I

I
i has the trivial solution (x = y = z = 0)if D # Oand has a non-trivial Linear Algebra
solution

Again, find the solution treating x to be constant.

6) Find the inverse of the matrix and hence obtain the

I solution of the equations

i 2 x , -3x, + 4 x , =-4, x , + x , = o , - x , + 4 x 3 =2.
7) Consider the national income model given by
1 Y =C+I+G
c=a+b(Y-T) (a>0, O < b < l )
I
I T=d+tY (d>O, O < t < l )
Solve this model for the variables Y, C and T by matrix inversion.

then find a. UV; b.VU+X; c. XY

Use partitioned matrices to check the results.
9) If A is a non-zero (n x 1) column matrix, while B is a non-zero matrix,
then show that P(BA) is unity and P(AB) is n.

r-4 21
10) Show that rank of the transpose of the matrix

same as that the original matrix.

L8 3 2
1 -42] jSthe
UNIT 11 INPUT-OUTPUT ANALYSIS
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Main Features of Input-Output Analysis
11.2.1 Assumptions
11.2.2 Input-Output Table
1 1.2.3 Technological Coefficient Matrix
11.3 Closed and Open Input-Output Models
11.4 Coefficient Matrix and Open Model
11.5 Solution to Open Model
11.5.1 Determination of Gross Output
1 1.5.2 The Rawkins-Simon Conditions
11.5.3 Consumption Possibility Locus
11.5.4 Determination of Equilibrium Prices
11.6 Linear Programming Formulation
11.7 Coefficient Matrix and Closed Model
11.8 Dynamic Input-Output Model
11.9 Limitations of Input-Output Analysis
11.10 LetUsSumUp
11.11 Keywords
11.12 Some Useful Books
11.13 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progess
11.14 Exercises

11. OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to answer the following:
with what proportions one sector of the economy are related to other
sectors;
how solution is attained in a framework of several variables production
problems related to input-output;.
how the system of equations input-output can be represented graphically
by the linear programming; and
how the system of input-output can be solved in a dynamic framework.

11.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of Input-Output (1-0) analysis originated by the eighteenth
century French economists Quesnay in the name of 'Tabelau Economique'. In
its modem form, the 1-0 analysis has been developed by the American
economist Wassily W. Leontief in his famous work 'Structure of the
American Economy' in the year 195 1.
1-0 analysis is a method of analysing how an industry undertakes production
by using the output of other industries in the economy and how the output of
the given industries used up in other industries or sectors. Since various
industries are interdependent, i.e., the output of one industry is an input for the
others, their mutual relationship ultimately must lead to equilibrium between Input-Output Analysis
supply and demand in the economy consisting of 'n' industries. 1-0 analysis is
also known as the inter-industry analysis as it explains the interdependence
and interrelationship among various industries. Since the analysis is concerned
with the relations among inputs, use of a commodity in the production by an
industry, it is known as the input-output analysis. In other words, the 1-0
analysis explains the interdependence of inputs and outputs of various
industries in the economy.

