Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Calculating Decadal Growth Rate

Decadal Growth Rates (DGR) are often used to evaluate and compare population growth or
Christian growth rates. You will need data for a ten year period to calculate DGR. The
attached .pdf file explains how to do the calculation.

Equation #1: Simplified Decadal Growth Rate

If you have data that is ten years apart use this equation to obtain the growth rate for the
decade, Decadal Growth Rate (DGR):

DGR = Decadal Growth Rate in %

𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜 Pn = Population now
𝐷𝐺𝑅 = ( ) × 100 Po = Population originally
𝑃𝑜
Pn and Po are ten years apart

Equation #2: General Decadal Growth Rate

If you have data that is not ten years apart, this equation can be used to obtain an adjusted
growth rate so it can be compared with other decadal growth rates (DGRa)
.

DGRa = Decadal Growth Rate (Adjusted for

10
𝑃𝑛 𝑁 comparison) in %
𝐷𝐺𝑅a = {( ) − 1} × 100 Pn = Population now
𝑃𝑜 Po = Population originally
N = Interval between Pn and Po in years

Projected Growth
If you wish to calculate projected growth to some point in the future, first calculate the
Annual Growth Rate (R) with Equation #3 and then calculate the Projected Growth (Pf) with
Equation #4.

Equation #3: Annual Growth Rate

1 R = Annual Growth Rate (in %)

𝑃𝑛 𝑁 Pn = Population now
𝑅 = {( ) − 1} × 100
𝑃𝑜 Po = Population originally
N = Interval between Pn and Po in years

Pf = Population in the future

𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑛 (1 + 𝑟)N Pn = Population now
r = Annual growth rate (as a decimal)
N = Interval between Pn and Pf in years

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Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Example 1:
Suppose your average attendance in 2003 is 400 and your average attendance in 1993
was 175. What is your decadal growth rate?

The data is ten years apart (2003 – 1993 = 10) so use Formula #1
Pn = Population now = 400
Po = Population originally = 175
𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜
𝐷𝐺𝑅 = ( ) × 100
𝑃𝑜

400 − 175
𝐷𝐺𝑅 = ( ) × 100
175

225
𝐷𝐺𝑅 = ( ) × 100
175

𝐷𝐺𝑅 = (1.2857) × 100

DGR = 128.57% = 129%

(DGR is usually reported in whole numbers so round up to the nearest whole number)

Example 2:
Suppose your average attendance in 2003 is 850 and your average attendance in 1998
was 500. What is your decadal growth rate?

Data is not ten years apart so use Formula #2

Pn = Population now = 850
Po = Population originally = 500
N = 2003 – 1998 = 5
10
𝑃𝑛 𝑁
𝐷𝐺𝑅a = {( ) − 1} × 100
𝑃𝑜
10
850 5
𝐷𝐺𝑅a = {( ) − 1} × 100
500
𝐷𝐺𝑅a = {(1.7)2 − 1} × 100

𝐷𝐺𝑅a = {(2.89) − 1} × 100

𝐷𝐺𝑅a = {1.89} × 100

𝐷𝐺𝑅a = 189%

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Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Example #3:
Suppose your average attendance in 1998 was 500 and your average attendance in 2003
is 850. If you continue to grow at the same rate, what would your average attendance
be in 2010?

Begin by calculating the annual growth rate using Equation #3.

R = Annual Growth Rate (in percent)
Pn = Population now = 850
Po = Population originally = 500
N = Interval between Pn and Po in years = 5
1
𝑃𝑛 𝑁
𝑅 = {( ) − 1} × 100
𝑃𝑜
1
850 5
𝑅 = {( ) − 1} × 100
500
𝑅 = {(1.7)0.2 − 1} × 100

𝑅 = {0.112} × 100

𝑅 = 11.2%

Continue by using the decimal form of this rate (0.112) and calculate projected growth with Equation #4.

Pf = Population in the future

Pn = Population now = 850
N = Interval between Pn and Pf in years = 7
r = annual growth rate in decimal form = 0.112

𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑛 (1 + 𝑟)N

𝑃𝑓 = 850 X (1 + 0.112)7

𝑃𝑓 = 850 X (1.112)7

𝑃𝑓 = 850 X (2.103)

𝑃𝑓 = 1785

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Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Example #4:
A town of 2,25,000 population in 1981 has exhibited a decadal growth ratio of 25% and
30% during 1991 and 2001 respectively. Estimate the population in 2011 having 40%
decadal growth rate:

(1) 3,50,000
(2) 6,14,250
(3) 5,11,875
(4) 4,50,000

Solution :
Pf = Population in the future
Pn = Population now = 2,25,000
N = Interval between Pn and Pf = 1

For year 1981

r = annual growth rate in decimal form =25% = 0.25 for 1981-91
Pf = ?
Pn = 2,25,00

𝑃𝑓 = 2,25,000(1 + 0.25)1 = 2,81,250

For year 1991
r = annual growth rate in decimal form =30% = 0.3 for 1991-2001
Pf = ?
Pn = 2,81,250

𝑃𝑓 = 2,81,250(1 + 0.3)1 = 3,65,625

For year 2001
r = annual growth rate in decimal form =40% = 0.4 for 2001-2011
Pf = ?
Pn = 3,65,625

𝑃𝑓 = 3,65,625(1 + 0.4)1 = 5,11,875

Note : Population in the future for year 2001 = Population now for year2011

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Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Calculations and the Laws of Illumination

Terms

Terms unit 1. Luminous Intensity (I)

 Luminous Intensity (I)  Candela (cd)  The illuminating power of a light source
 Luminous flux (F)  Lumen (lm) 2. Luminous flux (F)
 Illuminance (E)  Lux (lx)  The flow of light measured in lumens
 Luminance (L)  Nit (nt) 3. Illuminance (E)
 The measure of light falling on a surface
4. Luminance (L)
 The measured brightness of a surface

The laws

There are 2 important laws in illumination, these are:

1. Inverse Square Law
2. Cosine Law

Inverse Square Law

 The inverse square law can be calculated by:
9A
I
E lux 4A
d2 P
A

1d
 Where E is illuminance 2d
3d
 I is Luminous intensity
 d is distance
Example 1 - The illuminance on a surface directly below a point source is 400 lux. If
the distance between the light source and the surface is 2m, what is the intensity of the
light source?
Solution :-
 The solution assumes that the lamp is a filament or energy saver type.
 A long fluorescent type does not use this law
I
E lux
d2

I  Ed2

I  400 4 I  1600cd

Example 2: A standard incandescent lamp having a luminous intensity of 100 cd in

all directions gives an illuminance of 40 lux at the surface of a bench vertically below
the lamp.
1. What distance is the lamp above the bench?
Solution :-
I
1. Since E  2
d
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Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

I 100 d  1.58m
d d
E 40

Cosine Law
 This method allows us to calculate the illuminance with one or more lamps or with
reflection from surroundings. b
c

I
E  cos
d2 ?

Problem with Cosine Law

 With the Cosine Law, d is difficult to measure so we use Pythagorasa to determine the
height.
h
Since :- cos  ?
d
d
d h
And: h
cos
I I
Equation becomes: E  cos E  cos 3
h 2 h2
( )
cos
Example 3: An incandescent lamp is suspended 3m above a level workbench and is
fitted with a reflector so that the luminous intensity is 400cd.
I = 400cd
Calculate the illuminance at point a and also at point b
Solution : ?

