MODULE 1

CONTEMPORARY WORLD
DEFINING GLOBALIZATION:

Much has changed since time immemorial. Human beings have encountered many changes
over the last century especially in their social relationships and social structures. Of these
changes, one can say that globalization is very important change, if not, the most
important(bauman,2003). The reality and omnipresence of globalization makes us see
ourselves as part of what we refer to as the “global age” (Albrow, 1996). The internet for
example, allows a person from the Philippines to know what is happening to the rest of the
world simply by browsing Google. The mass media also allows for connections among
people, communities, and countries all over the globe.

So what is Globalization?

Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is

the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.
Globalization has accelerated since the 18th century due to advances in transportation and
communication technology. This increase in global interactions has caused a growth in
international trade and the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and culture. Globalization is primarily an
economic process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects.
However, disputes and diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and of modern
globalization.
Economically, globalization involves goods, services, data, technology, and the economic resources
of capital.[1] The expansion of global markets liberalizes the economic activities of the exchange of
goods and funds. Removal of cross-border trade barriers has made the formation of global markets
more feasible.[2] Advances in transportation, like the steam locomotive, steamship, jet engine, and
container ships, and developments in telecommunication infrastructure, like the telegraph, Internet,
and mobile phones, have been major factors in globalization and have generated further
interdependence of economic and cultural activities around the globe. [3][4][5]
Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its history to
long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World, and some even to the
third millennium BCE.[6] The term globalization first appeared in the early 20th century (supplanting
an earlier French term mondialization), developed its current meaning some time in the second half
of the 20th century, and came into popular use in the 1990s. [7] Large-scale globalization began in the
1820s, and in the late 19th century and early 20th century drove a rapid expansion in the
connectivity of the world's economies and cultures. [8]

Etymology and usage

The word globalization was used in the English language as early as the 1930s, but only in the
context of education and the term failed to gain traction. Over the next few decades, the term was
occasionally used by other scholars and media, but it was not clearly defined. [7] One of the first
usages of the term in the meaning resembling the later, common usage was by French
economist François Perroux in his essays from the early 1960s (in his French works he used the
term mondialization (literary worldization), also translated as mundialization). [7] Theodore Levitt is
often credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience in
the later in the middle of 1980s.[7]
Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and
interpretations. Its antecedents date back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia
and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onward. [11][12] Due to the complexity of the concept,
various research projects, articles, and discussions often stay focused on a single aspect of
globalization.[13]
In 1848, Karl Marx noticed the increasing level of national inter-dependence brought on by
capitalism, and predicted the universal character of the modern world society. He states:
“The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to
production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from
under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national
industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. . . . In place of the old local and
national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-
dependence of nations.”[14]
Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as "all those processes by which
the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society." [1] In The Consequences of
Modernity, Anthony Giddens writes: "Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of
worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are
shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa." [15] In 1992, Roland Robertson,
professor of sociology at the University of Aberdeen and an early writer in the field, described
globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the
world as a whole."[16]
In Global Transformations, David Held and his co-writers state:
Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of
global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be on a
continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic
relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie
social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and
global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which
underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding
human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial
connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of
globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and
impact.[17]
Held and his co-writers' definition of globalization in that same book as "transformation in the spatial
organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity,
velocity and impact—generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows" was called "probably the
most widely-cited definition" in the 2014 DHL Global Connectiveness Index.[18]
Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The Race to the Top: The Real Story of
Globalization, states that globalization:
is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the
increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with
somebody on the other side of the world.[19]
Paul James defines globalization with a more direct and historically contextualized emphasis:
Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining that world-space in
terms of the historically variable ways that it has been practiced and socially understood through
changing world-time.[20]
Manfred Steger, professor of global studies and research leader in the Global Cities
Institute at RMIT University, identifies four main empirical dimensions of globalization: economic,
political, cultural, and ecological. A fifth dimension—the ideological—cutting across the other four.
The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and
narratives about the phenomenon itself.[21]
James and Steger stated that the concept of globalization "emerged from the intersection of four
interrelated sets of 'communities of practice' (Wenger, 1998): academics, journalists,
publishers/editors, and librarians." [7]: 424  They note the term was used "in education to describe the
global life of the mind"; in international relations to describe the extension of the European Common
Market, and in journalism to describe how the "American Negro and his problem are taking on a
global significance".[7] They have also argued that four forms of globalization can be distinguished
that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions. [20][22] According to James, the oldest
dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A second form is
agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations,
and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the movement
of commodities and other objects of exchange. He calls the transmission of ideas, images,
knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is
currently the dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an
understanding of how, today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement
of refugees and migrants are increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such as the
circulation of financial instruments and codes are the most deregulated.[23]
The journalist Thomas L. Friedman popularized the term " flat world", arguing that globalized
trade, outsourcing, supply-chaining, and political forces had permanently changed the world, for
better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on
business organization and practice would continue to grow. [24]
Economist Takis Fotopoulos defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation
of commodity, capital, and labor markets that led toward present neoliberal globalization. He used
"political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational élite and a phasing out of
the nation-state. Meanwhile, he used "cultural globalization" to reference the worldwide
homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "ideological globalization",
"technological globalization", and "social globalization". [25]
Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances becoming
connected in more and different ways.[26]
"Globophobia" is used to refer to the fear of globalization, though it can also mean the fear of
balloons
History
There are both distal and proximate causes which can be traced in the historical factors affecting
globalization. Large-scale globalization began in the 19th century. [30]