11.2 MAIN FEATURES OF INPCTT-OUTPUT

ANALYSIS
1-0 analysis was an attempt made by Prof. Leontief to take account of
'general equilibrium' phenomena in the 'empirical' analysis of 'production'.
These three italicized elements are the main features of 1-0 analysis. First, the
1-0 analysis deals almost exclusively with production. The problem is
essentially technological. Given the quantities of available resources and the
state of technology, the analysis is concerned with the use of various inputs by
the industries and outputs derived from them.
The second distinctive feature of 1-0 analysis is its devotion to empirical
investigation. This is primarily what distinguishes it from the work of Walras
and later general equilibrium theorists. 1-0 employs a model, which is more
simplified and also narrower in the sense that it seeks to encompass fewer
phenomena than does the usual general equilibrium theory. Its narrowness lies
in its exclusive emphasis on the production side of the economy.
The third distinctive feature is its emphasis of general equilibrium phenomena
where everything depends on everything else. Thus in the two-industry model
coal is an input for steel industry and steel is an input for coal industry, though
both are the output of respective industries. According to 1-0 analysis, it is not
possible to find some industries as being in the 'earlier' stages of production
and some other industries as being in the 'later' stages. For the production of
coal, steel is needed; whereas, for the production of steel, coal is required. No
one can say whether the coal industry or the steel industry is earlier or later in
the hierarchy of production.
The basic problem, then, is to see what can be left over for final consumption
and how much of each output will be used up in the course of the productive
activities which must be undertaken to obtain these net outputs. Solution of
this problem can be used in predicting future production requirements if
usable demand estimates can somehow be obtained. Particularly, it can be
used for economic planning including problems of economic development in
'backward areas' as well as problem of military mobilisation. A more modest
purpose that it has already successfully begun to serve is the provision of a
very illuminating detailed structure for national income accounting.
11.2.1 Assumptions
As it was stated earlier, the intransigence of empirical materials and the
computational problems have forced on 1-0 analysis to adopt a number of
simplifying assumptions even more extreme than those usually employed in
our theoretical models.
The economy can be meaningfully divided into finite number of sectors
(industries) on the basis of the following assumptions:
Linear Algebra and Economics i) Each industry produces only one homogeneous output. NO two products
Application are produced jointly; but if at all there is such a case, then it is assumed
that they (products) are produced in fixed proportions.
ii) Each producing sector satisfies the properties of linear homogeneous
production function. In other words, production of each sector is subject
to constant returns to scale so that k-fold change in every input will
result in an exactly k-fold change in the output.
iii) A far stronger assumption is that each industry uses a fixed input ration
for the production of its output; in other words, input requirement per
unit of output in each sector remains fixed and constant. The level of
output in each sector (industry) uniquely determines the quantity of each
input, which is purchased.
iv) The final demand for the commodities is given from outside the system.
The total amount of the primary factor is also given. These two are
called open end of the system and for this, the model is called 'open
model'. In contrast in the 'closed model' all the variables are determined
within the system.
v) The model is static in the sense that all variables in it refer to the same
period of time. The static model is also known as flow model.
Note on assumption (iii)
The fixed proportion assumption is far more restrictive and is a special case of
an assumption of constant returns'to scale (CRS). CRS is perfectly consistent
with the substitution of one factor for another. A liner homogeneous
production function (CRS) permits both labor-intensive and capital-intensive
processes. The firm whose production function exhibits constant returns can,
if it wishes say, to have 100 workers for every $1000 invested in machinery,
or it may use machines which require only 10 workers per $1000 machine
investment. A linear homogeneous production function requires only that if
the firm decides to triple the scale of either of these types of operations, the
result will be a tripling of output. Whereas Leontief fixed proportion premise
requires that a manufacturing process, which is labor-intensive, offers no
option of a capital-intensive alternative. If 53 men per $1000 of investment
are required at any level of operation, it is assumed that the same ratio will be
required no matter how much the size of the firm expands or contracts.
Whether this assumption is relatively innocuous or does considerable violence
to the input-output results is still under dispute. But the premise is certainly
never absolutely true, even in those cases where cheaistry and engineering
dictate fixed proportions between some ingredients and outputs.
11.2.2 Input-Output Table
1-0 table shows the disposition of the total products and total inputs among
the different industries. Let us assume that an economy consists of 4
producing sectors only; and that the production of each sector is being used as
the input in all the sectors and used for final consumption. Suppose,
i) XI, X2,X3and Xq are total outputs of 4 sectors;
ii) FI, F2, Fs and F4 are the amounts of final demand, consumption, capital
formation and exports for output of these sectors.
iii) X , be the amount of output of the ithIndustry used up as an intermediary
input by the jth industry ( i j = 1,2,3,4)
iv) L represents the given amount of primary factor (here, labor) and Li is Input-Output Analysis
the amount of primary factor used in the ithIndustry.
Then the following table represents the 1-0 table for the simplified economy.

Input requirements
Producing Total output of producing sectors Requirements
sector number of the sector for final uses
XI x2 x3 x4
1 XI XI1 x12 XI3 XI4 F1
2 X2 X21 X22 X23 X24 F2

(labor) input = L

Here it should be remembered that all the items in the above table are flows,
i.e. physical units per year. Since the entries in any row are all measured in the
same physical units, i t makes good sense to add across the rows. The 'total
output' column gives the overall input of labor and output of each commodity.
On the other hand, items in the same column are not measured in the same
units, so that it would not be correct to add down the columns. But each
column, thought as a whole (i.e., as a vector) does have a meaning. The third
column describes the input or cost structure of the first industry: XI units of
output of the first industry was produced with the use of Xll units of first
good, X2] units of second good, Xjl units of third good, units of fourth
good and L1 units of labor. Similar meanings will follow for other columns,
i.e., Columns 4, 5 and 6. The 'final demand' or 'requirement of final uses' i.e.,
Column (7) shows the commodity breakdown of what is available for
consumption and government expenditure. It is, for convenience, assumed that
labor is not consumed directly. Now suppose that each unit of output of each
industry has a price of $1 (say) and each unit of labor receives a wage rate of
$1. Then each entry of the above table can be expressed in terms of money
value (rather thal? being a physical unit). It is then possible to add down the
columns. The sum of each column gives the total cost of the corresponding
industry. Thus, revenue of industry 1 is XI units (= X I ] + X12 + X13 + X14 +
F I ) and cost of that industry is (XI, + X2]+ X31 + X4] + L I ) units. It is true for
other industries also. Clearly, these prices are long-run competitive
equilibrium prices. (In the long-run, competitive equilibrium price is equal to
average cost and there is neither profit nor loss).
Those items in the above table that show the sales of the four industries to
themselves and to each other might be described as 'non-GNP' items -
because these transactions are intermediate transactions, which are not
considered in the national income accounting. The 'final demand' column
represents the output side of GNP, as final transactions are included in GNP
accounting. The labor row represents the factor cost side of GNP. The inter-
industrial sales have no welfare significance at all. Social benefits come from
final consumption and social cost comes from use of labor. The economy can
be viewed as a machine that used up labor and produces final consumption.
The above table represents a particular technology, a particular combination
of inputs to get the outputs. If any element, aiong any row, changes, then other
Linear Algebra and Economics elements have to change accordingly so as to maintain the same total output of
Application that industry. A particular technology is thus characterized by a column
vector. Changing any elements of this vector results in a new vector and -
therefore represents a new technology.
From the above table, the production unction for the four industries can be
written as follows: Para XI = fl (Xil,X21, X31, &I, LI);
X2 = f2 (X12r X22, X32, &2r L2);
X3 = f3 (X13r X23, X33, X43, L3); and
& = f4 (X14r X24, X34r X44, b).
In general terms, if there are 'n' number of producing sectors, then the
production function of sector 'n' will be represented by Xn = fn (XI,, X2nr X3nr
G n , Ln).Further, we can always add across the rows, which, basically gives
us the equality between the demand and the supply of each product. In general
terms,
XI =X1l + X i 2 + ...+ X l n + F 1 ;