I
Point a E In this case d = h h = 3m
d

d2
I 400
E E  44.4lx
h2 9
a 4m b

I I
Point b E  cos E  0.6
d2 d2

400
E  0.6 E = 9.6 lx
25

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Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Statement for Linked Answer Questions 54 and 55: gate 2013

A room of size 100 m2is illuminated by 10 lamps of 40 W having a luminous efficacy of 50

lm/W.

Q.54 Total flux emitted by the lamps in lumens would be

(A) 2,000 (B) 5,000
(C) 10,000 (D) 20,000
Answer (D)

Q.55 If utilization factor is 0.5, at a working height of 90 cm above the floor level, the
illumination in lux would be
(A) 100 (B) 200
(C) 500 (D) 1000
Answer (A)

Explanation:-

Work area = A Formula

Required Illumination = E
Lumen output of lamp = O E A
Coefficient of utilization = cu N
O  cu  mf
Maintenance factor = mu
Number of lamps = N

We know that
Work area = A = 100 m2
Number of lamps = N = 10 lamps

Required Illumination = E
Lumen output of lamp = O
Coefficient of utilization = cu
Maintenance factor = mf ( Not given)

Q.54 Total flux emitted by the lamps in lumens would be

 1 lamp emits = 40 W X 50 lm/W.
 10 lamps emits = 10 X 40 W X 50 lm/W = 20,000 lm
(Lumen output of lamp = O)

Q.55 If utilization factor is 0.5, at a working height of 90 cm above the floor level, the
illumination in lux would be
N  cu  O 10  0.5  (40  50)
E E  100lm
A 100

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 Principles of city planning
1. Urban area is primarily the seat of political, religious, commercial and cultural
leaders of the society.
2. Village- Human settlement not exceeding 5000 population.
Principle occupation is agriculture
3. Towns- principles occupation is other than agriculture
5000<population> 20000
Medium town-20000-50000
Large town-50000-100000
4. Central village- More than 2000 population
Supplies, trade, institution.
5. New town- newly established for the purpose of specific economic
activities, for deconcentrating the population of large urban
settlement and reconcentrating in a separate location.
6. City- population>100000
New towns
1. Town planning is a science consists in collecting, correlating and analyzing the
facts about a town.
2. The art lies in arranging the components of a town in such away that the final
result is in the form of a beautiful, convenient, economical and efficient unit.
3. The town planning express the life of an area and the architecture reveals its
spirit.
4. Mohanjo – daro was discovered by british archaeologist sir john marshall in 1922.
5. population of mohanjo – daro (2600 BC) was estimated as 40000 – 60000
6. Objects of town planning
- Beauty
- Convenience
- Environment
- Health
7. Principles of town planning
- Green belt
- Housing
- Public buildings
- Recreation centers
- Road system
- Transport facilities
- Zoning
8. topological features contributing to the origin of towns are
- Conditions favorable for industrial units.
- Hilly areas to achieve the object of security.
- Plain areas useful for business activities.
- River banks
- Sea or ocean fronts.
9. functional aspects responsible for the origin and towns are
- education
- health resorts
 - political
- religious
10. growth of towns
1. natural – with out any future planning
• concentric spread
• Ribbon development – along main roads
• Satellite growth – individual
• scattered growth – irregular
2. Planned growth – controlled
- rules and regulation
- distribution

Site planning

 Principles
1. Keeping in view the purpose of building
2. Fast developing, social and friendly neighborhood
3. Where community services, utilities, amenities, means of transport are
available
4. With in the limits of area, building byelaws
5. With possibilities of future extension
6. Situation on elevated place, with uniform slopes
7. Good soil surface for foundation
8. Naturally beautiful and man made environment
9. Good landscape and away from quarries, kilns, factories
10. Consider legal, financial aspects. (ownership rights)

 Site plan should include the information of

1. The boundary of the plot, shape of the site and exterior house dimensions
2. Set back line at the front, back and sites
3. Any permanent boundaries or marks
4. Names and widths of existing streets, grade elevation at centre line
5. Size and location of garages
6. Number of plot, block
7. Directions of prevailing winds and north line
8. Foot paths, widths and kinds
9. Zoning and building restrictions
10. Size and location details of gas line, underground drainage, water mines,
man holes, ventilating pipes
11. Location of fire hydrant
 Planning regulations and building byelaws

1. Lines of building frontages

Building line – line up to which the plinth of a building adjoining a street or

an extension of street.
Control line – extra margin from building line which attracts vehicle
parking.

Type of road Actual limits in urban

areas
Building line Control line
National and state 30 m 45 m
highways
Major district roads 15 m 24 m
Other district roads 9m 25 m
Village roads 9m 15 m

2. Built up area of buildings

Built-up or covered area = plot area – open spaces

Floor area ratio, FAR = covered area of all floors x100

Plot area
In a business area, the covered area shall not exceed 75% of plot area
In an industrial, the covered area shall not exceed 60%
In a residential area,

Area of plot
Less than 200 SQm 60%
200 – 500 50%
500 – 1000 40%
More than 1000 33.33%
 -1-

PERT/CPM
PERT – Program Evaluation & Review Technique – It is generally used for those projects where time required
to complete various activities are not known as a priori. It is probabilistic model & is primarily concerned for
evaluation of time. It is event oriented.

CPM – Critical Path Analysis – It is a commonly used for those projects which are repetitive in nature & where
one has prior experience of handling similar projects. It is a deterministic model & places emphasis on time & cost
for activities of a project.
• A project can be defined as a set of large number of activities or jobs (with each activity consuming
time & resources) that are performed in a certain sequence determined.
• A network is a graphical representation of a project, depicting the flow as well as the sequence of well-
defined activities & events.
• An activity (Also known as task & job) is any portion of a project which consumes time or resources
and has definable beginning & ending.
• Event (Also known as node & connector) is the beginning & ending points of an activity or a group
of activities.

Steps for drawing CPM/PERT network:

1. Analyze & break up of the entire project into smaller systems i.e. specific activities and/or events.
2. Determine the interdependence & sequence of those activities.
3. Draw a network diagram.
4. Estimate the completion time, cost, etc. for each activity.
5. Identify the critical path (longest path through the network).
6. Update the CPM/PERT diagram as the project progresses.

Network Representation:

Each activity of the project is represented by arrow pointing in direction of progress of project. The events of the
network establish the precedence relationship among different activities.
Three rules are available for constructing the network.

Rule 1. Each activity is represented by one & only one, arrow.

Rule 2. Each activity must be identified by two distinct events & No two or more activities can have the same tail
and head events.
Following figure shows how a dummy activity can be used to represent two concurrent activities, A & B. By
definition, a dummy activity, which normally is depicted by a dashed arrow, consumes no time or resources.
Dummy activity is a hypothetical activity which takes no resource or time to complete. It is represented by broken
arrowed line & is used for either distinguishing activities having common starting & finishing events or to identify &
maintain proper precedence relationship between activities that are not connected by events.

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 -2-

Inserting dummy activity in one four ways in the figure, we maintain the concurrence of A & B, and provide unique
end events for the two activities (to satisfy Rule 2).

