WRITING DRAMATIC MATERIALS FOR  Use visualization to create the vibe of clarity

BROADCASTING, INTERACTIVE AND  Put your goals in writing, and review them daily
 Explore and experiment
EMERGING MEDIA
Broadcasting as a Medium of Art: Creating the Story
ACTION
with the Audience
1. Action as Role
For example:
Broadcast Media Arts
o Thriller
• Creating audio and video content and distributing it to
o Comedy
the masses via radio, television or the web is
o Horror
broadcasting. Broadcast media arts is everything that
goes into those productions. Being the voice or face of a
2. Action as Dialogue
show, running an audio board, directing live television,
Words are filtered
creating audio/visual effects and graphics, writing
scripts, operating a camera and marketing via web and
3. Action as Animation
social media are all examples of what brings a
For example:
broadcasted show together.
o Thriller
o Horror
Creating the Story with the Audience
• Storytelling, the kind that connects through emotion,
is what drives people to make decisions, whether they VALUE
are aware of the process or not. In order to create the 1. Audience
story that elicits the kind of heartfelt response you’re Be relatable. Align the story to your target audience
looking for, it’s important to be authentic and clear in
your intent. 2. Content
Well-constructed stories with purpose.
1. Define your Objective
Think about what you want to achieve, jot down your 3. Remarkable
statement for it, and keep it foremost in your thoughts Create an emotional connection and gain value.
as you move forward.
FORMAT, TEMPLATE, CONTENT AND
2. Know your Audience CONTEXT
Every story needs to have an audience it’s tailored for. A radio play script follows a distinctive format that
When you’ve defined who the story is for, you can start allows the playwright to convey how sound and music
to shape it so that it resonates with your audience. will be used in the performance. For instance:
1. One page of dialogue is approximately one minute
3. Answer the Question of air time
Make a list of all the anecdotes, ideas, and sentiments 2. Each scene should be numbered
you feel will help you get your point across to your 3. Lines are usually double spaced
audience. The idea at this stage is to brainstorm and not 4. Sound and music cues are triple spaced
restrict yourself to any particular mode of conveyance 5. Paragraphs are triple spaced
just yet. 6. All cues are capitalized and numbered. Cue
numbers start at number 1 on each page
4. Organize your Thoughts 7. Notes for pronunciation, physical action, and
Create an outline of the main points in sequential order position of characters are indented
to direct your audience toward the end goal you have in 8. The script is typed on one side of the paper only to
mind. reduce handling noise
9. High quality paper is used where possible as it
5. Create and Revise makes less noise than cheap paper.
When it’s all laid out, check your work for the following:
• Show, don’t tell. A template is a special kind of source document that
• Avoid redundancy. you load into MS Word. It contains all the "styles" that
• Be succinct. allow you to instantly format the various types of cues
employed in radio. You could do it yourself with tabs
GAIN EXTREME CLARITY IN YOUR VISION and underlines and capitalization, but the template
• There are many actions you can take and mental styles allow you to just type away and get the correct
adjustments you can make that will help us to create a formatting and margins you need. It saves a great deal
good story for the people. of time.
Role: characters in the play.
Here are the tips: Time: when the action takes place.
 Recognise Place: where the action takes place.
 Reflect Action: what happens in the drama.
 Reset Tension: conflict within and between characters and
 Get your creative juices flowing their environment.
Radio Drama thrives on strong narratives. change the world, a great storyline will keep your
Whether you're writing a tragedy, a comedy or a play to audience listening. However, don't make the story too
complicated with too many themes, characters and
plotlines, or the listener will get confused.
HOW TO CREATE STORY
• Storytelling is an essential marketing tool for brands
TARGET AUDIENCE looking to ground their business strategy with
Target audiences center around a specific group messaging that is memorable, emotionally engaging,
of people. These can be men, women, teenagers, or and profitable.
children. As most variation in radio listening is related to • Successful brand balance emotions with the amount of
the age of the audience, target audiences are most information
often expressed in terms of age groups.
GAIN EXTREME CLARITY IN YOUR VISION
THINGS TO CONSIDER TO IDENTIFY YOUR TARGET • Think of your brand as a legacy – what do you want to
AUDIENCE leave behind?
• Age, Language, Content, Gender, Time • Outline what you want to accomplish with your brand.
• Don’t be afraid to dream
HOW TO DEFINE YOUR TARGET AUDIENCE
To define your audience, you need to be able to THREE STEPS TO START STORYTELLING
define the goals of your station. Goals differ from 1. ACTION
station to station, from increasing advertising revenue, • What is the best action word describing what the
serving community needs, entertainment purposes to brand is doing to serve consumers – is it empowering,
educating audiences around specific topics. teaching, coaching, providing, etc?
Once you have set your station goals, it makes it 2. TARGET AUDIENCE
easier to narrow down your audience. • Who exactly do you want to influence – are they
seasoned business owners, misunderstood geniuses,
IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE TARGETING IN RADIO fearless visionaries, innovative corporate executives?
DRAMA • Try to capture the essence of this audience in just a
• It is imperative for radio station owners to couple of words.
define their target audience for their station, to 3. VALUE
better serve their audience. • What is the transformation that is being created for
• Targeting enables broadcasters to customize the target audience through the action?
content for a specific audience, resulting in • In other words – what value do people get from
better engagement. interacting with the brand?
• Additionally, knowing what content your
audience wants to listen to helps you HUMANIZE AND RELATE TO YOUR TARGET AUDIENCE
understand the consumption behaviors of your • Paint a vivid picture of the people the brand is
listeners such as the time and devices your speaking to, and create personas if necessary.
target audience is listening from, helping you • What are the belief systems, philosophy, and lifestyle
further increase your reach. that they subscribe to and feel passionate about
sharing?
CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT • Address (either directly or indirectly) a tension that an
Refers to the process of creating a believable audience is going through and resolve it in a way that is
character in fiction by giving the character depth and relatable, human, and offers a transformation
personality.
IDENTIFY CORE VALUES FOR YOUR AUDIENCE TO
CHARACTER MUST: CONNECT WITH
• Have the sympathy of the audience • If the brand has a vision, it also has values.
• Have a clear goal, serve a purpose within the plot • Core values are what you absolutely stand for when it
• Start with a stereotype to ensure rapid recognition, comes to the brand - a non-negotiable beliefs that the
then twist the stereotype. brand just cannot live without and that the target
• Be consistent audience will share.
• Face and conquer adversity • Meant to humanize the brand by acting as
• Be identifiable conversation starters that spark thoughts, discussions,
• Have the occasional private moment and emotional engagement in your audience.
Serve as the driving force in your story. Your
characters create and push your plot forward. Listeners ADVERTISMENT
can experience the world that you’ve created through • Advertising objective should always be in line with
your characters, both from the way that your characters promotional and marketing objective as well as the
interact with their environment and the way that your business strategy or mission of the organization.
characters view their environment. Finally, your • When determining your campaign objectives, you
characters illustrate and personify the theme of your need to consider the state your audience is in and
story. where you want them to be.
• Each advertisement must say: “Buy this product, and
you will get this specific benefit. ”