........................................................
Xn=Xnl +Xn2+ ...+ Xnn+Fn;and
L = L 1 + L 2 +...+ Ln

Here, Xi = total output of the ith sector, Xij = output of i" sector used as input
in jth sector; and Fi = final demand for ithsector.
The above identity states that all the output of a particular sector could be
utilised as an input in one of the producing sectors of the economy and/or as a
final demand. Basically, therefore, 1-0 analysis is nothing more than finding
the solution of these simultaneous equations.
11.2.3 Technological Coefficient Matrix
From the assumption of fixed input requirements, we see that in order to
produce 1 unit of jth commodity, the input used of ith commodity must be a
fixed amount, which we denote by aij; thus aij = -.
xij If Xj represents the total
Xj
output of the jth commodity (or jth producing sector) the input requirements of
the ithcommodity will be equal to aijXjor Xij = aijXj.
So the production function can be written as follows:
XI = min. (Xlllall, X21la21,..., Llla~l);....; X.I = min.(X,4/a14, X24/a24,...,
L4IaL4).
In other words, this means that Xi (i =1, 2, 3,4) will be equal to the minimum
of the five ratios within the bracket.
It can be seen that if each of the Xij is multiplied by a constant, the
corresponding Xj is multiplied by the same constant so that we have a constant
returns to scale. If any ai, is zero, we can ether omit the corresponding term
from the right hand side or we can think of Xjj/aij as infinity in which case it
will certainly never be the smallest ratio.
An alternative way of writing the production function is to note that since XI Input-Output Analysis
equals the smallest of Xll/all,Xzl/a2,,X31/a31,X41/a41,Ll/aLI,it must be less
than or equal to all five of the ratios, i.e., X l l / a l l 2x1, i.e., X I I r allX1.
Similarly, Xzl r a21Xl...andL12 aLIX1.
In general, Xij > aijXjand L,2 IjXj.
It should be noted that equality would hold at least once in each row. In fact, if
none of the commodities concerned is free good, the equality will hold
everywhere. Assuming that no goods are free, we can consider all the above
equalities. Then putting the values of Xij in equation (I), (2),. ... we get,

Xn= anlXl + an2X2+. ..+ a,Xn + Fn;and

L = l l x l + 12x2 + 13x3+ 14%.

In general, X i = x a , j +~~~, , ( i = l2,

, .... n) a n d ~ = x l ~ ~ , .

Ial
j=l i=l

The equation may be put in matrix notations:

a,, all ...
= az2 ... [ x l l

............
xn an, a . ~ .-. a n n
Xn Fn

n
x = A X + F and, L = Z ~ ~ X ; .
1=I

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is an input coefficient matrix?

......................................................................................
2) What is an open input-output model?

141 li:]
3) The input coefficient matrix is given as
a,, a,? 0.2 0.3 0.2
A= :;j = [o.I 0.1 0.21 . Get the technology matrix.
0.1 0.3 0.2
Linear Algebra and Economics
Application
11.3 CLOSED AND OPEN INPUT-OUTPUT
MODELS
In the above example, besides n industries, our model contains exogenous
sector of final demand, which supplies primary input factors (labor services-
which are not produced by these n industries) and consumes the output of n
producing industries (not as input). Such an 1-0 model is known as 'open
model'. It includes exogenous sectors in terms of 'final demand bill' along
with the endogenous sectors in terms of n producing sectors. 1-0 model,
which has endogenous final demand vector, is known as 'closed model'.

11.4 COEFFICIENT MATRIX AND OPEN

MODEL
Our open model in matrix notation is given by, X = AX + F, where A is the
input coefficient matrix, F is the final demand vector and X is the total output
matrix.
The input coefficient matrix or 'technology matrix' represented by [a,,] is of
great importance. Each element must be non-negative, i.e., we rule out the
possibility of negative inputs. But to maintain complete interdependence
among the industries each element of [a,,] matrix must be positive and no
element can exceed unity, i.e., we rule out the possibility of negative outputs.
Each column of this mamx specifies the input requirements for the production
of 1 unit of a particular commodity; thus, sum of the elements in each column
must be less than unity. Symbolically, this fact may be stated as:
n
z a , , < 1, (j = 1, 2,..., n), and each a,, is non-negative, i.e., either zero or
1=1
greater than zero. The cost of the primary inputs (which is also termed as
'value added') needed in producing a unit of jth commodity would be (1 -
n

