Chapter 1

Antidifferentiation by Partial Fraction

Decomposition

n
P (x)
This section shows how to express a rational function of the form as a simpler

iga
D(x)
fractons called partial fractions, which are easily integrated. For instane,
5x − 3 2 3
= +
x2 − 2x − 3 x+1 x−3
5x − 3
so that when we integrate the rational function , we simply sum the integrals of
x2 − 2x − 3
the fractions as
r as
5x − 3
Z Z Z
2 3
2
dx = dx + dx
x − 2x − 3 x+1 x−3
= 2 ln |x + 1| + 3 ln |x − 3| + C

The method for rewritting rational function as a sum of simpler fractions is called partial
fraction decomposition.

General Description of the Method

ma

P (x)
Success in wrting a rational function as a sum if partial fractions depends on two
D(x)
things:

1. The degree of P (x) must be less than the degree of the D(x). That is, the fraction must
be proper. If it isn’t, divide P (x) by D(x) and work with the remainder term.
aa

2. We must know the factors of D(x). In theory, any polynomial with real coefficients can
be written as a product of real linear factors and real quadratic factors. In parctice, the
factors may be hard to find.

Method of Partial Fraction Decomposition

Case 1. Distinct Linear Factors To each linear factor ax + b occuring once int he
denominator of proper rational fraction, here correspods a single partial fraction of the form
A
, where A is a constant to be determined.
ax + b

5x − 3
Example 1.1. Decompose into partial fraction
x2 − 2x − 3

1
2CHAPTER 1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

Solution The partial fraction decomposition has the form

5x − 3 5x − 3 A B
= = +
x2 − 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x − 3) x+1 x−3

A B
We call the fractions and partial fractions because their denominators are only
x+1 x−3
part of the original denominator x2 − 2x − 3. We call A and B undetermined coefficients
until proper values for them have been found.

To find the values of the undertermined coefficients A, and B we clear the fractions by
multipling both sides of equations by the denominator and get
5x − 3 = A(x − 3) + B(x + 1)

n
= Ax − 3A + Bx + B
= Ax + Bx − 3A + B
5x − 3 = (A + B)x − 3A + B

iga
By equating coefficients,

5 = A + B, −3 = −3A + B

Solving the equations simultaneously using substitution method,

r as
−3 = −3A + B
−3 = −3A + (5 − A)
−3 − 5 = −4A
−8 = −4A
2=A
A=2
ma

Solving for B, since A = 2, subtituting to

5=A+B
5=2+B
5−2=B
aa

3=B
B=3

And therefore,
5x − 3 2 3
= + .
x2 − 2x − 3 x+1 x−3

Example 1.2. Use partial fraction to evaluate

x2 + 4x + 1
Z
dx
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)
 3

Solution. The partial fraction decomposition has the form

x2 + 4x + 1 A B C
= + + .
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) x−1 x+1 x+3

To find the values of the undetermined coefficients A, B and C, we clear the fractions
and get

x2 + 4x + 1 = A(x + 1)(x + 3) + B(x − 1)(x + 3) + C(x − 1)(x + 1)

= A(x2 + 4x + 3) + B(x2 + 2x − 3) + C(x2 − 1)
x2 + 4x + 1 = (A + B + C)x2 + (4A + 2B)x + (3A − 3B − C)

n
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x, we have
Coefficient of x2 : 1 = A + B + C
Coefficient of x1 : 4 = 4A + 2B

iga
Constant term: 1 = 3A − 3B − C
There are several ways of solving such a system of linear equations for the unknowns A, B,
and C, including elimination of variables or the use of a calculator or computer. Whatever
the method is used, the solution is

3
A=
r as
4
1
B=
2
1
C=−
4

Hence we have,
x2 + 4x + 1
Z Z  
A B C
ma

dx = + + dx
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) x−1 x+1 x+3
Z  3 1
− 14

4 2
= + + dx
x−1 x+1 x+3
Z Z Z
3 1 1 1 1 1
= dx + dx − dx
4 x−1 2 x+1 4 x+3
x2 + 4x + 1
Z
3 1 1
dx = ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 1| − ln x + 3 + K.
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) 4 2 4
aa

where K is the arbitrary constant of integration (to avoid confusion with the undeter-
mined coefficient we labeled as C).