ADVERTISING OBJECTIVE
1. To Inform
2. To Persuade
 3. To Remind
TYPES OF ADVERTISEMENT 3. POSITIONING
1. Informative Advertising • Develop position for each segment
2. Persuasive Advertising • Develop marketing programs for each segment
3. Reminder Advertising
BRAND CHARACTER
INFORMATIVE ADVERTISING • A brand character statement sets the tone for an
o Used when launching a new product or for an entire campaign
updated or re-launching of product; o develops initial • A simple way to start preparing an advertisement is
demand for a good, service, organization or cause; with this statement: “Advertising will (A) (B) that (C) is
o Process of telling the consumer and (D). Support will be (E). Tone will be (F). ” In this case, A
marketplace about the product, explain how it works, is a verb, B is a target demographic, C is the product, D
pricing or information and awareness; is an adjective or phrase, E is the core of the ad, F is the
o There should be enough information to ” attitude. “
motivate the consumer to take some sort of action. • It is important to consider in order to make sure the ad
coincides with the public perception the company has
PERSUASIVE ADVERTISING created for itself.
o Use to increase the demand for an existing
good, service, or organization; ADVERTISING TECHNIQUE
o Persuading target audience to change brands, 1. Interesting Character
buy their product, and develop customer loyalty; • Creating characters, or a cast of characters that add
o Highly competitive when there are similar recognition and a story value to the campaign.
products in the marketplace, and products are 2. Personification
competing for their share of the market. • Giving your product or service a human ability, like
emotion, thoughts or speech, you can turn it into a
REMINDER ADVERTISING person. You can also lend human characteristics to
o Reinforces previous promotional information; abstract ideas, like “greed” or “hunger”.
o It is used to keep the public interested in, and 3. Exaggeration
aware of, a well-established product that is most likely a) Take your concept and the primary idea
at the end of the product life cycle. b) Take it to the extreme, push it beyond reality
and reason; in visual or in the copy, or both.
WRITING 30 SECOND AD c) Exaggerate a problem, or a benefit, or the
1. Identify the Call to action physical appearance, or size.
2. Determine Your Approach 4. Demographic Positioning
3. Establish Empathy • Used to “position” your product or service to appeal to
4. Amplify the Pain your target audience having specific demographic
5. Offer Solution characteristics like age, race, gender, marital
6. Write an opening line that reflect your approach status, level of education, income, sexual orientation
7. Make Sure Your Story Flows Naturally and Easily. and other things.
5. Symbolic: Similies & Metaphors
SEGMENTATION A. Similes and metaphors are high performance
• Process of narrowing down the population to an ideal deliverables in creative communication.
segment, based upon various factors B. Similes and metaphors use two things; a dramatic
visual or a vivid statement for suggesting another thing,
STP APPROACH sans an “as” or “like”.
1. Segmentation C. Symbolic expressions help in representing the key
• Select base for segmentation characteristics of a brand, as well as a service’s features,
• Profile segments characteristics or the benefit of a product or service. It can be done
2. Targeting with visuals or words, in print or film.
• Evaluates segments attractiveness 6. Emotion
• Select one or more segments as targets • Emotional music, images, themes are great tools for
3. Positioning triggering positive feelings that could be transferred to
• Develop position for each segment a brand, product or service company.
• Develop marketing program for each segment 7. Promise specific benefits
A. Benefit is something that has value to your benefits
STEPS OF SEGMENTATION target audience.
1. SEGMENTING B. Ask yourself about the benefits of the product or
• Identify the broader market in which the organization service that you yourself can derive from the product.
operates (Characteristics of Audience); 8. Testimonials
• Identify, select and apply parameters to create A. Testimonials have persuasive energy. It comes from
segments (Demographic Data, Psychographic believability, candor, motive, and expertise.
Data, Behavioral Metric and Geographic Information) B. Testimonials can come in many colors from
2. TARGETING celebrities to general customers. Here are some
• Select one or more segment as target categories that have proved successful.
• Evaluate segments attractive
9. Techni Problem or Solution a. It can be used to engage people having a or problem,
or those who want avoiding it.  PAUSE
b. This advertising techniques will work well if your - Indicates uncertainty/embarrassment/reluctant or
target market has a real big problem i.e. a big concern. refusal to questions