C a , ). [Note here that a,'s are in value terms]. If this w e n not true, it would
1=1

mean that the total value of intermediate products used by an industry

exceeded the value of its input. This in turn would mean that the value added
by that industry was negative. Now, this is not impossible, but, if we assume
that the wage bill cannot be negative, it means that the industry must be
making losses (indeed, losses greater in absolute value than its wage bill). An
industry in which value added is negative is not covering variable costs
(intermediate inputs plus the wage bill), and we know from the elementary
micro theory that in such a case, losses will be reduced by closing down.
Thus, we do not want to describe such an industry in our technology matrix at
all. Given the assumption of CRS, we've described the technology by a
constant coefficient mamx. We should notice that we have also built in the
assumption that there are no externalities. An externality in production would
exists if, for example, a factory discharged waste into a river so that a factory
further downstream had to use the resources to clean the water before it could
use it. In this case, the resource requirement of the later factory would not
depend solely on its output but would, also depend on the activity of the
former .

11.5 SOLUTION TO OPEN MODEL

Let us consider an economy with n industries. If producing sector 1 is to
produce an output just sufficient to meet the input requirements of the n
industries as well as the final demand of the exogenous sector, its output level ~nput-OutputAnalysis
XI must satisfy the following equations:
XI = a l l X I+ aI2X2+ ...+ alnXn+ F1, or,
(1-al ')XI- a12X2- ...- alnXn= F1
For the entire set of n industries, the correct output levels, therefore, can be
symbolized by the following set of n linear equations:
(1-al ')XI- a12Xz- ...- alnXn= F1
- azIX1+(1-a22)X2- ...- alnX, = F2

In the matrix notation this may be written as:

[I-A] X = F, i.e. X = [I-A]-' F

Here A is the given matrix of input coefficients, while X and F are the vectors
of output and final demand of each producing sector. If II-Al* 0,then [I-A]-'
exists, we can then estimate for either of the two matrices X and F by
assuming one of them to be given exogenously. It is to be observed that, the
assumptions made in 1-0 analysis go a long way in making the problem
simplified. For example, with the assumption of linear homogenous function,
it is possible to write a linear equation of each producing sector, which then
can be easily transformed into matrix notation. On the other hand, as long as
the input coefficients remain fixed (as assumed), the matrix A will not change
or [I-A] will not change. Therefore, in finding the solution of X = [LA]-' F,
only one matrix inverse needs to be performed even if we are to consider
thousand of different final ,demand vectors according to alternative
development targets. Hence, such an assumption of fixed technical coefficient
has meant considerable savings in computational effort.
11.5.1 Determination of Gross Output
Suppose, X stands for the column matrix (;:I, F stands for the column

matrix (:), and a stands for the matrix of as coefficients

from X = [&A]-' F we can get the value of each element of X. Before this,
( .I: e.n

we need to evaluate [I-A]-'.

I - A -- )-
0 1
('I
"21
"')
a22
=('-"'
-21 '-a22
1, matrix of co-factors

Transpose of this matrix or adjoint matrix of [I-A] =

a21
an
1 - a11
1. NOW let D
= ( I-A I = determinant of [I-A] matrix. Assume that D # 0,i.e., [I-A] is non-
Linear Algebra and Economics (3
Application D
singular. Then the inverse matrix can be written as [I-A]-' =

Therefore, I:( = (l ;.PP a"

l-all
) (:]
( 1 -a2z)FI + a l l F l allF~+(l-a12)F2
Or, XI = , X2 = where, D =
D D

11.5.2 The Hawkins-Simon Conditions

Many a times 1-0 solution may give output expressed by negative numbers. If
our solution gives negative outputs, it means that more than one unit of a
product is used up in the production of every one unit of that product; it is
definitely an unrealistic situation. Such a system is not a viable. Hawkins-
Simon condition guards against such eventualities. Our basic equation is X =
[I-A]-' F, in order that this does not give negative numbers as a solution, the
matrix [I-A], which in fact is:

-all -au ... -al.

...... .
:
should be such that

i) the determinant of the matrix must always be positive, and

ii) the diagonal elements: (I-a1I), (1-a22),.... (I-a,,) should all be positive or,
in other words, elements, a1 1, a22,. ..,a,, should all be less than one. Thus,
one unit of output of any sector should use not more than one unit of its
own output. These are called Hawkins-Simon conditions. Further, the first
condition, that implies D > 0, implies that (for 2 industry case)
> 0, or, (1-all)(1-az2)-a12 a21 > 0. This condition implies that
the direct and indirect requirement of any commodity to produce one unit
of that commodity must also be less than one. On the other hand, the
interpretation is always that all subgroups of commodities should be 'self
sustaining', directly and indirectly.

Example 1: Suppose [A] =

)

Then [I-A] = [-y9 and the value of the determinant [I-A] = (-) 8.12,
which is less than zero. As the Hawkins-Simon conditions are not satisfied, no
solution will be possible in this case.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Describe the features of a closed input-output model.
i
2) Discuss the importance of Hawkins-Simon conditions in an input-output ~nput-outputAnalysis
I model.
1

3) Suppose [A] = [ ,I: then check whether any solution will be

possible for the system or not.

