Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

Diode Circuits
Ideal Diode:
Ideally a diode acts as a perfect conductor (zero resistance) when forward biased and
a perfect insulator (infinite resistance) when reverse biased. An ordinary switch has zero
resistance when closed and infinite resistance when open. Therefore, an ideal diode acts like a
switch that closes when forward biased and opens when reverse biased.
Suitable for troubleshooting situations.

The Second Approximation:

No current exists until 0.7 V appears across the diode. The diode is equivalent to a
switch in series with a barrier potential of 0.7 V. If the Thevenin voltage is greater than 0.7 V,
the switch will close. When conducting, then the diode voltage is 0.7 V for any forward
current.
If the Thevenin voltage is less than 0.7 V, the switch will open. In this case, there is no
current through the diode. Used when accurate values for load current and voltage are

needed.

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Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

The Third Approximation:

The bulk resistance RB is included here. When the silicon diode is turned ON, the
voltage increases linearly with an increase in current. The greater the current, the larger the
diode voltage because of the voltage drop across the bulk resistance.
The equivalent circuit is a switch in series with a barrier potential of 0.7 V and a
resistance of RB. When the diode voltage is larger than 0.7 V, the diode conducts. During
conduction, the total voltage across the diode is
VD = 0.7 V + ID RB
As the bulk resistance is less than 1Ω, it can be ignored in the calculations.
For better accuracy or a computer solution for almost exact answers.

DC Resistance of a diode:
It is the ratio of total diode voltage to total diode current. In the forward direction, it is
symbolized by RF and in the reverse direction, RR.
Forward Resistance – The dc resistance decreases as the current increases. The forward
current is low compared to reverse resistance.
Reverse Resistance – The dc resistance decreases as we approach breakdown voltage.
DC Resistance vs Bulk Resistance –
The dc resistance of a diode equals bulk resistance plus the effect of barrier potential.
In other words, the dc resistance of a diode is its total resistance, whereas the bulk resistance
is the resistance of only the p and n regions. Therefore, the dc resistance of a diode is always
greater than the bulk resistance.

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Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

Load Lines:
A tool used to find the exact value of diode current and voltage.

The current through the resistor is

ID = (VS – VD) / RS
Because of the series circuit, the current is the same through the diode.
When VD = 0, we get saturation point (maximum current) and when ID=0, cutoff point
(minimum current). All such points lie on a straight line called load line.
The Q Point – The point of intersection of the load line and diode curve is known as a Q
point. Q is an abbreviation for quiescent which means “at rest”.

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Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

Clippers and Limiters:

The diodes used in low-frequency power supplies are rectifier diodes. The diodes
which are optimized for use at high frequencies and have power ratings less than 0.5W are
small-signal diodes.
The Positive Clipper-
A Clipper is a circuit that removes either positive or negative parts of a waveform.
This kind of processing is useful for signal shaping, circuit protection, and communications.
The circuit which removes all the positive parts of the input signal is a positive
clipper.

How the circuit works-During the positive half cycle, the diode turns on and looks like a
short across output terminals. Ideally, the output voltage is zero. On the negative half cycle,
the diode is open. In this case, a negative half cycle appears across the output.
To a second approximation, the diode voltage is 0.7V when conducting. Therefore, the
clipping level is not zero, but 0.7V.
For a clipper to work properly, we will use this definition

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The Negative Clipper-

This clipper removes the negative parts of the signal. Ideally, the output waveform
has only the positive half cycles. Because of the diode offset voltage, the clipping level is at -
0.7V.

The Limiter or Diode Clamp-

This clipper is useful for waveshaping. The normal input to this circuit is a signal with
a peak of only 15mV. Therefore, the normal output is the same signal because neither diode
is turned during the cycle.
If the input signal tries to rise above 0.7V, the output is limited to 0.7V. If the input
signal tries to drop below -0.7V, the output is limited to -0.7V. In a circuit like this, normal
operation means that the input signal is always smaller than 0.7V in either polarity.
Examples of sensitive circuits are op amp, moving-coil meter etc.
A diode clamp clamps or limits a voltage to a specified range. With a diode clamp, the diodes
remain off during normal operation. These diodes conduct only when something is abnormal,
when the signal is too large.

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Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

Biased Clippers-
A bias means applying an external voltage to change the reference level of a circuit.
By adding a dc voltage source in series with the diode, we can change the clipping level. The
new V must be less then VP for a normal operation. With an ideal diode, conduction starts
soon as the input voltage is greater the V. To a second approximation, it starts when the input
voltage is greater than +0.7V.