The bigger a problem, the better will the strategy work.  BEAT
- Indicates a answer change of attack or realization
RADIO DRAMA  SILENCE
FEATURES OF RADIO DRAMA - A long pause. A powerful tool to indicate moods
• Radio drama uses sound to convey ideas to the and dialogue that can help resonance
audience. (sound may be in the form of dialogue, sound
effects, or music.) 4. MOVEMENT
• Actors can play more than one part from memento as  Radio is not static - people are continuously moving
only voice needs to be altered. there.
• Actors use voice alone to convey character. They do
not need to use action, gesture, or facial expression as 5. WORDS
the audience cannot see it.  Most important element of radio drama that makes
• Radio play scenes are often shorter that stage plays. the thing in picture
• Radio drama usually features a small cast. Small  Rhythm, Language, Speech or words themselves
numbers of characters are used in each scene because it that can make a clear picture
is too hard for the audience to distinguish between
voices if there are a large number of characters FORMAT
• Radio plays can be set almost anywhere. There are no FORMAT OF RADIO DRAMA
physical limits to be overcome. Setting is easily created • one page of dialogue is approximately one
using music and sound effects. minute of air time
• each scene should be numbered
STRENGTH OF RADIO DRAMA • lines are usually double spaced
1. Radio is a visual medium. • sound and music cues are triple spaced
• It deals with the pictures that audience try to think • paragraphs are triple spaced
and imagine the scene • all cues are capitalised and numbered. Cue
2. Radio speaks to an audience of one numbers start at number 1 on each page
• It is the most intimate way of telling a story to an • notes for pronunciation, physical action, and
audience of one position of characters are indented
• the script is typed on one side of the paper only
WRITING A RADIO PLAY to reduce handling noise
1. DEFINE AUDIENCE • high quality paper is used where possible as it
As a writer you need to decide who your audience makes less noise than cheap paper.
will be and what your intention is.
• make your audience laugh?
• comment on a current or historical event? TIPS
• tell a story? TIPS FOR RADIO ACTOR
• convey a message? 1. Hold your script at chest height. If it is held high in
front of the voice, your voice will be muffled. If it is held
FIVE ELEMENTS OF RADIO DRAMA (NICK WARBURTON) too low, then the voice will be projected downwards
1.MUSIC and will not record clearly
• It sets the mood 2. Turn the pages of your script quietly.
• An indicator instrument for story to easily identify the 3. Remain still and quiet when you are not speaking.
scenes 4.Plan and rehearse movement around the microphone
carefully. Actors may still need to move around to allow
2. SOUND others good access to the microphone when it is their
TWO TYPES OF SOUNDS cue, or to move for particular effects. It is important not
1.ACOUSTICS OR SOUND ENVIRONMENT to trip over each other or make unnecessary noise.
- Where your play is set?
- How does it change what listeners hear CRITIQUING YOUR OWN WORK
2.SOUND EFFECTS • listen to how it sounds to judge for yourself whether
- It tells what’s going on particularly in events your intentions are being communicated to the
NOTE: Don’t put sound effects that can make your play audience.
sounds confusing and slow.
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE VOICE
3. SILENCE • anatomy (how the voice works) – lungs, fixed
THREE TYPES OF SILENCE ribs, floating ribs, diaphragm, larynx, vocal cords
• Pause • use of breath – breath control, posture
• Beat
• Silence
ARTICULATION 1. plosives (produced by closing oral
• Vowels sounds: long and short passage and releasing burst of air) p, t, k, ch,
• Consonant sounds: dj, g, and b
2. continuants (that can be prolonged as long as the THE STORY SPINE STRUCTURE
breath lasts) m, n, ng, l, r THE STORY STRUCTURE FUNCTION
3. fricatives (produced by forcing breath through a SPINE
constricted passage) s, z, f, v, th, th - Once upon a Beginning The world of the
time story is introduced
Projection – aiming the voice to a person or a place and the main
Delivery – tone, intonation, inflection, pace, pitch, - Everyday character’s routine
volume, rhythm, use of pause. is established
- One day The Event The main character
breaks the routine
PRINCIPLES OF MOVIE MAKING, THE - Because of Middle There are direct
STORY SPINE, AND THE PLOT DRIVEN that consequences for
having broken
STORY VS. THE CHARACTER DRIVEN routine. It is
STORY unclear if the main
character will come
PRINCIPLES OF MOVIE MAKING out alright in the
end
1. Development
- Until finally The Climax The main character
• The start of a project varies, but generally will begin
embarks upon
with development of a script, be that an existing script, success or failure
a book, a brief story outline. - Ever since then End The main character
succeeds of fails,
and a new routine
is established