Case 2. Repeated Linear Factors To each linear factor ax + b occuring n times in

the denominator of a proper rational fraction, there corresponds a sum of n partial fractions
of the form
A1 A2 A3 An
+ 2
+ 3
··· +
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b)n
where A1 , A2 , A3 , An are constants to be determined.
4CHAPTER 1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

Example 1.3. Use partial fraction to evaluate

Z
6x + 7
dx
(x + 2)2

Solution: First we express the tegrand as a sum of partial fractions with undetermined
coefficients.
6x + 7 A B
2
= +
(x + 2) x + 2 (x + 2)2
= A(x + 2) + B
6x + 7 = Ax + (2A + B)

Equating coefficients of corresponding powers f x gives

n
A=6
7 = 2A + B

iga
Since A = 6, then by substituting A = 6 to 7 = 2A + B gives
7 = 2A + B
7 = 2(6) + B
7 − 12 = B
B = −5
Therefore,
r as
Z  
−5
Z
6x + 7 6
dx = + dx
x + 2)2 x + 2 (x + 2)2
Z Z
dx
=6 − 5 (x + 2)−2 dx
x+2
= 6 ln |x + 2| + 5(x + 2)−1 + C
5
= 6 ln |x + 2| + + C.
(x + 2)
ma

The Heaviside ”Cover-up” Method for Linear Factors

Example 1.4. Find A, B and C in the partial fraction decomposition
x2 + 1 A B C
= + +
aa

(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x−1 x−2 x−3

Solution: Multiply both equations by (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3), then

x2 + 1 = A(x − 2)(x − 3) + B(x − 1)(x − 3) + C(x − 1)(x − 2)

Now, set x − 1 = 0 and substitute x = 1 we have

12 + 1 = A(1 − 2)(1 − 3) + B(1 − 1)(1 − 3) + C(1 − 1)(1 − 2)
2 = A(−1)(−2) + B(0)(−2) + C(0)(−1)
2 = 2A
A = 1.
 5

Moving to the next linear factor x − 2, set x − 2 = 0 and substitute x = 2 gives

22 + 1 = A(2 − 2)(2 − 3) + B(2 − 1)(2 − 3) + C(2 − 1)(2 − 2)

5 = A(0)(−1) + B(1)(−1) + C(1)(0)
5 = −B
B = −5.

And for the last factor, set x − 3 = 0 and substitute x = 3, resulting to

32 + 1 = A(3 − 2)(3 − 3) + B(3 − 1)(3 − 3) + C(3 − 1)(3 − 2)

10 = A(1)(0) + B(2)(0) + C(2)(1)
10 = 2C
C = 5.

n
Therefore,
x2 + 1 A B C

iga
= + +
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x−1 x−2 x−3
1 −5 5
= + +
x−1 x−2 x−3

Example 1.5. Evaluate using partial fraction decomposition.

r as
Z
x+4
dx
x3 + 3x2 − 10x

Solution. The degree of x + 4 is les than the degree of x3 + 3x2 − 10x and we can factor
the denominator as
Z Z
x+4 x+4
dx = dx
x3 + 3x2 − 10x x(x − 2)(x + 5)
ma

Z  
A B C
= + + dx
x x−2 x+5

Resolve the partial fraction by finding the values of A, B and C.

x+4 A B C
= + +
x3 2
+ 3x − 10x x x−2 x+5
aa

Multiply both sides of the equation by x(x − 2)(x + 5), then we have

x + 4 = A(x − 2)(x + 5) + Bx(x + 5) + Cx(x − 2)

Using the Heavidise Cover-up Method, set x = 0 and substitute

x + 4 = A(x − 2)(x + 5) + Bx(x + 5) + Cx(x − 2)