Combination Clipper-
This combines the two biased clippers. Diode D1 clips off positive parts above the
positive bias level, and diode D2 clips off parts below the negative bias level. When the input
voltage is very large compared to the bias levels, the output signal is a square wave.

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Clampers:
A clamper adds a dc voltage to the signal.
Positive Clamper-
When a positive clamper has a sine-wave input, it adds a positive dc voltage to the
sine wave. In other words, it shifts the ac reference level up to a dc level. The effect is to have
an ac voltage centered on a dc level. This means that each point on the sine wave is shifted
upward, as shown on the output wave. The following figure shows an equivalent way of a
positive clamper. An ac source drives the input side of the clamper. The Thevenin voltage of
the clamper output is the superposition of a dc source and an ac source. The ac signal has a dc
voltage of VP added to it. This is why the entire sine wave has shifted upward so that it has a
positive peak of 2VP and a negative peak of zero.

In a positive clamper, the capacitor is initially uncharged. On the first negative half cycle of
the input voltage, the diode turns on. At the negative peak of the ac source, the capacitor has
fully charged and its voltage is VP.

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Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

Negative Clamper-
When the capacitor voltage reverses, the circuit becomes a negative clamper. If the
diode points downward as the same direction as the shift of the sine wave, it is a negative
clamper. When the diode points up, the waveform shifts up and we have a positive clamper.

Television receivers use a clamper to change the reference level of video signals. Clampers
are also used in radar and communication circuits.

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Analog and Digital Electronics (19CST35) – MODULE 1 2020

Fixed Bias (Base Resistor Bias)

The Figure shows the fixed bias circuit. It is the simplest d.c. bias configuration
In the base circuit,
Apply KVL, we get
VCC = IBRB + VBE
Therefore,
IB = (VCC - VBE)/RB
For a given transistor, VBE does not vary significantly during use. As VCC is of fixed value, on
selection of RB, the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type of
circuit.
Collector to Base Bias
The collector to base bias circuit is same as base bias circuit except that the base resistor R B is
returned to collector, rather than to VCC supply as shown in the figure below.

This circuit helps in improving the stability considerably. If the value of IC increases, the
voltage across RL increases and hence the VCE also increases. This in turn reduces the base
current IB. The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal collector current IC can be
calculated as follows.
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Voltage drop across RL will be

RL=(IC+IB)RL≅ICRL
This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the gain of the amplifier. So the
increased stability of the collector to base bias circuit is obtained at the cost of AC voltage
gain.
Voltage Divider Bias Method
Among all the methods of providing biasing and stabilization, the voltage divider bias
method is the most prominent one. Here, two resistors R1 and R2 are employed, which are
connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor RE employed in the emitter provides
stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R 1 and R2. The voltage
drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base current and hence
collector current flow in the zero signal conditions. The figure below shows the circuit of
voltage divider bias method.

Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base current IB is very small,
therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing through R2 is also
I1.

Multivibrator
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state devices
such as relaxation oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It consists of two amplifying
devices (transistors, vacuum tubes or other devices) cross-coupled
by resistors or capacitors. The first multivibrator circuit, the astable multivibrator oscillator, was
invented by Henri Abraham and Eugene Bloch during World War I. They called their circuit a
"multivibrator" because its output waveform was rich in harmonics.
The three types of multivibrator circuits are:

• Astable multivibrator, in which the circuit is not stable in either state —it continually
switches from one state to the other. It functions as a relaxation oscillator.

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• Monostable multivibrator, in which one of the states is stable, but the other state is
unstable (transient). A trigger pulse causes the circuit to enter the unstable state. After
entering the unstable state, the circuit will return to the stable state after a set time. Such a
circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external
event. This circuit is also known as a one shot.
• Bistable multivibrator, in which the circuit is stable in either state. It can be flipped from
one state to the other by an external trigger pulse. This circuit is also known as a flip-flop. It
can store one bit of information, and is widely used in digital logic and computer memory.

A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a “HIGH” state and a “LOW” state producing a
continuous output.

There are basically three types of clock pulse generation circuits:

• Astable – A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but switches
continuously between two states this action produces a train of square wave pulses at a
fixed frequency.
• Monostable – A one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state and is triggered
externally with it returning back to its first stable state.
• Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that produces a single pulse either
positive or negative in value.