HOW TO USE THE STORY SPINE

2. Pre-Production The Story Spine is a practice technique for
• This is the phase where you would narrow down the learning how to tell a well-constructed story. It can also
options of the production. be used as an outlining tool to help construct a story.
Practice with it by simply making up a bunch of different
3. Production Story Spines as quickly as possible.
• During this phase it is the key to keep planning ahead
of the daily shoot. HOW THE STORY SPINE WORKS
The story spine follows a very structured
4. Principal Photography formula so you can focus on the details, not the
• This is when the camera rolls. It is nearly always the sentence or order. Think of each step as a sentence
most expensive phase of film production, due to actor, starter to help you rough out your story.
director, and set crew salaries, as well as the costs of
certain shots, props, and on-set special effects. 7 SENTENCE STORY STRUCTURE

5. Wrap 1. AT THE BEGINNING…

• The period immediately after shooting ends. • The beginning is the basis of the story.
Introduces the characters.
6. Post-Production
• This stage starts when principal photography ends, but 2. A DAY IN THE LIFE…
they may overlap. The bulk of post-production consists • A pattern is being set.
of reviewing the footage and assembling the movie –
editing 3. AND THEN ONE DAY…
-Something major happens that throws your main
7. Distribution character’s world out of balance and forces them to
• Once the film is completed, it must be distributed. This change something or seek an objective.
is how producers make their money back and a
considerable amount of time and energy will be 4. BECAUSE OF THIS…
invested to secure the right distribution deals for their -Your main character begins the pursuit of their goal:
projects. restoring or establishing a balance in their lives.

5. NOT ONLY, BUT ALSO…

-There are challenges which force your character to
come up with objectives to overcome those challenges.

6. MOMENT OF TRUTH…
-We see how the change has brought about a new
balance.
7. AND EVER SINCE THAT DAY… THE NEW ORDER OF THINGS.
OUR WORLD IS NOW STABLE AGAIN, AND WE CAN SEE
 THE CHARACTER DRIVEN STORY VS THE PLOT DRIVEN 4 TIPS FOR WRITING PLOT-DRIVEN
STORY 1. Focus on external conflict
Character- Driven • External conflict requires multiple forces and help to
• Focused on the character and the internal change, build a driving plot.
more so than the events and situations that takes place.
• It focuses on the inner conflict of the characters that 2. Carefully outline plot points
has been created. If you choose this writing style, the • Plot-driven stories require a tight and well-developed
reader will think about character and their attitudes, story structure and a logical
personality and decision. sequence of plot points.
• It is often found in literacy fiction
• Character-driven plots are often found in books based 3. Develop high concept plots
on real life. • High concept stories are widely accessible storylines
• If you are writing about your own story you might with clear and communicable plots. These sorts of story
want to consider the insight into character that you ideas are often found in screenwriting and film.
have.
4. Include plot twist
4 TIPS FOR WRITING A CHARACTER-DRIVEN STORY • A good plot should subvert audience expectation by
1. Develop a rich backstory including multiple subplots and unexpected storylines.
• Good character - driven stories have interesting
character with well-develop backstories. Character
development will help engage your reader and make
RADIO STATION PROGRAMMING
your character more
compelling. RADIO PROGRAMMING
• Process of organizing schedule of radio content
2. Trace a compelling character arc • The first radio stations were mostly ‘free form’
• You should have a detailed outline and understanding
of a character’s arc before you start on your character- BROADCAST NOT NARROWCASTING
driven story. • The overwhelming majority of radio stations don’t
throw their output randomly out at the world, but
3. Focus on inner conflict instead target it very specifically at a particular
• Character-driven stories are able to center in on inner demographic – people of a particular age, type, social
conflict that occurs largely class etc. In media jargon, they don’t broadcast, they
within a character(s). narrowcast.

4. Build a point of view UNDERSTAND LISTENERS

• Think about what makes your character tick and how • Different communities have different tastes and different
they see the world. A clear point of view in necessary habits, but there are some broad rules that apply to radio
for creating a character that will carry your story and listeners whoever and wherever they may be.
engage your readers.
KEY TIMES FOR OUR LISTENERS
PLOT - DRIVEN 1. Breakfast
• Focused on the actual happenings and the external
2. Lunchtime
changes of the story.
3. Drive Time
• Place a larger emphasis on the actual plot itself.
4. Evening
• The goal of the story are more external in that they are
focused on the development of a situation.
• A good plot-driven story will have compelling a multi- THERE ARE THREE ASPECTS WE NEED TO CONSIDER
faceted character but will place plot and story structure WHEN DOING OUR RADIO PROGRAMS AT A RADIO
ahead of deep character development. STATION
• Most genre fiction like sci-fi or mysteries tends to be
plot-driven. 1. Quality of process
• Without plot-driven the readers may not experience • What benefits they can get from our programs?
the story.
2. Quality of output
• How good our program is?

3. Impact in the community

• What is the significance they can get from our program?
THE STRUCTURE OF SCENES AND SCENE SEQUENCES TO MAINTAIN PROGRAM’S CONSISTENCY SEVERAL
FACTORS MUST REMAIN CONSTANT
WHAT IS SCENE?
• A scene is a like a miniature model of the story itself, 1. Program Title:
in that it also has an act structure. • This is the obvious signpost and it should both trigger
• The word scene broadly means ‘a place or setting memories of the previous edition and provide a clue to
regarded as having a particular character or making a content for the uninitiated
particular impression.’ (oxford English dictionary).
2. Signature tune:
HOW TO WRITE SCENES: A CHECKLIST • The long sequence is designed to be listened to over
To write exciting and interesting scenes: any part at random – to dip in and out of. A signature
• Understand what scenes in stories do. tune is largely irrelevant, except to distinguish it from
• Study scene examples to learn structure. the previous program, serving as an additional signpost
• Connect scenes to their sequels. intended to make the listener turn up the volume. It
• Brainstorm goals, conflicts, and disasters. should also convey something of the style of the
program – light-hearted, urgent, serious or in some way
• Plot reactions, dilemmas, and decisions.
evocative of the content.
• Organize scene ideas visually.
• Write scenes with purpose using the 5 w’s.
3. Transmission Time:
• Find satisfying ways to begin and end scenes.
• Regular programs must be at regular times and regular
items within programs given the same predictable
THE STRUCTURE OF SCENE
placing in each program. This rule has to be applied
• A scene is like an act in itself, in that it is part of a even more rigorously as the specialization of the
larger three-act structure composed of scenes. program increases.

