Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

FLIGHT ENVELOPE

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Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3 Phần 4 Phần 5

High Buffet onset Flight Airspeed Altitude
speed chart Envelope Limitation Envelope
shock
stall

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1. High speed shock stall

❑Constant altitude acceleration
Consider an aircraft in constant altitude acceleration phase. In level
flight, the lift balances the weight. The following can thus be written:

L= 1
2  .S .V ².CL = W = m.g
In cruise flight, on the airliners, the speed is generally expressed in
Mach number. To be able to monitor the occurrence of transonic
phenomena via the Mach number.

P
V = a.M =  RT .M = M


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1. High speed shock stall

❑Constant altitude acceleration
The previous lifting equation can therefore be written as:


P.S.M².CL =m.g
2
 = 1 .4  0, 7 P.S .M ².CL = m.g
As the altitude remains constant during acceleration, the pressure P
also remains constant.
To provide the same lift during acceleration, the aircraft must fly
with:
M ².CL = const
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1. High speed shock stall

❑Effect of Mach on the polar curve
Up to Mach 0.7, we can consider a single polar. Beyond this number,
a "collapse of the polar curve" is observed: the drag coefficient
increases whereas the lift coefficient decreases.
CL  0.7
0.75
0.8

0.82

0.84

CD

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1. High speed shock stall

❑Effect of Mach on the polar curve
Consider an aircraft at Mach 0.5, at equilibrium and flying at a certain
angle of attack. It is characterized by a point on the polar curve (point
N). From the operating point N, during a level acceleration, the aircraft
describes the red curve:
CL B: "low" speed stall
 0.7
B 0.75
N 0.8
A: high speed "shock" stall
0.82
A
0.83
0.84

CD
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2. Buffet onset chart

❑Curve CLmax.M² = f(M)
For a given wing, at a given altitude, there is a maximum lift for each
Mach number, reached for the maximum lift coefficient CLmax. This
maximum lift has the following expression:

Lmax = P.S.CL max.M²
2
The term CLmax.M² represents the maximum wing lift capacity; beyond
this capacity, stall occurs.

The curve CLmax.M² = f(M) represents the limit of the flight envelope
for aerodynamic (lift) reasons. It is called "buffet onset chart".

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2. Buffet onset chart

❑Curve CLmax.M² = f(M)
Note: buffeting is a vibration phenomenon annunciating stall at low
speeds as well as high speeds..
Representation of the
CL.M² CLmax = Cst B
buffet onset chart for a
subsonic wing:
̶ For M < 0,7 : CLmax =
Cst – the curve
CLmax.M² is a
parabola. A
̶ For M  0,7 : the
curve CLmax.M² starts
to increase then
collapses.
M
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2. Buffet onset chart

CL.M² Coffin corner
❑Mach range
From the flight point A, the aircraft can:
̶ Accelerate in level flight: M
C B
increases up to the "shock stall" A
point (B); as CL.M² must remain
constant, CL must decrease to
accelerate at constant Mach, the
pilot has to reduce its angle of attack 1M
by pushing the stick forward.
̶ Slow down in level flight: M
decreases up to the "low-speed
stall" point (C); in this case, the pilot
has to increase the angle of attack
by pulling the stick back.

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2. Buffet onset chart

❑Aerodynamic ceiling

In the lift equation: 0, 7 P.S .M ².CL = m.g

If: Altitude ↑  P decrease ↓  CL ↑

Conclusion: The more the altitude increases, the more CL must

increase.

The limit is reached for CLmax (point D), which corresponds to the
maximum flight altitude for the selected mass and speed: this value is
the aerodynamic ceiling and is written Zmax.

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2. Buffet onset chart

❑Aerodynamic ceiling
Absolute
CL.M² ceiling Z

D The curve can be

graduated in
altitude
D: aerodynamic ceiling at a
A
given Mach, mass and load
factor
1 M

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2. Buffet onset chart

❑Maximum mass

In the lift equation: 0, 7 P.S .M ².CL = m.g

If: Mass ↑  CL ↑

Conclusion: The more the altitude increases, the more CL must

increase.

The limit is reached for CLmax (point D), which corresponds to the
maximum mass possible for the selected altitude and Mach. As
observed previously, the curve can be graduated in mass.