Monostable Multivibrator using 555 Timer

Circuit and Operation

The following figure is the schematic of IC 555 as a Monostable Multivibrator. This is the basic
mode of operation of the IC 555. It requires only two extra components to make it work as a
monostable multivibrator: a resistor and a capacitor.

As the name specifies, a monostable multivibrator has only one stable state. When a trigger
input is applied, a pulse is produced at the output and returns back to the stable state after a time
interval. The duration of time for which the pulse is high will depend on the timing circuit that
comprises of a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C).
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The details of the connection are as follows. The pins 1 and 8 are connected to ground and
supply (VCC) respectively. Output is taken at pin 3. To avoid accidental reset of the circuit, pin
4 is connected to the VCC. Pin 5, which is the control voltage input, should be grounded when
not in use. To filter the noise, it is connected to the ground via a small capacitor of capacitance
0.01µF.

Active Filters

Almost all communication systems use filters. A filter passes one band of frequencies while
rejecting another. A filter can be either passive or active. Passive filters are built with resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. They are generally used above 1 MHz, have no power gain, and are
relatively diffi cult to tune. Active filters are built with resistors, capacitors, and op amps. They
are useful below 1 MHz, have power gain, and are relatively easy to tune. Filters can separate
desired signals from undesired signals, block interfering signals, enhance speech and video,
and alter signals in other ways.

An active filter is a type of analog circuit implementing an electronic filter using active
components, typically an amplifier. Amplifiers included in a filter design can be used to
improve the cost, performance and predictability of a filter.
Active filters can implement the same transfer functions as passive filters. Common transfer
functions are:

• High-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies below their cut-off points.

• Low-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies above their cut-off points.
• Band-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies both above and below those they allow to pass.
• Band-stop filter (Notch filter) – attenuation of certain frequencies while allowing all others
to pass.

Relaxation Oscillator

Definition: A relaxation oscillator is basically a non-linear oscillator that has the ability to
generate a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform at its output. Such as triangular wave, square
wave etc. These are also known as non-sinusoidal waveform generators.

A relaxation oscillator operates in such a way that it generates oscillations by charging the
capacitor and quickly discharging it after attaining a pre-determined threshold voltage.

The figure below will help you to understand the conceptual idea of the relaxation oscillator:

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Here we can see a capacitor is placed that stores the energy supplied by the external source in
one phase and releases that particular energy in another phase.

Basically, at the time of charging of the capacitor, the bulb connected to the circuit does not get
illuminated. But at the time of discharging of the capacitor, the bulb starts flashing for a time
period determined by the RC time constant.

This operating principle is adopted by the relaxation oscillator.

Relaxation oscillator is defined as a circuit that generates an output signal whose

frequency depends on charging of a capacitor. If we increase the RC time constant, it takes
longer for the capacitor voltage to reach the trip points. Therefore, the frequency is lower. By
making R adjustable, we get a 50:1 tuning range.

Introduction of Schmitt Triger

When operating an Op-Amp in the open loop mode where a feedback is not used, for example,
in a Basic Comparator Circuit, the very large open loop gain of the Op-Amp will cause the
smallest of noise voltage to trigger the comparator.

If the comparator is being used as a Zero Crossing Detector, then such false triggering can
cause a lot of problems. It may give a wrong indication of Zero Crossing due to zero crossing of
the noise rather than the actual input signals’ zero crossing.

To avoid such unnecessary switching between high and low states of the output, a special
circuit called Schmitt Trigger is used, which involves a positive feedback.

What is Schmitt Trigger?

Schmitt Trigger was invented by Otto Schmitt early 1930’s. It is an electronic circuit that adds
hysteresis to the input-output transition threshold with the help of positive feedback. Hysteresis
here means it provides two different threshold voltage levels for rising and falling edge.

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Essentially, a Schmitt Trigger is a Bi-stable Multivibrator and its output remains in either of the
stable states indefinitely. For the output to change from one stable state to other, the input signal
must change (or trigger) appropriately.

This Bistable operation of the Schmitt Trigger requires an amplifier with positive feedback (or
regenerative feedback) with a loop gin greater than one. Hence, Schmitt Trigger is also known
as Regenerative Comparator.

For example, if we have a noisy input signal as shown below, the two thresholds of the Schmitt
Trigger Circuit will correctly determine the pulses. Hence, the basic function of a Schmitt
Trigger is to convert noisy square, sine, triangular or any periodic signals into clean square
pulses with sharp leading and trailing edges.

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