11.5.3 Consumption Possibility Locus

So long we assumed that the final demands F1 and F2 are given and our main
problem was to determine the gross outputs of the two industries to support
the final demands and also to know whether these gross outputs can be
produced with the given labor force or not. Consider now a different type of
problem. Let us suppose that the total labor supply is fully employed while F1
and F2 are not given. Let us now consider different combinations of F I and F2
which can be obtained from the full employment of the given labor force. The
different combinations of F I and F2 which can be obtained from the full
employment of the given labor force is known as consumption possibility
locus. Let us see how we can derive this consumption possibility locus.
Consider, for simplicity, 2 industry cases. Then equations represent the level
of outputs can be written as X I = a1 1x1+ a12X2+ FI and X2 = a21X1+ a22X2+
(1-all)FI+a12Fz allFl+(l-a21)F2
F2. Therefore, X I = , x2 =
D D
Let us denote the coefficients of F I and F2 in these solutions by A,,, i.e., let,
1-a,, all all 1 -a2,
All = -, A12 = -, A21 = -, and A22 = -. Then the solution can be
D D D D
written as: X I = A11 F I + AI2 F2; and X2 = A21 F I + F2 These A,
coefficients have economic meanings: A, is the direct and indirect input
requirement of the ithcommodity to support one unit of final demand of the jth
6X. 6X
commodity. Note that, A,, = -('d i, j = 1, 2). The derivative --1represents
6F, 617
the change in XI (i=l, 2) if F, Cj=l, 2) is changed by one unit. Thus, if F, Cj=l,
2) is to be changed by 1 unit, we require A1, units of XI and A2, units of X2.
Therefore, if we like to get F1 units of the first commodity and F2 units of the
second commodity, then to meet these final demand the total direct and
indirect requirement of the first commodity is equal to AllFl + AI2F2.
Therefore, the equation X I = A]IF] + AI2F2represents the equality between
the supply and demand in the market for the first commodity. Similar analysis
will be followed for the second commodity. In the same way the equation L =
11x1+ 12x2 can be interpreted as the supply-demand equation for the labor
market. Leontief's model can thus be regarded as a general equilibrium
system of three markets (two commodity markets + one labor market).
 1
Linear Algebra and Economics Let US put the values of XI and X2 as obtained from the solution of the I
Application equations:
F2; and L = 11x1+ 12x2.
XI = allX1+ a12X2+ F1;X2= a21Xl+a22X2+ I
Therefore, L = 11 (All F1 + A12 F2) + 12 (A2] FI + A22 F2). [Substituting the i
values of XI and X2]
Or, L = ALIFl+ AL2F2,where AL1= 11All+ 12 A21; AL2= llA12+ 12 A22 F2.
The coefficients AL1and AL2can be given economic interpretations: ALI(i=l,
2) represents the direct and the indirect requirement of labor to support 1 unit
of final demand of the ith commodity. Alternatively, AL1(i=l, 2) is the. total
labor cost of 1 unit of final demand of the ithcommodity. ALicoefficients are
derived from aij coefficients, which are technologically given. Hence ALIGs are
also technologically given. Since Ah's are given, the equation L = ALIFl+
A L ~ Fis ~the equation of a straight line. This is the equation of the
'consumption possibility locus' (CPL). This equation gives us different
combinations of FI and F2, which can be obtained from the full employment of
the given labor force. The equation can be written as AL2F2= - ALIFl+ L; or,
F2 = - (ALI~ALZ) FI + UALZ
If we plot the above equation on the @I, F2) plane then, we will get a
downward sloping skaight line with absolute slope (AL1/AL2).
A consumption possibility locus can be regarded as a social transformation
curve. If the society desires to consume only F, (i=l, 2), it can consume an
amount equal to UAL,. Because the CPL is a straight line, substitution of FI
and F2 is possible and it takes place at a constant cost. The rate at which F2 is
substituted for F1 is called the marginal rate of substitution (MRS). The MRS
is equal to the absolute value of the slope of the CPL, i.e., (ALI/AL2).This
means that giving up of 1 unit of Fl the society can get (AL1/AL2)units of F2.
This straight-line transformation curve reflects not only the linearity of the
technology but also the presence of only one primary factor and the absence
of joint production.
We know that under the assumption of perfect competition, the MRS between
any two commodities will be equal to the price ratio. Let p, (i=l, 2) represents
the price of the ith commodity. Then we get (pl/p2) = (ALI/AL2).This
represents that the price ratio is equal to the ratio of labor costs of the two
commodities. This is nothing but an expression of the Ricardian labor theory
of value which states that the value of a commodity determined by the amount
of labor embodied in that commodity. It also shows that the relative price is
determined by technological coefficients and is independent of demand. In
other words, whatever may be the composition of the final demand, the price
ratio (pI/p2)remains the same.
Check Your Progress 3
1) In a two-industry input-output model we have the following information:

[I-A]-I =-
0.84r90.~1
I 0.3 0.8
,11= 0.2, 12 = 0.3 and L = 10. Find the equation of
the consumption possibility locus.
 11.5.4 Determination of Equilibrium Prices Input-OutputAnalysis

