversity in forest plays an unquestionably crucial role in water resources.
Forests provide natural filtration and storage systems to provide freshwater. The roots
and leaves of trees create conditions that promote the filtration of rainwater into the soil
to fill up the aquifer systems with groundwater, while percolation occurs allowing the
movement of surface water into rivers and lakes. Forests also play a major role in the
water cycle by affecting rates of transpiration and evaporation of water storage in
watersheds. There seems to be a synchrony between indigenous forests and biodiversity
so that, in various ways, they contribute and regulate the quantity and quality of
freshwater (Blumenfeld, Lu, Christophersen, & Coates, 2009).
Flooding is mostly known for its adverse effects but it also has some benefits. In
the context of agriculture, flooding can help farmers for it distributes nutrients that
particular patches of soil lacked. This can make the soil healthier, and more fertile for the
cultivation of crops. Further, floods can also add nutrients to rivers and lakes thus
improving the ecosystem. However, these benefits are not always achieved because most

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 of the time, flooding causes long term damages. It is also observed that recent flooding’s
caused by typhoons have been extremely damaging which may be one of the effects of
climate change. In the Philippines, for instance, flooding causes extreme damage in both
urban and rural areas. In urban areas, floods damage homes, roads, and other
infrastructures because of the lack of proper drainage systems and waste management
systems. In rural areas, on the other hand, floods easily destroy crops and farmlands and
may even be deadly for low-lying areas near rivers and lakes.

Air and Water Treatment

Some of the gases considered as criteria pollutants like NOx and O3, in moderate
amounts, contribute to a healthy ecosystem and balanced biodiversity. However, due to
excessive concentrations of these gases, the capacity of the environment to clean itself and
to be resilient is diminished.
Excessive nitrogen stimulates the growth of nitrogen-loving plant species but
reduces the occurrence of plant species adapted to low-nitrogen environment. Nitrogen
reduces the resilience of forests to other environmental stresses such as drought, frost,
pets, and diseases. The concentration limit of nitrate in drinking water is too high to
protect natural ecosystems particularly the plant species. Widespread exceedance of
nitrogen critical concentrations will adversely affect the structure and function of
ecosystem.
The effects of excessive nitrogen in the environment may not be fell at once. It may
take decades but this will definitely weaken the resilience of soil and plants. From 1990
to 2006, there was an extensive vegetation damage around the world due to ozone. Ozone
can be good or bad, depending on where it is found---the earth’s upper atmosphere or at
ground level. Ozone found at ground level is known as the bad ozone. It is created by
chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds
(VOC) under the presence of sunlight. High levels of ground level ozone promote early
flowering, affecting the synchronization of pollinators and flowers. Ground level ozone
can also damages the leaves of salad crops, consequently reducing their market value. In
2000, ozone pollution reduced wheat yield by 14 percent and the tomato yield by 9
percent which created a domino effect in the overall production and consumption of
goods.
Negative impacts on vegetation reduce the sink capacity of carbon dioxide and
ozone, enhancing their atmospheric concentrations and affecting the global water cycle.
The effects of global warming are harmful to the environment and its inhabitants. Soils
store air pollutants temporarily that affect water purification. Stored pollutants have
adverse effect on soil functioning (e.g., microbes and invertebrates) and create problems
when the retention capacity of soil is reached or disturbed. Worldwide efforts are being
made to decrease nitrogen deposition to the biosphere to enhance plant species diversity
and relative species richness in grasslands.

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 Protocols on Biodiversity
There is a need to enhance the implementation of regulations and worldwide
protocols, such as the Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol. The Cartagena
Protocol among ten Pacific countries, namely Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands,
Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, and Tonga, aims
to ensure the safe transport, handling, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs)
resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biodiversity. It was
adopted in January 29, 2000 and was enforced in September 11, 2003. It is linked to the
Convention on Biological Diversity, which helps to protect Pacific communities
and biodiversity from the consequences of living modified organisms. It requires having
facilities in place through proper legislative frameworks, laboratory facilities, technology,
and technical capabilities to enable countries to detect, measure and monitor LMOs that
come into the country (Secretariat of the Pacific regional Environmental Programme,
2016).
Locally, strict implementation of environmental laws among industries and
communities alike must be ensured to prevent further damage of biodiversity from air
pollution and water pollution. There should also be efforts to ensure that whatever
treatment is employed it should not promote mass pollution transfer from one matrix of
the environment to another

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