Rule 3. To maintain correct precedence relationship, the following questions must be answered as each activity is
added to the network:
(a) What activities must be immediately precede the current activity?
(b) What activities must follow the current activity?
(c) What activities must occur concurrently with the current activity?

The answers to these questions may require the use of dummy activities to ensure correct precedences among
the activities. For example, consider the following segment of a project:
1. Activity C starts immediately after A and B have been completed.
2. Activity E starts only after B has been completed.
Part (a) of the figure above, shows the incorrect representation of the precedence relationship because it requires
both A & B to be completed before E can start. In part (b) the use of dummy rectifies situation.

Question 1: What do you mean by a dummy activity? Why it is used in networking? (4 Marks) May/08
Question 2: Depict the following dependency relationships by means of network diagrams.(The Alphabets stands
for activities)
1. A and B control F; B and C control G.
2. A and B control F; B controls G while C controls G and H.
3. A controls F and G; B controls G while C controls G and H.
4. A controls F and G; B and C control G with H depending upon C.
5. F and G are controlled by A, G and H are controlled by B with H controlled by B and C.
6. A controls F, G and H; B controls G and H with H controlled by C.
Question 3: Develop a network based on the following information;
Activity Immediate predecessors
A -
B -
C A
D B
E C,D
F D
G E
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 -3-

H F
Question 4: Construct the project network comprised of activities A to L with the following precedence
relationships:
(a) A,B and C, the first activities of the project can be executed concurrently
(b) A & B precede D
(c) B precedes E,F,H
(d) F and C precede G
(e) E and H precede I & J
(f) C,D,F and J precede K
(g) K precede L
(h) I, G, and L are terminal activities of the project.
Question 5: Construct the project network comprised of activities A to P that satisfies the following precedence
relationships:
(a) A,B and C, the first activities of the project can be executed concurrently
(b) D,E and F follow A
(c) I and G follow both B and D
(d) H follows both C & G
(e) K and L follow I
(f) J succeeds both E and H
(g) M and N succeed F, but cannot start until both E and H are completed.
(h) O succeeds both M and I
(i) P succeeds J,L and O
(j) K,N and P are the terminal activities of the project.
Question 6: A publisher has a contract with an author to publish a textbook. The simplified (activities) associated
with the production of the textbook are given below. The author is required to submit to the publisher a hard copy
and a computer file of the manuscript. Develop the associated network for the project.

Question 7: A project consists of a series of tasks labeled A, B, …., H, I with the following relationships (W<X, Y
means X and Y cannot start until W is completed; X, Y<W means W cannot start until both X and Y are
completed). With this notation construct the network diagram having the following constraints:
A<D, E; B,D <F; C<G; B<H; F,G<I
Question 8 (Concurrent Activities): The footing of a building can be completed in four consecutive sections.
The activities for each section include (1) digging, (2) placing steel, and (3) pouring concrete. The digging of one
section cannot start until that of the preceding section has been completed. The same restriction applies placing
steel & pouring concrete. Develop the project network.

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 -4-

Numbering the Events (Fulkerson’s Rule)

1. The initial event which has all outgoing arrows with no incoming arrow is numbered “1”.
2. Delete all the arrows coming out from node “1”. This will convert some more nodes into initial events.
Number these events as 2, 3, 4, ….
3. Delete all the arrows going out from these numbered events to create more initial events. Assign the next
numbers to these events.
4. Continue until the final or terminal node, which has all arrows coming in with no arrow going out is
numbered.

Determination of time to complete each activity:

The CPM system of networks omits the probabilistic consideration and is based on a Single Time Estimate of the
average time required to execute the activity.

In PERT analysis, there is always a great deal of uncertainty associated with the activity durations of any project.
Therefore, te estimated time is better described by a probability distribution than by a single estimate. Three time
estimates (from beta probability distribution) are made as follows:

1) The Optimistic Time Estimate (to): Shortest possible time in which an activity can be completed in ideal
conditions. No provisions are made for delays or setbacks while estimating this time.
2) The Most Likely Time (tm): It assumes that things go in normal way with few setbacks.
3) The Pessimistic Time (tp): The max. possible time if everything go wrong & abnormal situations prevailed.
However, major catastrophes such as earthquakes, labour troubles, etc. are not taken into account.

The expected time (mean time) for each activity can be approximated using the weighted average i.e.

Expected Time (te) = (to + 4tm + tp)/6

Forward Pass Computation: It is the process of tracing the network from START to END. It gives the earliest start
& finish times for each activity.

Earliest event time (Ej): The time that event j will occur if the preceding activities are started as early as possible.
Ej is the max. of the sums Ei + tij involving each immediately precedent event i & intervening event ij.

Backward Pass Computation: It is the process of tracing the network starting from LAST node & moving
backward.

Latest event time (Lj): The latest time that event i can occur without delaying completion of beyond its earliest
time. Li is the min. of the differences Li - tij involving each immediately precedent event j & intervening event ij.
E.g. of Earliest event time & Latest event time:
Activity: 1-2 1-3 2-3 2-5 3-4 3-6 4-5 4-6 5-6 6-7
Duration: 15 15 3 5 8 12 1 14 3 14
(Weeks)

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 -5-

• In accordance with Zero Slack Convention, if no schedule date for completion of the project is
specified, then we take L=E for the terminal event of the project.
• It is a convention to keep the earliest allowance time of the START event as zero.
• Flexibility of non critical in case of event is known as slack & in case of activity is term as
float.(Though some writers have used these terms interchangeably).

The critical path can be identified by determining the following four parameters for each activity:
• EST - earliest start time: the earliest time at which the activity can start given that all its precedent
activities must be completed first = Ei
• EFT - earliest finish time, equal to the earliest start time for the activity plus the time required to complete
the activity = EST(i-j) + tij
• LFT - latest finish time: the latest time at which the activity can be completed without delaying (beyond its
targeted completion time) the project = Lj
• LST - latest start time, equal to the latest finish time minus the time required to complete the activity =
LFT(i-j) - tij

CRITICAL PATH: The critical path is the path through the project network in which none of the activities have
float (total float is zero) i.e. A critical path satisfies following 3 conditions:
• EST =LST
• EFT=LFT
• Ej – Ei = Lj – Li = tij

The duration of project is fixed by the time taken to complete the path through the network with the greatest total
duration. This path is known as critical path & activities on it are known as critical activities. A delay in the critical
path delays the project. Similarly, to accelerate the project it is necessary to reduce the total time required for the
activities in the critical path.
Dummy Activity may or may not lie on critical path.