4. The Presenter:
• The most important single factor in creating a
consistent style. The presenter regulates the tone of the
• The way that this works is that roughly every ten program by his or her individual approach to the
pages of a screenplay has its own three-act structure, listener.
which is built from scenes or scene sequences (a series
of interconnected incidents that function like a single 5. Linking Styles:
scene) that function as individual acts. • The links enable the presenter to give additional
information, personalized comment or humor. The `link-
• A scene itself can be looked at as an act. And, a scene person’ is much more than a reader of item cues, and it
can also be thought of having its own tiny “acts,” which I is through the handling of the links more than anything
refer to as “beats.” else that the program develops a cohesive sense of
style.
WHAT IS SEQUENCE?
• A set of related events, movements, or things that 6. Information content:
follow each other in a particular order. • The more local a sequence, becomes the more specific
and practical can be the information it gives.
DAYPARTING
• Is the practice of dividing the days into several parts, 7. Program variety:
during each different type of radio programming • A sequence program should have precise segments so
appropriate for that time? that the listener can recognize and be the determinant
of whether the program will be liked by the audience or
TIMESLOT not
• A period of time during which certain activities are
govern by specific regulations. THE FUNCTION OF A SCENE
• The word scene broadly means ‘A place or setting
CLOCK WHEEL regarded as having a particular character or making a
• Is a tool which lets you easily schedule events that particular impression.’ (Oxford English Dictionary).
contain similar elements that occur at the same time or • In stories and writing craft, a scene is also defined as: ‘A
in the same sequence. sequence of continuous action in a play, film, opera, or
book’
• ‘A representation of an incident, or the incident itself’
 storytelling mediums.
• The subplot is a side story that exists within the main
plot. The subplot is connected to the main story but
SCENES TYPICALLY HAVE FIVE FUNCTIONS: never overpowers it. The subplot can splinter off and
describe events that take place outside of the main story.
1. Emotional connection between character/s and
However, the subplot’s purpose is to strengthen the main
listeners. story line in some way.
- Scenes create an emotional connection for the
listeners by making characters and events seem real, 3 REASONS TO USE SUBPLOTS IN YOUR WRITING
and by giving characters recognizable, though complex, 1. Subplots add depth. Weaving several plot lines
emotions. through a story creates a multilevel narrative arc. A
story with just a main plot can come off as flat, but a
2. Move action/plot forward story with subplots in addition to the main plot has
- Scenes Move the story Forward and Keep the listeners complexity and depth. This makes the story more
engaging for readers.
engaged.
2. Subplots intensify the conflict. Subplots are a tool
that can heighten the tension and intensify the
3. Introduce themes conflict in a story. They can add new plot points that
- Scenes Introduce or deepen thematic ideas. deliver obstacles for the main character that result in
a more dramatic climax.
4. Establish mood 3. Subplots enrich character development. A secondary
- Word choice in a story is the key to establishing its plot can reveal new information about a main
mood. character. How the main character interacts with
supporting characters in a subplot can shed light on
their personality traits and character flaws, making
5. Make a story easier to follow them more vulnerable and three-dimensional.
- Scenes divide what could be a narrative mess into
digestible units of actions and events. FOUR TYPES OF SUB-PLOTS
• When coming up with writing ideas to enhance your
PLOT COMPILATIONS AND SUB-PLOTS main plot, think of using one or more subplots. These
could include any of the following:

WHAT IS PLOT? 1. Mirror subplot: A smaller-scale conflict mirrors the

• Plot is the chain of connected events that make up a main character’s in order to teach them a valuable
narrative. It refers to what actually occurs in a story lesson or illuminate how to resolve the conflict.
and is one of storytelling’s major pillars. Some will say 2. Contrasting subplot: A secondary character faces
that if characters are the who and theme is the why, similar circumstances and dilemmas as the main
then the plot is the what of the story. character but makes different decisions with the
opposite outcome.
PLOT STRUCTURE 3. Complicating subplot: A secondary character makes
matters worse for the main character
One of the most prevalent theories for a universal plot
4. Romantic subplot: The main character has a love
structure comes from German novelist Gustav Freytag,
interest, and this relationship complicates the main
who proposed a five-stage architecture for all stories:
plot.