0 + 4 = A(0 − 2)(0 + 5) + B(0)(0 + 5) + C(0)(0 − 2)
4 = A(−10)
2
A=−
5
6CHAPTER 1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

To solve for the next arbitrary constant, set x − 2 = 0 and substitute x = 2

x + 4 = A(x − 2)(x + 5) + Bx(x + 5) + Cx(x − 2)

2 + 4 = A(2 − 2)(2 + 5) + B(2)(2 + 5) + C(2)(2 − 2)
6 = B(14))
3
B=
7

And lastly, to solve for C, set x + 5 = 0 and substitute x = −5,

x + 4 = A(x − 2)(x + 5) + Bx(x + 5) + Cx(x − 2)

−5 + 4 = A(−5 − 2)(−5 + 5) + B(−5)(−5 + 5) + C(−5)(−5 − 2)
−1 = C(35)
1

n
C=−
35

iga
Then the given integral becomes
Z  2 3 1 
−5 − 35
Z
x+4 7
dx = + + dx
x3 + 3x2 − 10x x x−2 x+5
Z Z Z
2 dx 3 dx 1 dx 2 1
=− + − = − ln |x| + |f rac37 ln |x − 2 − ln |x +
5 x 7 x − 2 35 x+5 5 35
r as
Case 3. Distinct Quadratic Factors To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 +bx+c
occuring once in the denominator of a proper fraction, there corresponds a single partial
Ax + B
frction of the form 2 , where A and B are constants to be determined.
ax + bx + c
ma

Example 1.6. Use partial fraction to evaluate

−2x + 4
Z
dx
(x + 1)(x − 1)2
2

Solution: The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor as well as a repeated linear
factor, so we write

−2x + 4 Ax + B C D
aa

= + +
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2

Clearing the equation of fractions gives

−2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)2 + C(x − 1)(x2 + 1) + D(x2 + 1)

= (A + C)x3 + (−2A + B − C + D)x2 + (A − 2B + C)x + (B − C + D).

Equating coefficients of like terms gives

Coefficients of x3 : 0 = A + C
Coefficients of x2 : 0 = −2A + B − C + D
Coefficients of x1 : −2 = A − 2B + C
Constant Term: 4 = B − C + D
 7

We solve these equations simultaneously to find the values of A, B, C, and D:

Subtract fourth equation from second:

−4 = −2A
A=2

From the first equation:

C = −A
C = −2

n
From the third equation and C = −A:
A+C +2
B=
2

iga
B=1

From the fourth equation:

D =4−B+C
D=1
r as
We substitute these values into
−2x + 4 Ax + B C D
= + +
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
2x + 1 2 1
= 2 − + .
x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
ma

Finally, using the expansion above we can integrate

Z  
−2x + 4
Z
2x + 1 2 1
dx = − + dx
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Z  
2x 1 2 1
= + − + dx
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
1
= ln |x2 + 1| + Arctan x − 2 ln |x − 1| − + K.
x−1
aa

where K is the arbitrary constant of integration (to avoid confusion with the undetermined
coefficient we labeled as C).

Case 4. Repeated Quadratic Factors To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 +

bx + c occuring n times in the denominator of a proper rational fraction, there corresponds
a sum of n partial fraction of the form
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 A3 x + B3 An x + Bn
2
+ 2 2
+ 2 3
+ ··· +
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)n

where A0 s and B 0 s are constants to be determined.