Question 9 (Critical Path): Tasks A, B, C,….., H, I constitute a project. The precedence relationships are
A<D; A<E; B<F; D<F; C<G; C<H; F<I; G<I
Draw a network to represent the project and find the minimum time of completion of the project when time, in
days, of each task is as follows:
Task: A B C D E F G H I
Time: 8 10 8 10 16 17 18 14 9
Also identify the critical path.
[Ans.: Critical path is 1-2-4-5-6 with 44 days]

Question 10: A project consists of seven activities for which relevant data are given below:
(i) Draw the network (5 Marks)
(ii) Name and highlight the critical path.
Activity Preceding activity Activity duration (days)
A 4
B 7
C 6
D A, B 5
E A, B 7
F C, D, E 6
G C, D, E 5 (1Mark)Nov2006
[Ans.: B. E,F = 20 days]
Question 11 (Forward and Backward Pass): A project schedule has the following characteristics:
Activity Time (weeks) Activity Times (week)
1-2 4 5-6 4

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 -6-

1-3 1 5-7 8
2-4 1 6-8 1
3-4 1 7-8 2
3-5 6 8-9 1
4-9 5 8-10 8
9-10 7
(i) Construct the PERT network
(ii) Compute E and L for each event;
(iii) Float for each activity; and
(iii) Find critical path and its duration. (10 Marks) May/2000
[Note: Float is to be calculated only after going through below text]
[Ans.: Critical path is 1-3-5-7-8-10 with 25 weeks]

The total float time for an activity is the time between its earliest and latest start time, or between its earliest and
latest finish time. It is the amount of time that an activity can be delayed past its earliest start or earliest finish
without delaying the project. = LST-EST or LFT-EFT = LFT-EST-tij = LFT- (EST+tij)

The slack time or slack of an event in a network is the difference the latest event time & earliest event time i.e. Li-
Ei

The free float time of an activity is equal to the amount by which its duration can be increased without affecting
either the project time or the time available for the subsequent activities. It indicates the value by which an activity
can be delayed beyond the earliest starting point without affecting the earliest start, & therefore, the total float of
the activities following it. = Total Floatij – (Slack of event j)

The independent float time of an activity is the amount by which the duration of an activity could be extended
without affecting the total project time, the time available for subsequent activities or the time available for the
preceding activities. = [Free Floatij – (Slack of event i)] or ZERO, whichever is higher. Also EST of following
activity – LFT of preceding activity – Duration of current activity or Zero, whichever is higher.

The interfering float time is the part of total float which causes a reduction in the float of successor activities. It is
that portion of the activity float which cannot be consumed without affecting adversely the float of the subsequent
activity or activities. = LFT – (EST of following activity) or ZERO, whichever is higher.
While calculating floats, for just for our simplifying computations, we can write values of Slack of event j in
column wherein we are supposed to write interfering float.

Subcritical Activity: Activity having next higher float than the critical activity.

Supercritical Activity: These Activities have negative float. It results when activity duration is more than time
available. It indicates abnormal situation requiring as to how to compress the activity.

Subcritical path: The path with the next least floats than critical path is subcritical path.
Float Calculation

Event Oriented Activity Oriented

Here Activities are shown as i-j, where i is tail Here Activities are generally shown via
event & j is head event e.g. 1-2, 2-3, etc. here alphabets e.g. A, B, C, etc.
activity is between 1-2 though starting/tail
event(i) is 1 & head/ending event(j) is 2.

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 -7-

Question 12 (Floats): The utility data for a network are given below. Determine the total, free, independent and
interfering floats and identify the critical path.
Activity: 0-1 1-2 1-3 2-4 2-5 3-4 3-6 4-7 5-7 6-7
Duration: 2 8 10 6 3 3 7 5 2 8
[Ans.: Critical Path is 0-1-3-6-7 with 27]
Question 13: For the network given below, compute E and L for each event & determine the total, free,
independent and interfering floats and identify the critical path.

Question 14: The following table gives the activities in a construction project and the time duration of each
activity:
Activity Preceding activity Normal Time (Days)
A - 16
B - 20
C A 8
D A 10
E B, C 6
F D, E 12
Required:
(i) Draw the activity network of the project.
(ii) Find critical path.
(iii) Find the total float and free-float for each activity. (6 Marks) Nov/07
[Ans.: (ii) A-C-E-F = 42 days.(iii) Total Float A-0, B-4, C-0, D-4, E-0, F-0; Free Float A-0, B-4, C-0, D-4, E-0, F-0]
Question 15: Given is the following information regarding a project:
Activity A B C D E F G H I J K L
Dependence - - - AB B B FC B EH EH CDFJ K
Duration (days) 3 4 2 5 1 3 6 4 4 2 1 5
Draw the Network Diagram and identify the Critical Path and Project Duration. (Nov/94)
Find the three types of float (viz. Total, Free and Independent) for each activity.
[Ans.: B-H-J-K-L = 16 days]

Probability Estimate: It is used to calculate the probability of completing the time within given duration (Using
Normal Distribution):
Z = (T1 – Tcp)/σt
Where, Z = Standard Normal Variate
T1 = Duration in which we wish to complete the project
Tcp = Duration on critical path
σt = Standard Deviation of the earliest finish of network = Square root of sum of variance of all activity
durations of critical path, where
Variance Distribution (σ2t) = [(tp – to)/6]2
• In case there are two critical paths, variance of separate activities of both of them shall be added for
calculating σt, but for calculating Z, we will take higher of two σt taken above.
• In case of event variance, if there are two longest paths, higher of the two would picked up.

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 -8-

Question 16: If the critical path of a project is 20 months alongwith a standard deviation of 4 months, what is the
probability that the project will be completed within: (a) 20 months (b) 18 months (c) 24 months?
[Ans.: 0.50, 0.31, 0.84]
Question 17: PERT calculation yield a project length of 60 weeks with variance of 9. Within how many weeks
would you expect the project to be completed with probability of 0.99? (That is the project length that you would
expect to be exceeded only by 1% of time if the project were repeated many time in an identical manner).
[Ans.: 67 weeks]
Question 18: Consider the network shown below. The three time estimates for the activities are given along the
arrows. Determine the critical path. What is the probability that the project will be completed in 20 days?

[Ans.: 0.6844]
Question 19: Consider the schedule of activities and related information as given below, for the construction of a
plant:
Activity Expected Time Variance Expected Cost
(Months) (Millions of Rs.)
1-2 4 1 5
2-3 2 1 3
3-6 3 1 4
2-4 6 2 9
1-5 2 1 2
5-6 5 1 12
4-6 9 5 20
5-7 7 8 7
7-8 10 16 14
6-8 1 1 4
Assuming that the cost and time required for one activity is independent of the time an cost of any other activity
are expected to follow normal distribution.
Draw a network based on the above data and calculate:
(a) Critical path
(b) Expected cost of construction of the plant.
(c) Expected time required to build the plant.
(d) The standard deviation of the expected time. (10 Marks) May/01
[Ans.: (a) 1-2-4-6-8; (b) Rs. 80 millions; (c) 20 months; (d) 3 months]
Question 20: A project consists of seven activities and the time estimates of the activities are furnished as under:
Activity Optimistic Most likely Pessimistic
Days Days Days
1-2 4 10 16
1-3 3 6 9
1-4 4 7 16
2-5 5 5 5
3-5 8 11 32
4-6 4 10 16
5-6 2 5 8
Required:
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 -9-

(i) Draw the network diagram.