Let the prices of commodities 1, 2, 3,. .. be pl, p2, p3,...respectively, and the
price of the primary factor inputs be w (here, primary factor is labor; so w
represents wage rate), then the technology matrix or transaction matrix in
quantity may be converted into that in value terms. The problem can be posed
as follows:

With pure competition and free entry, profit in each industry must be zero,
I
i.e., revenues equal costs. Hence, for the first industry receipts are (output x
price) and cost is allXlpl + azlXlp2+ 11x1w . Same is true for the second
industry.
b Hence, for equilibrium; plXl = allXlpl+ a21Xlp2+ llXlw; and p2X2= a12X2pl
+ a22X2p2+ 12X2w,which simplify to pl = allpl + a21p2 + llw; and p2X2 = a12pl
I
+ a22p2 + 12 W,which can be put in matrix form as under:
[I-a11
-a12 1-%2] .I:[= Notice that the set of coefficients here are
transposed, this matrix is transposed of [I-A].

Therefore [;:I
'- ] [:I
I
t = -l = [I-A]-1 I,@
.
i a22
I
I 1
! Therefore, pl = - (A1111 + A1212)w, and p2 = - (A2111+ A2212) W, where A1 I,
f D D
A12, etc., are the cofactors of the matrix [I-A] as in the preceding cases.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Consider the following technology matrix
Steel Coal Final Demand
Steel 0.4 0.1 50
Coal 0.7 0.6 100
Labor 5 2
Determine the equilibrium prices, if the wage rate is Rs. 10 per man day.
Linear *lgebra andApplication
Economics 11.6 LINEAR PROGRAMMING FORMULATION
Leontief s 1-0 model (in case of 2 industries) can be interpreted as a
simplified linear programming model. Suppose that the final demand FI and
F2 are given. The society likes to get these final demands. Now if XI is the
total output of the first industry, then out of this a l l X 1will be used up in the
first industry itself and a12X2will be used up in the second industry. The
amount left is, therefore, (XI-allX1-al2X2) and it must be equal to the final
consumption F1 if this final consumption is to be achieved. From this relation
we get one constraint (1-all) XI -a12X2 2 F1, which will be utilized in the
linear programming formulation. Similarly, for the second industry we can get
another constraint -azlX1 + (1-az2)X2 2 F 2 The gross output levels XI and X2
cannot be negative so that XI 2 0 and X22 0 are the non-negativity conditions.
Consider now the objective function. Here our problem is that the final
demands F1 and F2 are specified. To get these specified final demands we
have to choose gross outputs XI and X2 in such a manner that the total labor
cost is minimized. The labor cost (in money terms) of X1 and X2 is equal to
llXlw + 12x2~. This is the objective function to be minimised.
Thus, in the Leontief model we get a typical linear programming problem,
which can be stated as follows:
1
Minimise W = 11x1~ + 12x2~
Subject to (l-al 1) XI - a12X22 F1
-a2lX1 + (1-a22)X2 2 F2
i
XI 2 0 and X2 10. i
By following the rules regarding the primal problem and the dual problem, the 1
dual of the above primal problem can be written as follows:
Maximise R = ~ I F+Ip2F2
Subject to (l-all) PI - a21p2 P I 11w

Here it is to be noted that minimum value of the objective function in the

primal problem is equal to the maximum value of the objective function in the
dual problem. This means that total value of net output is just imputed as
wages to the scarce factor, labor.

11.7 COEFFICIENT MATRIX AND CLOSED

MODEL
We shall now examine whether we will be able to estimate F or X if the model
is closed one. If the exogenous sector (final demand bill) of the open model is
absorbed into the system of endogenous sectors, the model would turn into a
closed one. In such a model final demand bill and primary inputs will not
appear any more; rather in their place, we shall have the input requirements
and output of this newly conceived industry, the %ousehold industry'
producing the primary input labor. Final demand sector would now be
considered as one of the endogenous sectors. As such now we shall have
(n+l) industries in place of n industries and all producing for the sake of
satisfying the requirements. This will mean, for example, that households will
consume each commodity in fixed proportion to the labor services they
supply.
Let us assume that, there are four industries only - including the new one (of Input-OutputAnalysis
final demand) designated b subscript O(zero).We shall, therefore, have the
following set of equations:
a1X1+ ao2X2 + ~ o ~ X ~ ,a10Xo
XO= ~ O X+O X I =+ a ~ l X +
l a12X2+ a13X3;
X2 = a20Xo + a21Xl + 8 2 2 x 2 + 823x3; and X3 = a30Xo + a31X1 + 832x2 + 833x3.
This gives us a homogenous set of equation system

Since the four rows of the input coefficient matrix happen to be linearly
dependent, 11-A1will turn out to be zero. Hence the solution is indeterminate.
This means that in a closed model no output-mix of each sector exists. We can
at most determine the output levels of endogenous sectors in proportion to one
another, but cannot fix their absolute levels unless additional information is
made available exogenously.