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2. Buffet onset chart

❑Maximum mass
CL.M²
m n
D
The curve can be
graduated in mass
or in load factor
A

M
1
D: maximum mass at a given Mach, altitude and load factor

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2. Buffet onset chart

We defined a set of curves giving the limits of the flight envelope for
aerodynamic reasons. For example, at a given mass and altitude, if
the aircraft accelerates, stall will occur for a Mach value displayed on
the curve.

At a given Mach, a pilot cannot select any altitude, or carry out

too close manoeuvres.
At a given altitude or for a given mass, a pilot cannot select a
Mach number too high or too low.

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2. Buffet onset chart

CL.M² Z m n

M
Mstall

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2. Buffet onset chart

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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
The airplane must exhibit acceptable flying qualities at the most critical
loading within the ranges of speed and altitude for which certification is
requested.
− The airline pilot is provided with a safe operational flight
envelope (bounded by certificated limits) that has been
thoroughly explored during flight testing.
− Aerodynamic (stall) limits, Structural (g) limits and Dynamic
pressure (q) limit.

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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
+
"q" Limit
Stall limit

Structural Limit
n
V

- Note: Flight within the “envelope” is

possible
without stalling or damaging the aircraft.
(Safe operating region = inside the box)

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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)

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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
❑ Aerodynamic (stall) limit

o The aerodynamic limit is a “lift limit” and occurs where the aircraft
stalls
o Varies as a function of the square root of weight and load factor
o When stalling while above 1 g, it’s known as an “accelerated stall

2nW
V s ta ll =
  S C L m ax

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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
❑ Aerodynamic (stall) limit
Maximum n available prior to stall
o At any point in flight
CL  SV 2
L = nW =
2
o Solving for n: CL  SV 2
n=
2W
o For a given weight, altitude and aircraft, max n is
CLmax  S Defines stall limit load
nmax = V 2
factor line, not structural
2W limit load factor

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1. Flight envelope
8
❑ Maximum n available
Altitude: Sea Level prior to stall Positive Structural Limit
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Stall speed @ 4g
Corner Velocity
~165 KCAS
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2 Stall speed @Limit
1g
Negative Stall
~80 KCAS
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

Q: Where are the positive and negative stall limits for this aircraft?
Q: What’s
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1. Flight
8 envelope
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
❑ Maximum n available
Weight: 5800 lbs prior to stall
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner Velocity
Shift as h increases
( decreases)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

Q: What happens to stall limit when altitude is increased?
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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
❑ Structural (g) Limit
 Max design load factor (n)
⚫ Positive and negative g limit

 Will vary as a function of weight and configuration

⚫ Heavier gross weight – lower g limit

⚫ Flaps and gear down – lower g limit

⚫ Carrying stores – lower g limit

 Speed or Mach may also effect structural limit

Typical structural limits: Fighter: -3 to +9 g

Transport: -1 to +3 g

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3. Flight
8 Positiveor
envelope (or service envelope, g Limit
performance
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
envelope)
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
No shift as h increases
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4 Negative g Limit
Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots
Q: Where are the positive and negative structural limits for this aircraft?

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3. Flight
8 envelope (or service envelope, or performance
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
envelope)
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit

q Limit
2 Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots

Q: What happens when weight is increased?

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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
❑ Dynamic pressure (q) limit
 Maximum design speed (Mach or CAS or TAS)
⚫ Type and nature depends on specific aircraft
⚫ Critical mach – controllability, mach tuck etc
⚫ Aeroelastic effects – Aileron reversal, flutter, etc
⚫ High q – canopy implosion
⚫ High Mach – Engine limit, directional stability
⚫ Sustained High Mach – too high temperature, heating
 May be affected by load factor

Typical q limits: Fighters: Mach 2.5 (heating)

Transports: ~ Mach 0.8 (critical mach)

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3. Flight
8 envelope (or service envelope, or performance
Altitude: Sea Level Positive Structural Limit
envelope)
Weight: 5800 lbs
6 Clean Configuration

4
Load Factor, n

Positive Stall Limit q limit q Limit

2 Corner Velocity

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2
Negative Stall Limit
Negative Structural Limit
-4

Calibrated Airspeed, Vc, knots May shift as h increases

(M and  changes)
Q: Where is the ‘max q’ limit for this aircraft?
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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
❑ Corner (or Maneuvering) speed