(ii) Identify the critical path and its duration.
(iii) What is the probability that project will be completed in 5 days earlier than the critical path duration?
(iv) What project duration will provide 95% confidence level of completion (Z0.95 =1.65)?
Given (11 Marks) Nov/08-Old Course
Z 1.00 1.09 1.18 1.25 1.33
Probability 0.1587 0.1379 0.1190 0.1056 0.0918
[Ans.: (ii)Critical Path is 1→3→5→6 & its duration is 25 days (iii) Probability = 11.90%, (iv) 32 days (approx)]
Question 21: The time estimate (in weeks) for the activities of a PERT network are given below:
Activity to tm tp
1-2 1 1 7
1-3 1 4 7
1-4 2 2 8
2-5 1 1 1
3-5 2 5 14
4-6 2 5 8
5-6 3 6 15
(a) Draw the project network and identify all the paths through it.
(b) Determine the expected project length.
(c) Calculate the standard deviation and variance of the project length.
(d) What is the probability that the project will be completed.
1. at least 4 weeks earlier than expected time?
2. no more that 4 weeks later than expected time?
(e) If the project due date is 19 weeks, what is the probability of not meeting the due date?
(f) The probability that the project will be completed on schedule if the scheduled completion time is 20
weeks.
(g) What should be the scheduled completion time for the probability of completion to be 90 %? (Nov.1991)
[Ans.: (c) Variance = 9 & Standard Deviation = 3; (d) (i) 0.0918 (ii) 0.9082 (e) 0.2514 (f) 0.8413 (g) 20.84]
Question 22: Given the following project network, determine:
1. Earliest expected completion time for each event
2. Latest allowable completion time for each event
3. Slack time for each event
4. Critical Path
5. The probability that project will be completed on schedule, if scheduled completion time is 38

(8 Marks) Nov./04
[Hint: Critical Path is 1-2-4-5-7 and probability = 7.93%]

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Question 23: A small project is composed of seven activities, whose time estimates are listed below. Activities
are identified by their beginning (i) and (j) node number.
Activity Estimated durations (in days)
(i-j) Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic
1-2 2 2 14
1-3 2 8 14
1-4 4 4 16
2-5 2 2 2
3-5 4 10 28
4-6 4 10 16
5-6 6 12 30
(a) Draw the project network.
(b) Find the expected duration and variance for each activity. What is the expected project length.
(c) What is the probability that project will be completed at least 8 days earlier than expected?
(d) If the project due date is 38 days, what is the probability of not meeting the due date?
Given: z 0.50 0.67 1.00 1.33 2.00
P 0.3085 0.2514 0.1587 0.0918 0.0228
[Hint: The expected duration of the project = 34 days; Probability of meeting the due date is 9.18%; Probability
not meeting the due date is 25.14%] (7 Marks) Nov/05
Question 24: A project consists of the following activities, whose time estimates are given against each as under:
Estimated duration (weeks)
Activity Optimistic Most likely Pessimistic
1-2 3 6 15
1-3 2 5 14
1-4 6 12 30
2-5 2 5 8
2-6 5 11 17
3-6 3 6 15
4-7 3 9 27
5-7 1 4 7
6-7 4 19 28
Required :
(i) Draw the project net work.
(ii) Find the expected duration and variance of each activity.
(iii) Determine the critical path and the expected project duration.
(iv
What is the probability that the project will be completed in 38 weeks?
)
(v) What project duration will have 95% chance of completion. (Z0.95 = 1.65)
Given : Z 0.21 0.41 0.82
0.0832 0.1591 0.2939 (8 Marks) May/03
[Ans.: (iii) Critical path 1→2→6→7, Expected project duration is 36 weeks. (iv) 66% (v) 44 weeks]
Question 25: An Engineering Project has the following activities, whose time estimates are listed below:
Activity Estimated Duration (in months)
(i-j) Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic
1-2 2 2 14
1-3 2 8 14
1-4 4 4 16
2-5 2 2 2
3-5 4 10 28
4-6 4 10 16
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5-6 6 12 30
(a) Draw the project network and find the critical path.
(b) Find the expected duration and variance for each activity. What is the expected project length?
(c) Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the project length.
(d) What is the probability that the project will be completed at least eight months earlier than expected time?
(e) If the project due date is 38 months, what is the probability of not meeting the due date? Given:
Given: z 0.50 0.67 1.00 1.33 2.00
P 0.3085 0.2514 0.1587 0.0918 0.0228
[Ans.: (i) Critical path 1-3-5-6; (ii) Expected project length 34 months; (iii) Variance 36 months, Standard
Deviation 6; (iv) 9.18%; (v) 25.14%] (10 Marks) Nov./01
Question 26: A civil engineering firm has to bid for the construction of a dam. The activities and their time
estimates are given below:
Activity Optimistic Most likely Pessimistic
1-2 14 17 25
2-3 14 18 21
2-4 13 15 18
2-8 16 19 28
3-4 (dummy) 0 0 0
3-5 15 18 27
4-6 13 17 21
5-7 (dummy) 0 0 0
5-9 14 18 20
6-7 (dummy) 0 0 0
6-8 (dummy) 0 0 0
7-9 16 20 41
8-9 14 16 22
The policy of the firm with respect to submitting bids is to bid the minimum amount that will provide a 95% of
probability of at best breaking-even. The fixed costs for the project are eight lakhs and the variable costs are 9000
every day spent working on the project. The duration is in days and the costs are in rupees.
What amount should the firm bid under this policy? (You may perform the calculations on duration etc., up to two
decimal places) [May 1990]
[Ans.: Rs. 1574000]
Question 27: The optimistic, most likely and pessimistic times of the activities of a project are given below.
Activity 40-50 must not start before 22 days, while activity 70-90 must end by 35 days. The scheduled completion
time of the project is 46 days. Draw the network and determine the critical path. What is the probability of
completing the project in scheduled time?
Activity to-tm-tp Activity to-tm-tp
10-20 4-8-12 50-70 3-6-9
20-30 1-4-7 50-80 4-6-8
20-40 8-12-16 60-100 4-6-8
30-50 3-5-7 70-90 4-8-12
40-50 0-0-0 80-90 2-5-8
40-60 3-6-9 90-100 4-10-16
[Ans.: 10-20-40-50-70-90-100 = 46 days; Probability is 50%]
Question 28[Calculation for this question is lengthy but probability of non-critical event is a good point]:
A PERT network is shown below. The activity times in days are given along with the arrows. The scheduled times
for some important events are given along the nodes. Determine the critical path and probabilities of meeting the
scheduled dates for the specified events. Tabulate the results and determine the slack and for each event.