11.8 DYNAMIC INPUT-OUTPUT MODEL

- - - - - .-

The Leontief 1-0 model has appeared in a number of modified forms. We

have discussed above how the model can be changed to an open or close one
by including or ignoring the exogenous sectors. Here we shall discuss a
dynamic form of 1-0 model in which specific account is taken of inter-
relationship of the current and past outputs.
In our static open model, we assumed that current output can be used for
current consumption andlor as current input in production of some other
outputs. But in a dynamic model it is assumed that the current output can also
be used (along with these two purposes) as an addition to industry's inventory
stock and fixed capital formation.
The balance equation will, therefore, be
n
X i = X i l +Xi2+ ...+ Xin+ A C S+ F~i
1-1
n

(Xi), = (Xi I )t + (Xiz), + ...+ (Xi,), + A ( CS ~)tI + (Fi )t

]=I

Here Xi is the total output of the ith(endogenous) producing sector in period t,

which is used for three purposes:
i) as an input for production in economy's n industries, i.e., (Xil), + (Xi2)t +
..- + (Xin)t
ii) as remaining final demand: (Fi ) t (which now includes purchases by
government sector, household and foreign sector).

L11,
iii) as an addition to the stock of n industries: A C S i j . If depreciation is

ignored, the net addition to stock of ithoutput in the n producing sectors

will be equal to the difference between the current year's and last year's
accumulated capital
Linear Algebra and Economies
Application
j=l

Sij
Given the fixed relation between capital and output: bij =- ,
XJ
SO that bij (X,), = (Sij)t and bij (Xj)t-1= (Sij)t.~
Therefore, the balance equation of dynamic model turns out to be:

This is a basic equation of dynamic model representing a set of first order

linear difference equations with constant coefficients: aij's and bijls.
Another way of formulating dynamic model is as follows:
Let the investment demand by sector j be Ijt = bj (Xj,, - Xj,,.l),where bj is the
acceleration coefficient. In matrix notation I = bf(X, - X,,). In the continuous
case the above relation will be I = b'
(f)
-

Ib; :q
Now in order to transform these aggregate figures of capital formation (C.F)
by sector of use to sector of origin or to demand for sectoral outputs, a capital
~ I I b12 ...
formation mat,, has to be defined Lzt it be, B = b;; 1:
bnl brl2 ... b ,,,,

where bji=(demand for jtl' sector's output by it'' sector for C.F)/(C.F in sector i)
dX f
Hence the vector of investment by origin is = B bf(X,- X,.I) or, B b -(in
dt
continuous case).
Hence the Lzontief consistency conditions are
X, = AX, + F, + B b' (X, - [in discrete case]
dX
X = AX + F + B b' - [in continuous case]
dl
Thus, the system may be described in first order difference or differential
equations. However, in a dynamic (model) situation it is better to use the
inequalities to account for over produt fion and excess capacity. Planning for
long-term cannot be reduced to simpie matter of solution of a system of
simultaneous equations as in the input-output case.

1 1 9 LIMITATIONS OF INPUT-OUTPUT
ANALYSIS
i) Errors in forecasting final demand will have grave consequence.
ii) Current relative prices of inputs may not be same as the ones implied in
the table.
iii) The assumption of linear homogenous production function may not be
valid. The technical coefficients will not remain constant even if input
price ratios are held constant in such circumstances.
iv) The coristant coefficient formulation also ignores the possibility of ~nput-OutputAnalysis
industry out-puts reaching capacity, changing prices and input
proportions in the table.
v) The assumption of constant technical coefficients goes counter to the
possibility of substitutions of inputs and factors.
vi) Sectoral division is, for practical purposes, limited. Such a sectorisation
is not good enough for many forecasting purposes.
vii) Sectorisation (grouping of commodities in sectors) is often arbitrary.
The intra-sectoral heterogeneity with respect to technologies, efficiency
and demand is not invariant over time.
viii) Input-output model building is highly costly in terms of time and money.
ix) Regional input-output analysis involves many more assumptions and
difficulties in construction of such tables.

11.10 LETUSSUMUP
This unit tells us about the interrelationship among different industries in the
market. It also shows the way of determining output and price of the product
for each industry, which is the most important thing for this kind of inter
linkage among the industries. Relation between input-output analysis and
linear programming problem reflects the important linkage of two real life
applications of mahix algebra.

11.11 KEY WORDS

Closed and Open Input-Output Model: The 1-0 model that considers 'final
demand bill' as exogenous factor is said to be as open 1-0 model and in closed
1-0 model 'final demand bill' is considered as endogenous factor.
Consumption Possibility Locus: The different combinations of F1 and F2
(final demands) which can be obtained from the full employment of the given
labor force is known as consumption possibility locus.
Dynamic Input-Output Model: In dynamic 1-0 model it is assumed that the
current output can also be used (along with current consumption andlor
current input in production) as an addition to industry's inventory stock and
fixed capital formation.
Hawkins-Simon Conditions: It basically states that more than on unit of a
product cannot be used up in the production of every unit of that product. If A
is the technological coefficient matrix then, according to Hawkins-Simon
condition, determinant of [I-A] must be positive and all principal minors of [I-
A] must also be positive.
Technological Coefficient Matrix: The matrix [aij], which basically
represents input requirement from ith industry to produce one unit output of
jth industry, is known as technological coefficient matrix.