Archaic

The 13th century world-system, as described by Janet Abu-Lughod

Main article: Archaic globalization

Archaic globalization conventionally refers to a phase in the history of globalization including
globalizing events and developments from the time of the earliest civilizations until roughly the
1600s. This term is used to describe the relationships between communities and states and how
they were created by the geographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional
levels.[31]
In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for globalization to occur. The first is the idea of
Eastern Origins, which shows how Western states have adapted and implemented learned
principles from the East.[31] Without the spread of traditional ideas from the East, Western
globalization would not have emerged the way it did. The second is distance. The interactions of
states were not on a global scale and most often were confined to Asia, North Africa, the Middle
East, and certain parts of Europe. [31] With early globalization, it was difficult for states to interact with
others that were not within a close proximity. Eventually, technological advances allowed states to
learn of others' existence and thus another phase of globalization can occur. The third has to do with
inter-dependency, stability, and regularity. If a state is not dependent on another, then there is no
way for either state to be mutually affected by the other. This is one of the driving forces behind
global connections and trade; without either, globalization would not have emerged the way it did
and states would still be dependent on their own production and resources to work. This is one of
the arguments surrounding the idea of early globalization. It is argued that archaic globalization did
not function in a similar manner to modern globalization because states were not as interdependent
on others as they are today.[31]
Also posited is a "multi-polar" nature to archaic globalization, which involved the active participation
of non-Europeans. Because it predated the Great Divergence in the nineteenth century,
where Western Europe pulled ahead of the rest of the world in terms of industrial
production and economic output, archaic globalization was a phenomenon that was driven not only
by Europe but also by other economically developed Old World centers such as Gujarat, Bengal,
coastal China, and Japan.[32]

Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th-century Japanese Nanban art

The German historical economist and sociologist Andre Gunder Frank argues that a form of

globalization began with the rise of trade links between Sumer and the Indus Valley Civilization in
the third millennium BCE. This archaic globalization existed during the Hellenistic Age, when
commercialized urban centers enveloped the axis of Greek culture that reached from India to Spain,
including Alexandria and the other Alexandrine cities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece
and the necessity of importing wheat forced the Greeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in
ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain. [6]

The Silk Road in the 1st century

Native New World crops exchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato, vanilla, rubber, cacao, tobacco

Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of civilizations from China, Indian
subcontinent, Persia, Europe, and Arabia, opening long-distance political and economic interactions
between them.[33] Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, common goods such as
salt and sugar were traded as well; and religions, syncretic philosophies, and various technologies,
as well as diseases, also traveled along the Silk Routes. In addition to economic trade, the Silk Road
served as a means of carrying out cultural trade among the civilisations along its network. [34] The
movement of people, such as refugees, artists, craftsmen, missionaries, robbers, and envoys,
resulted in the exchange of religions, art, languages, and new technologies. [35]

Early modern
Main article: Proto-globalization

"Early modern" or "proto-globalization" covers a period of the history of globalization roughly

spanning the years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of "proto-globalization" was first
introduced by historians A. G. Hopkins and Christopher Bayly. The term describes the phase of
increasing trade links and cultural exchange that characterized the period immediately preceding the
advent of high "modern globalization" in the late 19th century. [36] This phase of globalization was
characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 15th and 17th centuries, first
the Portuguese Empire (1415) followed by the Spanish Empire (1492), and later
the Dutch and British Empires. In the 17th century, world trade developed further when chartered
companies like the British East India Company (founded in 1600) and the Dutch East India
Company (founded in 1602, often described as the first multinational corporation in which stock was
offered) were established.[37]

Lisbon in the 1570s had many Africans

Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization on the basis of expansionism,
the method of managing global trade, and the level of information exchange. The period is marked
by such trade arrangements as the East India Company, the shift of hegemony to Western Europe,
the rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the Thirty Years' War, and the rise
of newfound commodities—most particularly slave trade. The Triangular Trade made it possible for
Europe to take advantage of resources within the Western Hemisphere. The transfer of animal
stocks, plant crops, and epidemic diseases associated with Alfred W. Crosby's concept of
the Columbian Exchange also played a central role in this process. European, Muslims,
Indian, Southeast Asian, and Chinese merchants were all involved in early modern trade and
communications, particularly in the Indian Ocean region.

The 1843 launch of the Great Britain, the revolutionary ship of Isambard Kingdom Brunel
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the United Kingdom was a global superpower.

Modern
According to economic historians Kevin H. O'Rourke, Leandro Prados de la Escosura, and
Guillaume Daudin, several factors promoted globalization in the period 1815–1870: [38]

● The conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars brought in an era of relative peace in Europe.
● Innovations in transportation technology reduced trade costs substantially.
● New industrial military technologies increased the power of European states and the United
States, and allowed these powers to forcibly open up markets across the world and extend their
empires.
● A gradual move towards greater liberalization in European countries.
During the 19th century, globalization approached its form as a direct result of the Industrial
Revolution. Industrialization allowed standardized production of household items using economies of
scale while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. In the 19th century,
steamships reduced the cost of international transportation significantly and railroads made inland
transportation cheaper. The transportation revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.
[30]
 More nations embraced international trade.[30] Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by
nineteenth-century imperialism such as in Africa and Asia. The invention of shipping containers in
1956 helped advance the globalization of commerce. [39][40]
After World War II, work by politicians led to the agreements of the Bretton Woods Conference, in
which major governments laid down the framework for international monetary policy, commerce, and
finance, and the founding of several international institutions intended to facilitate economic growth
by lowering trade barriers. Initially, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) led to a
series of agreements to remove trade restrictions. GATT's successor was the World Trade
Organization (WTO), which provided a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements
and a dispute resolution process. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in
1970 to 16.2% in 2001.[41] The approach of using global agreements to advance trade stumbled with
the failure of the Doha Development Round of trade negotiation. Many countries then shifted to
bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011 South Korea–United States Free
Trade Agreement.
Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed
countries. Open skies policies and low-cost carriers have helped to bring competition to the market.
In the 1990s, the growth of low-cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating
between countries. More work can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This
included accounting, software development, and engineering design.
Student exchange programs became popular after World War II, and are intended to increase the
participants' understanding and tolerance of other cultures, as well as improving their language skills
and broadening their social horizons. Between 1963 and 2006 the number of students studying in a
foreign country increased 9 times.[42]