1. Exposition: The de-facto introduction that brings out WEAVING TOGETHER PLOT, PLOT LAYERS AND SUB-
the story’s cast of characters and plants the seeds of PLOTS
conflict. • In Writing the Breakout Novel Workbook, Donald Maass
2. Rising Action: In which a series of events (usually suggests creating a table to intersect these three plot
triggered by an inciting incident) escalates and sets components. Write one column with names, one with
the rest of the story in motion. setting and one with events. Draw lines between the plot
elements trying to connect them. Alternately, write out
3. Climax: The moment of peak tension in a story — in
each plot, subplot or plot layer each with its own column.
other words, what everything else builds up to.
• Use what you have built into the story in multiple ways to
4. Falling Action: The bridge between the climax and the
connect the plot elements.
resolution in which subplots and mini-conflicts are
• All the elements in writing are interconnected –
resolved. they’re like atoms, they’re needed, and so the structure
5. Denouement: the wrapping up of the whole story. is considerably weakened without them. Theme, plot,
characters, story arc, setting, subplots, research,
PLOT LAYER backstory and so on make up those interconnected
• A secondary problem given to the same character, elements, and they have to be connected, otherwise
usually the main character. there would be no story. But the strength of any story
relies entirely on the writer’s ability to bringing all of
SUBPLOT those elements together in a complete and cohesive
• In fiction writing, the definition of a subplot is a side manner.
story that runs parallel to the main plot. It has a • We need to do it because the reader constantly needs
secondary strand of characters and events that can information. Whether it’s about a character, a plot twist,
infuse important information into the main storyline. a revelation, or a clue, the writer must allow the reader
Also known as a minor story, a subplot creates a richer, to be privy. The writer is letting the reader learn as the
more complex narrative arc in novel writing and other story unfolds, and that means the writer has to share the
 narrative and exposition. must fully commit to her goal. Up to this point, she had
• It’s about allowing snippets of crucial information into the option of turning back, giving up on her plan, and
the story without dropping huge chunks of boring, returning to the life she was living at the beginning of
indigestible narrative to stop the reader in their tracks the film. But now your hero must burn her bridges
(and put the reader off completely). These little bits of behind her and put both feet in.
information can be shown through characters, dialogue, STAGE 4: Complications and Higher Stakes
backstory, subplots and so on. It is therefore possible
• For the next 25% of your story, achieving the visible goal
involve the reader by letting them in on certain
information whilst keeping the story moving forward. becomes far more difficult, and your hero has much
• Whether it is a piece of information, something new for more to lose if he fails.
the reader to learn, a clue to the plot, a revelation in the • This conflict continues to build until, just as it seems
story, an introduction to a new character, a twist in plot that success is within your hero’s grasp, he suffers…
or a new subplot, by sneaking them seamlessly into the
narrative and letting them form part of the story, then • TURNING POINT #4: The Major Setback (75%)
that is what weaving is all about. • Around page 90 of your screenplay, something must
happen to your hero that makes it seem to the audience
PRINCIPLES OF THEATER ARTS (THEATER that all is lost.
PLAYS) • If you’re writing a romantic comedy, this is the point
where your hero’s deception is revealed and the lovers
BUILDING THE STORY break up.

PLOT STRUCTURE STAGE 5: The Final Push

• Plot structure simply determines the sequence of events
• Beaten and battered, your hero must now risk
that lead the hero towards his/her objective.
everything she has, and give every ounce of strength
• Understanding the turning points, and incorporating
and courage she possesses, to achieve her ultimate
them into your stories, will strengthen your ability to
enthrall your reader or audience. goal.
• During this stage of your script, the conflict is
SIX BASIC STAGES OF THE STORY overwhelming, the pace has accelerated, and
everything works against your hero, until she reaches…
STAGE 1: The Setup
• The opening 10% of your screenplay must draw the • TURNING POINT #5: The Climax (90-99%)
reader, and the audience, into the initial setting of the • Several things must occur at the climax of the film: the
story, must reveal the everyday life your hero has been hero must face the biggest obstacle of the entire story;
living, and must establish identification with your hero she must determine her own fate; and the outer
by making her sympathetic, threatened, likable, funny motivation must be resolved once and for all.
and/or powerful.
• These setups pull us out of our own existence and into STAGE 6: The Aftermath
the captivating world the screenwriter has created. • No movie ends precisely with the resolution of the
hero’s objective. You have to reveal the new life your
• TURNING POINT #1: The Opportunity (10%) hero is living now that he’s completed his journey.
• Ten percent of the way into your screenplay, your hero • In most romantic comedies, mysteries and dramas, the
must be presented with an opportunity, which will aftermath will include the final five or ten pages of the
create a new, visible desire, and will start the character script.
on her journey.
CAUTION: DON’T LET ALL THESE PERCENTAGES BLOCK
STAGE 2: The New Situation YOUR CREATIVITY!
• For the next 15% of the story, your hero will react to
the new situation that resulted from the opportunity. CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
He gets acclimated to the new surroundings, tries to • Character development is the process of building a
figure out what’s going on, or formulates a specific unique, three-dimensional character with depth,
plan for accomplishing his overall goal. personality, and clear motivations.
• Character development can also refer to the changes a
• TURNING POINT #2: The Change of Plans (25%) character undergoes over the course of a story as a
• This is the scene where your story concept is defined, result of their actions and experiences.
and your hero’s outer motivation is revealed
• Outer motivation is the term for the visible finish line 10 KEY ACTING QUESTIONS EVERY ACTOR SHOULD
the audience is rooting for the hero to achieve by the ANSWER IN ORDER TO BE A FULLY ROUNDED AND
end of the film. CONNECTED ACTOR:

STAGE 3: Progress 10 ACTING QUESTIONS

• For the next 25% of your story, your hero’s plan seems 1. Who am I?
to be working as he takes action to achieve his goal. 2. Where am I?
3. When is it?
• TURNING POINT #3: The Point of No Return (50%) 4. Where have I just come from?
• At the exact midpoint of your screenplay, your hero 5. What do I want?
6. Why do I want it? • Due to the competitive and highly-skilled nature of the
7. Why do I want it now? industry, it's likely that those working within performing
8. What will happen if I don't get it now? arts -even those in technical or managerial roles - will
9. How will I get what I want by doing what? experience rejection at some point in their career.
10. What must I overcome? Similarly, they'll also receive criticism in some form, at
GENRES OF THEATER PLAYS some stage too.
1. COMEDY 4. An analytical mind and the ability to self-reflect
• Comedy is a type of literary genre that aims for • Perhaps not the most obvious skill, but those working
bringing humor and inducing laughter for the audience. in the industry need an analytical mind. If you're
The theater in a comedy genre is purposed to amuse involved in drama, you'll need to be able to scrutinize
and entertain the audience through the dramatic and interpret a role and script, while dancers need to be
sequence action with creating a comic effect. The able to break down and analyze choreography, and
theatrical comedy has a cheerful and happy ending. musicians need to be able to dissect and interpret a
piece of music.
2. TRAGEDY
5. Flexibility
• The word of tragedy is mostly used to describe any
kind of disaster or even misfortune. And for the • Performers need to adapt and apply their skills and
theater, tragedy refers to describe more serious scripts talent to a variety of roles, genres, techniques and
with the sequence actions of the sorrowful and terrible styles. Flexibility is essentially about being able to
events. This tragedy genre is also easily impressed the multitask, and working part time during your studies
attention of the audience to involve into the storyline, will give you lots of practice as you work to juggle
which is why this plot is often use as a theme in many university, work and personal commitments.
online gambling games.
3. HISTORICAL 6. Teamwork
• Historical theater genre can be the comedies and • The performing arts are a collaborative effort between
tragedies genre, or even neither of these. Theater with many different people coming together to create a
the historical genre is also popular since it can impress successful show, play, broadcast, concert or recital so
the audience’s attention for a long time even until the ability to work well with others is vital.
these days. This genre will be more focus on any actual
historical events, so it will mostly adapt to the 7. Organization and time management
historical story as well. • Successful performers are often required to work on
more than one project at once and work schedules can
4. MUSICAL become hectic. Strong organization and time
• The musical theater is not only presenting a good management skills are therefore a must.
theatrical performance, but this genre will also combine
a lot of aspects including songs, dancing and also spoken TYPES OF DIALOGUE
dialogue. The audience will be entertained by the music,
DIALOGUE
story, acting and also everything on the stage that is
combined with the music. • Dialogue is typically a conversation between two or
more people in a narrative work. As a literary
5. SATIRICAL technique, dialogue serves several purposes. It can
• Satirical theater becomes one of the most popular advance the plot, reveal a character's thoughts or
theater genres these days. Theater with its satirical feelings, or show how characters react in the moment.
genre is purposed for attempting any current events,
political or social statements through the comic look. TYPES OF DIALOGUES
This satirical theater gets a lot of attention from the 1. Directed Dialogues
audiences • It is considered as the simplest kind of interlocution that
is used in literary writing. This interaction happens
DISCIPLINES
directly between two people – character A & character
1. CONFIDENCE
B.
• Acting, dancing, playing or singing in front of other
people can be an incredibly nerve-racking experience.
2. Misdirected Dialogue
Stepping onto a stage and performing in front of an
audience requires a huge amount of confidence and • This looks like a natural communication between two
self-esteem, as you're displaying your talent and participants where they do not answer direct questions.
inviting judgement. The tone and the manner of the communication might
vary only when a third participant interrupts in the
conversation.
2. The ability to network and market yourself
• Lots of people working in the performing arts are self-
3. Modulated Conversation
employed, and actors, dancers, singers and musicians
all need to audition to secure work, so it's vital that • In this type of dialogue, the conversation provides
you're able to sell and market your abilities to potential important details. This generally increases the tension
employers. of narration, or it might reveal the key aspect of the
conversation. It is the gradual retrospection and a way
to develop a plot or observation.
3. Resilience, self-discipline and stamina
4. Interpolation Conversation - INTERRUPTIONS (1/2): When one-character interrupts
• This type of conversation is used for the insertion. In another, use double dashes (--) or an em dash (a long
simple words, interpret some information where you dash) to show that the speaker is being cut off. No
are not given important details directly. need to write "interrupts."