11.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Chiang Alpha C. (1984), Fundamental Methods of Mathematical Economics, Third
edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Archibald, G.C & R.G. Lapse (1976), Introduction to A4athematical Economics:
Methods and Applications, Harper & Row, New York.
Dorman, Samuelson & Sallow, Linear Programming and Economic Analysis,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1958.
Mukherji, B. & V. Pandit, Mathematical Methods for Economic Analysis, Allied
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1982.
Linear Algebra and Economics
Application
11.13 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) See Section 11.2 and answer.
2) See Section 11.2 and answer.

Check Your Progress 2

1) See Section 11.3 and answer
2) See Sub-section 11.5.2 and answer
3) Follow Example 1.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Let Fl and F2 be the final demands for the output of the two industries X
and Y respectively. Then, XI = 0.9X1+ 0.4X2+ FI; X2 = G.3X1+ O.8X2 +
F2; solving these equations for XI and X2 with the help of Cramer's rule
1 1
we get X = [I-A]-IF,i.e.XI = -[0.9F1+ 0.4F2] and X2 = -[0.3F1+
0.84 0.84
0.8F2]
Putting these values of X1 and X2 in the labor supply equation we get and
10 = 0.2xI + o.3x2

8.4 = 0.27F1 + 0.32F2. This is the required equation of the consumption

possibility locus.
Check Your Progress 4

Therefore, price of steel = Rs. 200 per ton and price of coal = Rs. 100 per
ton.
11.14 EXERCISES - - -

1) The input coefficient matrix is of an open input-output system is given as

0.2 0.3 0.2
. If the final demand vector in thousand rupees happens

I:[
to be d = 5 , solve the system for output production.

[Hints: Primary input requirement is Rs. 2 1,000.1

2) Given the input-output matrix and final demand vector as
0.05 0.25 0.34 1800
, find the solution for output levels of

three industries .
 Input-Output Analysis

3) Consider the following inter-industry transactions table:

..
Industry 1 2 Final Consumption Total
1 500 1,600 400 2,500
2 1,750 1,600 4,650 8,000
Labor 250 4,800 ... 5,050
Total 2,500 8,000 5,050 15,500
Construct technology coefficient matrix showing direct requirements.
Does a solution exist for this system?
[Hint: Determine aij = Xij 1 Xj, then construct [A] = [aij].Then evaluate 11-
4.1
Ans: Find the demand vector D in the equation AX + D = X consistent

with the output vector X = and the coefficient mahix A

1
0.2 0.3 0.2

[
= 0.4 0.1 0.2
0.1 0.3 0.2
. Test whether the Hawkins-Simon conditions for the

viability of the system are satisfied.

4) Given A
[. . I
0.1 0.3 0.1
= 0 0.2 0.2
0
and final demands are FI, F2 and F3. Find the

output levels consistent with the model. What will be the output levels if
FI = 20, F:! = 0 and F3= loo?
[Answer: XI = 1.11F1+ 0.42F2 + 0.28F3, X:! = 1.25F2+ 0.36F3, and X3 =
I .43F3]
5) In the above example if final demand changes by 10, 10, 10, then what
will be the change in sector outputs?

7I,.!-
[Hint: X = [I-A]-' F, so, AX = [I-A]-' A F]

[ie4
6) A three sector input-output matrix [I-A] is given as: -0.2 with

labor coefficients (per unit of output) as 0.4, 0.7, 1.2, if the household
demand for the outputs of the 3 sectors is 1000, 5000 and 4000, determine
the level of output and employment.
If the wage rate is Rs. 10 per labor day, find the equilibrium prices.
7) Determine the consumption possibility locus, given the total available
labor supply = 1000 units and the technology matrix is given by A
UINIT 12 LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Linear Programming: Basic Concept
12.3 .Formulation: Structure and Variables of Linear Programming
12.4 Graphic Solution
12.5 Simplex Method
12.6 Duality of Linear Programming
12.7 Economic Importance of Duality
12.8 Duality Theorems
12.9 Zero-sum Games and Linear Programming
12.9.1 Basic Concept
12 9.2 Relationship between Game Theory and Linear Programming
12.10 Let Us Sum Up
12.11 Key Words
12.12 Some Useful Books
12.13 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
12.14 Exercises

The objectives of this unit is to:

enable you to grasp the basic idea of linear programming principles;
explain the difference between different processes of solution and their
application;
introduction to the game theory and basic methods of solution of a game;
and
enable to get the idea about how these mathematical tools are applied in
our basic problems.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Linear programming (LP) is a technique used for deriving optimum use of
limited resources. Specifically, it deals with maximising a linear function of
variables subject to linear constraints. Applications range from economic
planning and environmental management to the diet problem.

12.2 LINEAR PROGRAMMING: BASIC CONCEPT

- -

LP deals with a class of programming problems where both the objective

function to be optimised is linear and all relations among the variables
corresponding to resources are linear.
Remember that optimisation problems consist of two basic features,
viz.,
An objective function that you want to minimise or maximise.
The objective function describes the behavior of the measure of
effectiveness and captures the relationship between that measure