D.H. Comet, the world's first commercial jet airliner, entered service in 1949

Since the 1980s, modern globalization has spread rapidly through the expansion of capitalism and
neoliberal ideologies.[43] The implementation of neoliberal policies has allowed for the privatization of
public industry, deregulation of laws or policies that interfered with the free flow of the market, as
well as cut-backs to governmental social services.[44] These neoliberal policies were introduced to
many developing countries in the form of structural adjustment programs (SAPs) that were
implemented by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). [43] These programs
required that the country receiving monetary aid would open its markets to capitalism, privatize
public industry, allow free trade, cut social services like healthcare and education and allow the free
movement of giant multinational corporations.[45] These programs allowed the World Bank and the
IMF to become global financial market regulators that would promote neoliberalism and the creation
of free markets for multinational corporations on a global scale. [46]

With a population of 1.4 billion, China is the world's second-largest economy.

In the late 19th and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures
grew very quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onward due to the World Wars and the Cold
War,[47] but picked up again in the 1980s and 1990s. [48] The revolutions of 1989 and
subsequent liberalization in many parts of the world resulted in a significant expansion of global
interconnectedness. The migration and movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominent
feature of the globalization process. In the period between 1965 and 1990, the proportion of the
labor force migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between the developing
countries and least developed countries (LDCs).[49] As economic integration intensified workers
moved to areas with higher wages and most of the developing world oriented toward the
international market economy. The collapse of the Soviet Union not only ended the Cold War's
division of the world – it also left the United States its sole policeman and an unfettered advocate of
free market.[according to whom?] It also resulted in the growing prominence of attention focused on the
movement of diseases, the proliferation of popular culture and consumer values, the growing
prominence of international institutions like the UN, and concerted international action on such
issues as the environment and human rights.[50] Other developments as dramatic were the Internet's
becoming influential in connecting people across the world; As of June 2012, more than 2.4 billion
people—over a third of the world's human population—have used the services of the Internet. [51]
  Growth of globalization has never been smooth. One influential event was the late 2000s
[52]

recession, which was associated with lower growth (in areas such as cross-border phone
calls and Skype usage) or even temporarily negative growth (in areas such as trade) of global
interconnectedness.[53][54]
Globalized society offers a complex web of forces and factors that bring people, cultures, markets,
beliefs, and practices into increasingly greater proximity to one another.

METAPHORS OF GLOBALIZATION

What is liquid metaphor?

LIQUID metaphors are mainly dead metaphors in economic terminology in English,
and this claim is further corroborated by the way flow, and especially cash- flow, as one
of the examples of the MONEY IS A LIQUID metaphor, collocates.

What is solidity metaphor in globalization?

Thus their common attribute was “solidity,” the characteristic of being limited to one
place. Solidity also refers to the persistence of barriers that. prevented free movement
of people, information, and objects in that era. Although solidity persists, it is “fluidity”
that is more characteristic of the “global age.”

What is flow metaphor in globalization?

Explanation: Metaphors of globalization flows. or expedite, those flows. process of
globalization today lead to the conceptualization of the current era as the “global age.”
Globalization can be analyzed through conceptual metaphors such as solids, liquids,
gases, flows, structures, heavy, light, and weightless.

ACTIVITY #1 MODULE 1.1

NAME:___________________________ DATE:________
YR&SEC:_________________________

The world made closer.

We discussed the different definitions of globalization, in this global age that we live in,
globalization gained various views from any authors and scholars, in turn, these diverse definitions
can affect how one can appreciate globalization as a process. Furthermore, we analyzed
globalization through conceptual metaphors.

In this activity, you are to see the actual application of globalization on the different
aspects of daily life such as politics, music, sports, films, celebrity, and disaster.

1. Answer the following questions:

a. Enumerate at least three of the most recent songs you have listened. Where did they
originate? Identify the nationality of the writer and/or artist for each music.

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b. What gadgets or devices do you usually use to listen to music?

c. How did you access these music? Did you purchase them onlineor listen to them
through YouTube, Spotify, and other music channels?
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2. Using a visual perception, create your generalizations and discuss: What is Globalization?
How would you define globalization?
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3. Do you agree with the idea that the contemporary world is characterized by high
liquidity? Why or why not?
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