2nmaxW
V =
*

  SCL max

The Corner (or Maneuvering) speed is the velocity at which the stall limit
and the structural limit make a corner on the graph.
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3. Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance

envelope)
❑ V-n usefulness and limitations
 Works well for identifying:
⚫ Instantaneous g capabilities

⚫ g and speed limitations

⚫ Corner (or Maneuvering) speed (point where max turn rate

and min turn radius occur)
 Does not give any indication of:
⚫ Sustained performance

⚫ Actual values for turn rate and radius

 These can be calculated from info on V-n diagram though

⚫ Performance at other weights, altitudes, configurations,

asymmetric load limits etc
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T-38 V-n
3.diagram for
Flight envelope (or service envelope, or performance
9,600 lbs
envelope)
V = 720 EAS / 1.62 Mach
max

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Never Exceed Speed – VNE
IAS which, if exceeded may result in structural damage to the aircraft.
(or Maximum speed under any circumstances).
Displayed on the airspeed indicator as a red line
Situations that may result in the aircraft exceeding this speed:
• High speed descent
• Spiral Dive

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Maximum speed for normal operations – VNO (or
Maximum structural cruising speed)
The normal maximum structural cruising speed which should only be
exceeded in exceptional circumstances and in smooth air.
Displayed on the airspeed indicator where the green arc changes to
the yellow arc
Situations that may result in the aircraft
exceeding this speed:
• High speed descent
• Spiral Dive

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Maximum flap extend speed - VFE
This is the highest airspeed at which the pilot should extend full flaps.
If flaps are operated at higher airspeeds, severe strain or structural
failure could result.
Displayed on the airspeed indicator at the higher end of the white arc.
Situations that may result in the aircraft exceeding this speed:
• Too Fast on approach
• Not retracting the flaps after take off (if
deployed)
• Not retracting the flaps in the event of a
go-around

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Maximum flap operation speed - VFO
This speed limit is only applicable when the flaps are in motion,
This airspeed limitation is not displayed on the airspeed indicator.
Airspeed is found in the pilot operating handbook
Situations that may result in the aircraft exceeding this speed:
• Not knowing the speed limitation
• Not checking the speed prior to deploying the
flaps

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Stall speed- VS
VS0 – Stall speed in the landing configuration
This is the lowest speed permissible in the landing configuration
This airspeed limitation is displayed on the airspeed indicator at the
lower end of the white arc.
Situation that may result in the aircraft slowing to less than Vs0:
• The flare

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Stall speed- VS
VS1 – Stall speed in the cruise configuration
This is the lowest speed permissible in level flight.
This airspeed limitation is displayed on the airspeed indicator at the
lower end of the green arc.
Situation that may result in the aircraft slowing to less than Vs0:
• Climb

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Maximum (or Design) manoeuvring speed - VA
The highest speed at which full control deflection will not overstress
the aircraft
This airspeed is not displayed on the airspeed indicator. Airspeed is
found in the pilot operating handbook
Situation that may result in the aircraft slowing to less thanVA:
• Spiral dive
• Uncorrected undesired aircraft states
It cannot be slower than: VA  VS n and need not be greater than Vc.

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Maximum turbulence penetration speed - VB
The speed (usually only defined for larger passenger carrying aircraft)
above which an aircraft shouldn’t fly in severe turbulence. It is also
usually the maximum permitted value for Vra, which is the
recommended speed for flight in turbulence
This airspeed is not displayed on the airspeed indicator. Airspeed is
found in the pilot operating handbook
Situations that may result in the aircraft exceeding this speed:
• Not aware of weather conditions conducive to turbulence
• Not reducing speed in turbulence

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Design cruising speed or optimum cruise speed - VC
The speed giving the most velocity (i.e greatest distance/time) from a
liter of fuel, usually utilizing 75% power at MTOW. VC is sometimes
indicated to be the normal level flight speed range for the aircraft as
shown by the ASI green band.
Used to show compliance with gust intensity loading – chosen by the
designer and normally based on operational requirements and engine
power availability.
W
VC must not be less 33 than knots where W/S is wing loading (lb/ft2)
S

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4. Airspeed Limitation
❑ Design dive speed - VD
The highest speed planned to be achieved in testing
❑ Demonstrated flight diving speed - VDF
The highest actual speed achieved in testing

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4. Airspeed Limitation

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4. Airspeed Limitation

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5. Altitude Envelope

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5. Altitude Envelope

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5. Altitude Envelope

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