Learning

Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve

synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.

Progress over time tends to follow learning curves.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may

be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational

psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy.

Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of

more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.[1][2] Learning may occur consciously or

without conscious awareness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in whichhabituation has

been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently

developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.[3]

Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children play, experiment with the world,

learn the rules, and learn to interact. Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make

meaning of their environment through play.

Types of learning
Simple non-associative learning

Habituation
Main article: Habituation

In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution

of behavioral response probability with repetition stimulus. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither

rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song

birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real

predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one

removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a

very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been

shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.[4]

[edit]Sensitization
Main article: Sensitization
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows

repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated

tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this

stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively

amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful.[clarification
needed]
 Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.

[edit]Associative learning

Associative learning is the process by which an element is taught through association with a separate, pre-occurring

element. It is also referred to as classical conditioning. Honeybees display associative learning through the proboscis

extension reflex paradigm.[5]

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant

conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that operant conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment

to alter an action-outcome association. In contrast Pavlovian conditioning involves strengthening of the stimulus-

outcome association.

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that seeks to alter behavior by arranging the environment to elicit

successful changes and to arrange consequences to maintain or diminish a behavior. Behaviorists study behaviors

that can be measured and changed by the environment. However, they do not eliminate that there are thought

processes that interact with those behaviors (see Relational Frame Theory for more information).

Delayed discounting is the process of devaluing rewards based on the delay of time they are presented. This process

is thought to be tied to impulsivity. Impulsivity is a core process for many behaviors (e.g., substance abuse,

problematic gambling, OCD). Making decisions is an important part of everyday functioning. How we make those

decisions is based on what we perceive to be the most valuable or worthwhile actions. This is determined by what we

find to be the most reinforcing stimuli. So when teaching an individual a response, you need to find the most potent

reinforcer for that person. This may be a larger reinforcer at a later time or a smaller immediate reinforcer.

[edit]Classical conditioning
Main article: Classical conditioning

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which

unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the

response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated

stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed

a conditioned response. The classic example is Pavlov and his dogs. Meat powder naturally will make a dog salivate

when it is put into a dog's mouth; salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the

unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Then Pavlov rang a bell before

presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but
once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of the bell, and then

food the dogs learned that the bell was a signal that the food was about to come and began to salivate just when the

bell was rang. Once this occurs the bell becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell is the

conditioned response (CR).

Another influential person in the world of Classical Conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work was very

influential and paved the way for B. F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of

science) stood in direct contrast to Freud. Watson's view was that Freud's introspective method was too subjective,

and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published

the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views," in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology

best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment, "Little Albert," where he demonstrated how

psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.

[edit]Imprinting
Main article: Imprinting (psychology)

Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning

occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences

of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some

stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.

[edit]Observational learning
Main article: Observational learning

The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed behavior,

such as a dance. Humans can copy three types of information simultaneously: the demonstrator's goals, actions, and

environmental outcomes (results, see Emulation (observational learning)). Through copying these types of

information, (most) infants will tune into their surrounding culture.

[edit]Play
Main article: Play (activity)

Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations

in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited

to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with

catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other

animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as

increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there

must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals,

suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for

example improving physical fitness.

Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the requirements of their native culture by which he or she is

surrounded, and acquires values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in that culture.[6] The influences

which as part of this process limit, direct or shape the individual, whether deliberately or not, include parents, other

adults, and peers.[6] If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the

culture.[6] (compare acculturation, where a person is within a culture different to their normal culture, and learns the

requirements of this different culture).

[edit]Multimedia learning

Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001). This

type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).

[edit]E-learning and augmented learning

Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to Internet-based networked computer-enhanced

learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile

telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of

individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment.

Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction,

augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime.[7]

[edit]Rote learning
Main article: Rote learning

Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is

being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can berecalled by the learner exactly the way

it was read or heard. The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the

idea that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote learning is used in

diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote

learning is a necessity in many situations.

[edit]Informal learning
Main article: Informal learning

Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead

while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life,

during a meal at table with parents, play, exploring, etc.

[edit]Formal learning
Main article: Education
A depiction of the world's oldest continually operating university, the University of Bologna, Italy

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system.

[edit]Nonformal learning
Main article: Nonformal learning

Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming

together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth

organizations, workshops.

[edit]Nonformal learning and combined approaches

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU

recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools students can get points that count in the

formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist

international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can prove

this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

 Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's cube.

 Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle memory" and therefore speed.

 Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts.

 The Rubik's cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.

 Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill.
[edit]Tangential learning

Tangential learning is the process by which people will self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they

already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to

play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be

inspired to read the original work.

[edit]Dialogic learning
Main article: Dialogic learning

Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

[edit]Domains of learning

Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning:

 Psychomotor – To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.

 Affective – To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person will have to learn the

rules of the game (cognitive domain); but he also has to learn how to set up the chess pieces on the chessboard and

also how to properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may

even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).[8]