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 - 12 -

[Ans.: Critical Path is 1-3-4-8-11-12 with project completion time as 26.51 days, Probability of completing the
project in the scheduled completion time of 24 days is 29.54%, Probability that event 3 will occur on scheduled
date is 20.44% & Probability of meeting schedule date of event 5 is less than or equal to 54.89% with minimum of
1.8%]
Question 29: Distinction between PERT and CPM (5 Marks) Nov/98 & (5 Marks) Nov/07
PERT CPM
1. PERT is used for non-repetitive jobs like planning the 1. CPM is used for repetitive job like building a house
assembly of the space. 2. It is a deterministic model.
2. it is a probabilistic model. 3. It is activity-oriented as the result or calculations are
3. It is event-oriented as the results of analysis are considered in terms of activities or operations of the
expressed in terms of events or distinct points in time project.
indicative of progress. 4. It is applied mainly for construction and business
4. It is applied mainly for planning and scheduling problems.
research programmes. 5. CPM does not incorporate statistical analysis in
5. PERT incorporates statistical analysis and thereby determining time estimates, because time is precise
determines the probabilities concerning the time by and known.
which each activity or entire project would be 6. It is difficult to use CPM as a control device for the
completed. simple reason that one must repeat the entire
6. PERT serves as useful control device as it assists evaluation of the project each time the changes are
management in controlling a project by calling attention introduced into the network.
to such delays

Project Crashing: There are usually compelling reasons to complete the project earlier than the originally
estimated duration of critical path computed on the normal basis of a new project.
Direct Cost: This is the cost of the materials, equipment and labour required to perform the activity. When the time
duration is reduced the project direct cost increases.
Activity Cost Slope = (Cc- Nc)÷(Nt-Ct)
Where, Cc = Crash Cost = Direct cost that is anticipated in completing an activity within crash time.
Nc = Normal Cost = This is the lowest possible direct cost required to complete an activity
Nt = Normal Time = Min. time required to complete an activity at normal cost.
Ct = Crash Time = Min. time required to complete an activity.
Indirect Cost: It consists of two parts: fixed cost and variable cost. The fixed cost is due to general and
administrative expenses, insurance, etc. Variable indirect cost consists of supervision, interest on capital, etc.

The total project cost is the sum of the direct & the indirect costs.
Optimum duration is the project duration at which total project cost is lowest.

Question 30: A project is composed of seven activities as per the details given below:
Activity Normal Time Crash Time Normal Cost Crash Cost
(Days) (Days) (Rs.) (Rs.)
1-2 4 3 1500 2000
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1-3 2 2 1000 1000

1-4 5 4 1875 2250
2-3 7 5 1000 1500
2-5 7 6 2000 2500
3-5 2 1 1250 1625
4-5 5 4 1500 2125
Indirect cost per days of the project is Rs. 500.
Required:
(a) Draw the project network.
(b) Determine the critical path and its duration.
(c) Find the optimum duration and the resultant cost of the project. (8 Marks) May/04
[Ans.: (b) Longest path is 13 days; (c) Optimal project duration of 10 days.]
Question 31: The normal time, crash time and crashing cost per day are given for the following network:

Activity Normal Time Crash Time Crashing Cost

(Days) (Days) (Rs./day)
1-2 18 14 40
1-3 23 22 20
2-3 8 5 60
2-4 10 6 40
3-4 3 2 80
4-5 8 6 50
(i) Crash the project duration in steps and arrive at the minimum duration. What will be the critical path and the
cost of crashing?
(ii) If there is an indirect cost of Rs. 70 per day, what will be the optical project duration and the cost of crashing?
[Ans.: (i) Min. Duration is 30 days & total cost of crashing is Rs. 360 (ii) Optimal Duration is 31 days & cost of
crashing is Rs. 280] (10 Marks) Nov/08-New Course
Question 32: A small project consists of jobs as given in the table below. Each job is listed with its normal time
and a minimum or crash time (in days). The cost (in Rs. per day) for each job is also given:
Job (i-j) Normal Duration (in days) Minimum (crash) Cost of Crashing
Duration (in days) (Rs. per day)
1-2 9 6 20
1-3 8 5 25
1-4 15 10 30
2-4 5 3 10
3-4 10 6 15
4-5 2 1 40
(i) What is the normal project length and the minimum project length?
(ii) Determine the minimum crashing cost of schedules ranging from normal length down to, and including, the
minimum length schedule. That is, if L = Length of the schedule, find the costs of schedules which are L, L-1,
L-2 and so on.
(iii) Overhead costs total Rs. 60 per day. What is the optimum length schedule in terms of both crashing and
overhead cost? List the schedule duration of each job for your solution. (10 Marks) May/02
[Ans.: (i) Critical path is 1→3→4→5; (ii) Rs. 1155; (iii) Optimum duration of the project is 15 days.]
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Question 33: The following table gives data on normal time and cost and crash time and cost for a project.
(d) Draw the network and identify the critical path.
(e) What is the normal project duration and associated cost?
(f) Find out total float for each activity.
(g) Crash the relevant activities systematically and determine the optimum project time and cost.
Activity Normal Crash
Time Cost Time Cost
(Week) (Rs.) (Week) (Rs.)
1-2 3 300 2 400
2-3 3 30 3 30
2-4 7 420 5 580
2-5 9 720 7 810
3-5 5 250 4 300
4-5 0 0 0 0
5-6 6 320 4 410
6-7 4 400 3 470
6-8 13 780 10 900
7-8 10 1000 9 1200
4220
Indirect costs are Rs. 50 per week.
[Ans.: (b) Normal Project Duration is 32 weeks with cost of Rs. 5820; (d) Optimum Project Duration is 29 weeks
with cost of Rs. 5805]
Question 34: A small project is having seven activities. The relevant data about these activities is given below:
Activity Dependence Normal Crash duration Normal cost Crash Cost
duration (Days) (Rs.) (Rs.)
(Days)
A - 7 5 500 900
B A 4 2 400 60000
C A 5 5 500 500
D A 6 4 800 1000
E B,C 7 4 700 1000
F C,D 5 2 800 1400
G E,F 6 4 800 1600
(i) Find out the normal duration and the minimum duration.
(ii) What is the percentage increase in cost to complete the project in 21 days? (10 Marks) Nov./97
[Ans.: (i) Normal duration 25 days, minimum duration 18 days; (ii) 15.5%]

Miscellaneous Topics:
Question 35: Write short notes on resource smoothing and resource leveling.
(5 Marks each) May/99, May/00, May/02, Nov./02, May/05

Resource smoothing is a resource scheduling technique used for smoothing peak resource requirement during
different periods of project network. Under this technique, the constraint may be the total project duration. It helps
to estimate the resource requirements for various projects. In resource smoothing, time scaled diagram of various
activities of project and their floats along with their resource requirements are used. Floats on non critical activities
are utilized & these activities are rescheduled or shifted (while the project duration remains unchanged) so that a
uniform demand on resources is achieved.

Resource Levelling (a.k.a. resource allocation) is an operation of resource scheduling wherein constraint may be
availability of certain resources. Here project time is varied for maximum utilization of resources i.e. project
duration is not treated as an invariant, but the demand on certain specified resources should not go beyond a
specified level. The maximum demand of a resource should not exceed the available limit at any point of time.
Non critical activities are rescheduled by utilizing their floats.

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Points which are worth noting for developing the algorithm for resource allocation:
1. Halt when both resources and activities are available.
2. Prior to allocation at a halt, up date the E.S.T., E.F.T. and float of the activities not allocated at earlier halt
time and their succeeding activities. The repercussions may have to be traced right up to the last event.
3. (a) priorities are assigned on the basis of floats e.g. 1st priority to activity with least float, 2nd to the activity
with the next higher float and so on.
(b) In case of tie in floats, assign priorities on the basis of man-days if the activities e.g., 1st priority to the
activity with highest M × D.
(c) In case of tie in man-days even, assign 1st priority to the activity with highest M (gang size).
(d) In case of tie in M’s even, assign 1st priority to the activity with lower i, where i is the tail event number
of the activity.
4. When an activity requires more than one man, it may so happen during allocation that the activity requires
more number of persons than that available at the halt time under consideration. In such cases, the
resources are allocated to the job with next priority for which they are sufficient.
5. During the floating out of activities, the float of an activity may go negative which means that the project
duration is going to be extended beyond the critical path. Once the float of an activity becomes negative,
there from the float criterion for ascertaining priorities is invalidated. The priorities are then fixed on the
basis of M x D, gang size and lower i criteria respectively.