8CHAPTER 1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

Example 1.7. Evaluate using partial fraction

Z
dx
.
x(x + 1)2
2

The form of the partial fraction decomposition is

1 A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
x(x2 + 1) 2 x x +1 (x + 1)2
Multiplying both sides of the equation by x(x2 + 1)2 , we have

1 = A(x2 + 1)2 + (Bx + C)x(x2 + 1) + (Dx + E)x

= A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + B(x4 + x2 ) + C(x3 + x) + Dx2 + Ex
= (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A

n
Equating coefficients of like terms gives
Coefficients of x4 : 0 = A + B
Coefficients of x3 : 0 = C

iga
Coefficients of x2 : 0 = 2A + B + D
Coefficients of x1 : 0 = C + E
Constant Term: 1 = A

Solving the system gives A = 1; B = −1; C = 0; D = −1 and E = 0. Thus,

r as
Z  
−x −x
Z
dx 1
= + + dx
x(x + 1)2
2 x x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
Z Z Z
dx xdx xdx
= − 2
−
x x +1 (x + 1)2
2
Z Z Z
dx 1 du 1 du
= − −
x 2 u 2 u2
1 1
= ln |x| − ln |u| + +K
ma

2 2u
1 1
= ln |x| − ln |x2 + 1| + 2
+ K.
2 2(x + 1)
where K is the arbitrary constant of integration (to avoid confusion with the undetermined
coefficient we labeled as C).
aa

Exercises1.1

A. Decompose into partial fraction.

5x − 13 2 3
1. Ans. +
(x − 3)(x − 2) x−3 x−2
5x − 7
2. 2
x − 3x + 2
x4 1 3
3. 2
Ans. +
(x + 1) x + 1 (x + 1)2
2x + 2
4. 2
x − 2x + 1
x+1 −2 −1 2
5. 2
Ans. + 2 +
x (x − 1) x x x−1
 9

x
6.
x3
− x2 − 6x
x2 + 8 17 −12
7. 2 Ans. 1 + +
x − 5x + 6 x−3 x−2
4
x +9
8. 4
x + 9x2
B. Non-Repeated Linear Factors
Z
1 1 
1. 2
dx Ans. ln |1 + x| − ln |1 − x| + C
1−x 2
Z
x+4 1
2. dx Ans. ln |(x + 6)2 (x − 1)5 | + C
x2 + 5x − 6 7
Z 8
ydy (ln 15)
3. 2
Ans.
4 y − 2y − 3 2

n
Z
dt 1 1 1
4. 3 2
dx Ans. − ln |t| + ln |t + 2| + ln |t − 1| + C
t + t − 2t 2 6 3

C. Repeated Linear Factors

iga
1
x3 dx
Z
1. 2
dx Ans. 3 ln 2 − 2
0 x + 2x + 1
Z  
dx 1  x + 1  x
2. 2
Ans. ln  − 2
+C
(x − 1) 4 x−1  x(x − 1)

D. Irreducible Quadratic Factors

r as
Z 1
dx π + 2 ln 2
1. 2
Ans.
0 (x + 1)(x + 1) 8
y 2 + 2y + 1
Z
1
2. 2 2
dy Ans. Arctan y − 2 +C
(y + 1) y +1
Z
2s + 2
3. 2 3
dx Ans.−(s − 1)−2 + (s − 1)−1 + Arctan s + C
(s + 1)(s − 1)
Z 2 √
 
x −x+2 2 1 2 2x + 1
4. dx Ans. ln |x − 1| + ln |x + x + 1| − 3 Arctan √ +C
ma

x3 − 1 3 6 3
x2
 
1  x − 1  1
Z
5. dx Ans. Ans. ln  + Arctan x + C
x4 − 1 4 x + 1 2
2x3 + 5x2 + 8x + 4 −1
Z
6. 2 2
dx Ans. 2 + ln |x2 + 2x + 2| − Arctan (x + 1) + C
(x + 2x + 2) x + 2x + 2
Z 4
t − 4t3 + 2t2 − 3t + 1
7. dx
(t2 + 1)3
aa

E. Improper Fractions

2y 3 − 2y 2 + 1
 
x − 1
Z
2
1. dy Ans. x + ln   +C
y2 − y x 
9t3 − 3t + 1
Z
1
2. 3 2
dt Ans. 9t + 2 ln |t| + + 7 ln |t − 1| + C
t −t t
Z 3 2 2
x +x −1 t 1
3. dx Ans. − ln |t| + ln |1 + y 2 | + C
x3 + x 2 2