5. Inner (Internal) Dialogue - INTERRUPTIONS (2/2): Using ellipses (...) does not
• In inner (internal) dialogue, the people speak to signify that a character has been interrupted, but
themselves and express their attitudes or opinions. rather that she hesitates or trails off of her own
People use inner dialogue to express their flow of accord. For example, in Shining Sea, Pac can't bring
consciousness and loneliness. himself to ask a question
- EMPHASIZING DIALOGUE: Occasionally, the actor's
6. Outer Dialogue emphasis on a particular word may be so important
• Outer dialogue is a dialogue where people talk to other that you want to write that direction into the script.
people. It is a classical dialogue and this type of While there is no ironclad rule for this practice,
dialogue is seen most of the time. italicizing the word to be emphasized works best
(underlining or capitalizing the word is both confusing
and cramping). To use italics successfully, do not
DIALOGUES CAN BE FOUND IN:
overuse them.
1. LITERATURE
- SIMULTANEOUSLY DIALOGUE: Sometimes characters
• Novels
speak at the same time. The rule of thumb is to divide
• Comics
your page into two columns, placing the character
• Plays names within their individual columns. Indent any
- Theater Play stage directions 1" instead of 2".
- Radio Play
- Stage Play DIALOGUE IN A RADIOPLAY
- TV Shows - In radio drama the playwright needs to let us know
• Poems about the elements through different means as we
• Films cannot get information through our eyes.
- Screenplay, etc. - Radio drama is essentially heard, not seen.
- Writing a radio play is about painting a picture with
DIALOGUE IN A SCREENPLAY words and sounds.
- The dialogue in a screenplay may serve as a way to
express a character's point-of-view or to understand REEL VS REAL
the interpersonal dynamics between two or more • REEL: Reel can be a noun or a verb. As a noun, it
characters. Dialogue is also a way to convey the means a spool of long, narrow material like film or
story's mood or tone. In a television comedy, much of string. As a verb, it sometimes means to wind around a
the humor will come from your dialogue. spool, like one does when fishing. It can also mean to
stagger or stumble, like one does when one has taken
DIALOGUE IN A TELEPLAY a blow to the head.
- When writing a teleplay, any time a character speaks, • REAL: Real is an adjective that means existing or
whether out loud or in voiceover, the screenwriter significant. It also has a mathematical sense where it
must format the dialogue the same way: dialogue is refers to quantities on a number line.
centered on the page, one inch from the left margin.
The name of the character who is speaking should Contrary to popular belief, characters in films/tv shows
always appear in all caps above the line of dialogue. do not speak as people do in real life.

DIALOGUE ELEMENTS (STAGEPLAY) PURPOSE OF DIALOGUE

- Writing good dialogue is hard, but formatting is easy. - In real life, we speak for a variety of reasons: to pass
Dialogue, which is always mixed case, single-spaced, time, to convey emotion and to communicate
typically runs margin to margin and follows the information. Speech (be it through voice or signing) is
character name on the next line. A blank line follows our main method of communication. So, we talk... a
between the dialogue and the next character's name. lot. We ramble. We lose our train of thought. We
- Sometimes stage directions interrupt dialogue, but stutter. We speak in circles of little sense.
each adheres to its own formatting rules. - In short, we are far from perfect. And that’s okey! It's
- CONTINUING DIALOGUE: If a character's dialogue is that exact quality that we want to replicate in films
interrupted by a page break, and continues onto the and stories.
next page, you repeat the character name set-up on - In plays, the purpose of dialogue is to communicate
the next page with the (cont'd) remark after the plot and character. The goal is to mimic "real"
name. dialogue, without having it slow down the story.
- OFFSTAGE DIALOGUE: When a character walks Words are precious in plays.
offstage while speaking either notate this as part of - We go to see plays to be entertained with conflict and
the stage directions, or alongside the character name action. "Reel" dialogue cuts to the chase. It doesn't
if the character is already offstage. You may write waste time on trivial things. It focuses on what's
either "Offstage" or "Off."
 important. And it's indirect. It implies more than it authenticity to dialogue. There is a balance to be found
tells because viewers want to see the conflict here. We don't want to overwhelm the viewer with
dramatized rather than spoken about. This impacts something they don't understand. Instead, we want to
the how dialogue is used in plays. provide a flavor of those languages and accents.

WRITING “REEL DIALOGUE”

- How do we fool the viewer into believing in the 6. Silence
dialogue that's unfolding across the screen? The last - Your characters don't always need to have a witty
thing we want is to have our dialogue accused of response or cutting insult. Sometimes silence is the
being too "expository" or "forced". most powerful response a character can give. In the
right context, silence can represent nearly every
1. Conflict emotion in the book. And it's incredibly human. We
- In screenplays, characters don't "chat", they argue. don't always have the answers. We choke up. And
Viewers are drawn to conflict, so that's what we need silence is the result.
to give them. These conflicts should be motivated by
a desire or a want that your character has. These
could be small things (like "pass the salt") or big
things (like telling someone "I love you" for this first
time).

2. Distinct Voices
- The leading characters in your plays should have
voices that are distinct from one another. Explore
"how" they speak. This is where you are going to
infuse an element of "reality" into the dialogue.
Choose different speech characteristics and flaws for
each character and stick to them. Consider elements
like: education, personality, comedy, language, slang,
imperfections, frequency and volume.
- Assign a couple traits to each leading character, like
the examples below.
- Character #1: loud and confident, always interrupting,
always has to have the last word
- Character #2: high educated, speaks in long
sentences, big words, loves to explain meanings

3. Subtext
- One of the most crucial elements of "reel" dialogue is
subtext! Try to avoid characters that always say
exactly what they are thinking, feeling...etc. Let's be
honest, most people barely do that in real life. We lie,
cheat, mislead and pretend. How often have you
greeted someone with, "Hey! How are you?". And
how many times have they responded with, "Hey! I'm
good, you?", even when they are far from it.
- Subtext is all about what isn't said. It's about showing
that "point" through a less obvious method: body
language, talking about the "point", actions...etc. By
doing so, we avoid "telling" the viewer the story.
Instead, we "show" it.

4. Context
- Where subtext is the implicit meaning of the lines
being spoken, context is the environment in which
they are said. This is equally as important as a change
of environment can completely change the meaning
of the conversation.

5. Accents/Languages
- A play written in English does not mean that every
character in it must also speak that language. Accents
and foreign languages, when appropriate, add further