Question 36: The Madras Construction Company is bidding on a contract to install a line of microwave towers. It
has identified the following activities, along with their expected time, predecessor restrictions, and worker
requirements:
Activity Duration, Weeks Predecessor Crew size, workers
A 4 None 4
B 7 None 2
C 3 A 2
D 3 A 4
E 2 B 3
F 2 B 3
G 2 D,E 3
H 3 F,G 4
The contract specifies that the project must be completed in 14 weeks. This company will assign a fixed number
of workers to the project for its entire duration, and so it would like to ensure that the minimum number of workers
is assigned and that the project will be completed in 14 weeks. Find a schedule which will do this.
[Hint.: The maximum number of workers to be assigned to the project is 6] (10 Marks) May/95

Question 37 (Resource Smoothing): A network with the following activity durations and manpower requirement
is given. Analyze the project from point of view of resources to bring out the necessary steps involved in the
analysis and smoothing of resources.
Activity: 1-2 2-3 2-4 3-5 4-6 4-7 5-8 6-8 7-9 8-10 9-10
Duration (weeks): 2 3 4 2 4 3 6 6 5 4 4
No. of Men required: 4 3 3 5 3 4 3 6 2 2 9
[Ans.: Demand for men will decrease to 15 to 11]

Question 38 (Resource Smoothing): Consider a project consisting of 14 activities having the duration and
resource requirement shown below. Analyze the project and smoothen the requirement of the resources.
Activity Duration (Weeks) Masons (M) Labourers (L)
1-2 2 1 2
2-3 3 2 2
2-4 4 3 2
2-5 2 1 3
3-10 4 2 2
4-6 2 3 2
4-7 4 3 3

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5-9 4 5 3
6-8 2 1 2
7-9 5 1 3
8-9 3 - 4
9-11 2 1 1
10-11 3 1 2
11-12 2 1 2
[Ans.: Demand for masons will decrease to 8 & 10 for Labourers]
Question 39 (Resource Allocation): The following information is available:
Activity No. of days No. of men reqd. per day
A 1-2 4 2
B 1-3 2 3
C 1-4 8 5
D 2-6 6 3
E 3-5 4 2
F 5-6 1 3
G 4-6 1 8
(a) Draw the network and find the critical path.
(b) What is the peak requirement of Manpower? On which day(s) will this occur?
(c) If the maximum labour available on any day is only 10, when can the project be completed?
[Ans.: (i) Critical Path is AD = 10 days (ii) Peak requirement is 11 men, required on days 7 and 9 (iii) the project
can be completed in 11 days.] (9 Marks) May/08
Question 40 (Resource Allocation): For a project consisting of several activities, the durations and required
resources for carrying out each of the activities and their availabilities are given below:
(a) Draw the network, identify critical path and compute the total float for each of the activities.
(b) Find the project completion time under the given resource constraints.
Resources required
Activity Equipment Operators Duration (Days)
1-2 X 30 4
1-3 Y 20 3
1-4 Z 20 6
2-4 X 30 4
2-5 Z 20 8
3-4 Y 20 4
3-5 Y 20 4
4-5 X 30 6
Resource availability:
No. of operators = 50, equipment X = 1, equipment Y = 1, equipment Z = 1
[Ans.: Critical Path is 1-2-4-5 with duration of 14 days, Project requires 21 days for completion under given
constraints] (Nov./85)
Questions on Resource Smoothing and Resource Levelling are rarely being asked in Examination.

Question 41 (Updating): A company had planned its operations as follows:

Activity: 1-2 2-4 1-3 3-4 1-4 2-5 4-7 3-6 5-7 6-8 7-8
Duration (Days): 7 8 8 6 6 16 19 24 9 7 8
(i) Draw the network and find the critical paths.
(ii) After 15 days of working, the following progress is noted:
(a) Activities 1-2, 1-3 and 1-4 completed as per original schedule.
(b) Activity 2-4 is in progress and will be completed in 4 more days.
(c) Activity 3-6 is in progress and will need 17 more days to complete.
(d) The staff at activity 3-6 is specialized. They are directed to complete 3-6 and undertake an activity 6-7, which
will require 7days. This rearrangement arose due to a modification in a specialization.
(e) Activity 6-8 will be completed in 4 days instead of the originally planned 7 days.
CA. Parag Gupta Ph.: +91 9891 432 632 [email protected] Costing & O.R.
For notes/updates/amendments on all subjects log on: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/costingbyparaggupta
 - 17 -

(f) There is no change in the other activities.

Update the network diagram after 15 days of start of work based on the assumption given above. Indicate the
revised critical paths alongwith their duration. (11 Marks) May/07
[Ans.: Critical Path 1→2→4→7→8 = 42 days; (ii) Critical path 1→3→6→7→8 = 47 days]
Question 42 (Network simulation-Very Imp. for NEW course-Do it with Simulation): A project consists of 7
activities. The time for performance of each of the activity is as follows:-
Activity Immediate Time Probability
A - 3 0.2
4 0.6
5 0.2
B - 4 1.0
C A 1 1.0
D B,C 4 0.8
5 0.2
E D 3 0.1
4 0.3
5 0.3
6 0.3
F D 5 0.20
7 0.80
G E,F 2 0.5
3 0.5
a) Draw a network and identify critical path using expected time.
b) Simulate the project for 5 times using random number and find the critical paths?
68 13 09 20 73 07 72
99 93 18 24 22 07 29
57 33 49 65 92 98 00
57 12 31 96 85 92 91
77 37 34 11 27 10 59

CA. Parag Gupta Ph.: +91 9891 432 632 [email protected] Costing & O.R.
For notes/updates/amendments on all subjects log on: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/costingbyparaggupta
 - 18 -

Table for Areas Under the Standard Normal Curve from

0 to Z (Type II)
[P (0 ≤ X ≤ x) = n (0 ≤ Z ≤ z)]

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3304 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999

CA. Parag Gupta Ph.: +91 9891 432 632 [email protected] Costing & O.R.
For notes/updates/amendments on all subjects log on: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/costingbyparaggupta
 Arch. Developments

1. Architecture is an art of organizing space not only functionally but also

beautifully.
2. The constituents of beauty are structure, utility and aesthetics.
3. Egyptian architecture reflects the absolute power of the pharaohs and slavery of
the people.
4. Greek architecture was the product of the democratic belief of Greek civilization.
5. Roman architecture-roman imperical power.
6. basilican churches reflect religious enthusiasm.
7. Gothic reflects the condition of passionate enthusiasm.
8. French renaissance shows the pompous life of monarchs.
9. Indian architecture shows its spiritual content and represents.
10. principles of architecture-goodness or convenient arrangement.
- beauty
- truth
11. qualities of architecture- strength, vitality, restraint, response, grace, breadth,
scale, good pictoral setting, expression of purpose.
12. factor in architecture- mass,form,proportion,balance,symmetry,contrast.
13. all the prehistoric remains have religious relationship.
14. the devt of historic architecture is a record of continuation of evolution, beginning
with the Egyptian architecture.

Influence of modern art on architecture

Seven wonders of the ancient world

1. The pyramid of Egypt.
2. Hanging gardens of Babylon.
3. The temple of artemis at Ephesus.
4. The tomb of mansolus at halicarnassus.
5. The Colossus of Rhodes.
6. The statue of zeus at Olympia.
7. The pharos at Alexandria.
Famous Buildings – Celebrated Designs
Global Architectural Designs – Built Environment Highlights from around the World

World Famous Buildings

We’ve selected what we feel are the key examples of Famous Architecture. Buildings aren’t
necessarily ‘architecturally important’ but have acquired global importance for a variety of reasons.

Alphabetical List of some of the key buildings and structures in the world:

photo © Adrian Welch

Famous 21st Century Buildings

Famous 21st Century Architecture, alphabetical:

Bilbao Guggenheim, Spain

Architect: Frank Gehry

photo from architect

Bilbao Guggenheim
The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao is not only one of the most famous 20th century buildings
globally, but it is credited with the current phenomenon of so-called ‘iconic architecture’ [of course
iconic architecture has existed long before the Bilbao Guggenheim]. City councils across the globe
saw the effect the building had on the city – notably increased revenue via tourism – and decided they
too wanted something similar.
Burj Khalifa, Dubai, UAE : tallest building in world
SOM Architects

photo from architect

Burj Khalifa Dubai
The world’s tallest building, Burj Khalifa (formerly known as Burj Dubai). More famous fior being high
rather than for any architectural merit. Architect Adrian Smith, designed Burj Khalifa while at the
Chicago office of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Burj Khalifa’s official height was announced at 828
meters, or 2,716.5 feet. Smith’s design of the form of the building is geometric in plan, starting with
three branches and three pods. Setbacks occur at each program element, decreasing the tower’s
mass as it rises toward the sky. At the tower’s top, the central core emerges and is sculpted to form a
finishing spire.
Juedisches Museum Berlin, Germany
Daniel Libeskind, Architect

picture © Guenter Schneider

Jewish Museum Berlin
This world-famous building is a “symbol of Berlin’s incredible cultural development in housing a
museum which integrates, for the first time in post-war Germany, the history of the Jews in Germany
and the repercussions of the Holocaust”.
Yokohama Ferry Terminal, Tokyo, Japan
Design: Foreign Office Architects

photo : Saturo Mashima

Yokohama Ferry Terminal Building
This is the kind of project many of us dream of. The architect said in a public lecture, ‘how far you can
take a package to make a system’. I enjoyed her simple pursuit of simplicity, the rough wood outside,
the smooth inside, also the inventiveness of it all, ‘the floor became a kind of bench…bodily contact
with the buildings is…very effective’. Some of the ideas and geometries seemed a little contrived, and
expensive, but the radical newness forces us to evaluate the potential of building anew.
Key 21st Century Architecture, alphabetical:

Burj al Arab Dubai, Dubai, UAE

Architects: Atkins

photograph from architect

This extraordinary 321m tower is unique in design, fulfiling the client’s brief for a landmark building in
Dubai. The “Burj al Arab looks set to take its place amongst the likes of Sydney Opera House & the
Eiffel Tower as symbols of their countries”. The building stands 300m out to sea on a man made
island. Designed in the shape of a giant sail on a triangular plan the Burj al Arab Hotel is stunning in
its clarity.
Getty Center Building, Los Angeles, USA
Richard Meier & Partners

image © Alice McRae

London Eye, UK
Architect: Marks Barfield Architects – David Marks + Julia Barfield

photograph © Nick Weall

London Olympic Stadium, UK
Design: POPULOUS

photo © Morley von Sternberg

Palm Island Dubai, UAE
Design: various

picture : Palm Jumeirah

Reichstag Building redevelopment, Berlin, Germany
Design: Foster + Partners

photo © Adrian Welch

Seattle Library Building, USA
Rem Koolhaas Architects / OMA
photo : Philippe Ruault
Smithsonian Institute Courtyard, Washington D.C., USA
Design: Foster + Partners

photo : Nigel Young / Foster + Partners

Swiss Re Building, London
Design: Foster + Partners

photo © Adrian Welch

This building shook up the design of skyscrapers in the British capital, and influenced buildings further
afield. Abandoning the standard rectilinear point blocks (normally with some kind of crown element)
Norman Foster went for a curvaceous form that soon became dubbed ‘the gherkin’.
Tate Modern, London
Design: Herzog & de Meuron Architects

photo © Isabelle Lomholt

Bold redevelopment of former power station building designed by Giles Gilbert Scott to echo the form
of St. Paul’s Cathedral dome across the Thames. Key space: The Turbine Hall is both the circulation
space and home to a programme of installations.
Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, USA
Design: Gehry Partners

photo © Andrew McRae

The Walt Disney Concert Hall is home to the Los Angeles Philharmonic and was started back in 1987,
completing around 2003-04. The concert hall is a key part of the cultural hub in downtown Los
Angeles and after Blibao became his next big thing. Gehry’s design of the auditorium – shaped like a
convex box – is not simply designed for wow effect but is tailored to effectively convey orchestral
sound.

Famous 20th Century Buildings

Famous 20th Century Architecture, alphabetical:

Sydney Opera House, Australia

Architect: Jørn Utzon

photo © Derek McGavigan

Sydney Opera House
It could be argued that this has become the msot famous building in the world, partly due to its lovely
waterfront setting in a key global city but mostly for its unforgettable external form. Utzon worked with
Ove Arup on this seminal building. In 1966 Jorn Utzon left Sydney, never to return.
Barcelona Pavilion Building, Spain
Mies van der Rohe, Architect

picture © Adrian Welch

Barcelona Pavilion
This International Style building is for many architects their favourite building in the World. It’s
architecture is pure poetry, simple honest planes of stone with slim, graceful polished steel cruciform
columns. The integration of water through two shallow pools brings calmness and reflection to the
pavilion. The architect was interested in developing free flowing space and this is done using walls as
planes in isolation, joined by sliding elements or glass. Thus the wall is expressed as a single element
with space flowing around it.
Casa Mila, Barcelona, Spain
Antoni Gaudi, Architect

picture © Adrian Welch

Casa Mila
Ciudad de las Artes y de las Ciencias, Valencia, Spain
Santiago Calatrava Architects
image © Paul Zanre
City of Arts and Science Valencia
Empire State, New York
Design: Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, Architects

photo © Andrew McRae

The Empire State Building is a celebrated 20th Century skyscraper, designed in the Art Deco style.
The building is a 381m high skyscraper, a world-famous New York landmark. It is a good example of
Art Deco architecture – subtle on the exterior, more accentuated in the tower interior.
Farnsworth House, Plano, Illinois, USA
Mies van der Rohe, architect

photo © gm+ad architects

Farnsworth House
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Design: Frank Lloyd Wright Architects

photo : David M. Heald, © SRGF, New York

This famus building is Frank Lloyd Wright’s New York masterpiece with its famous internal spiral ramp
– containing art – around the atrium.
Sagrada Familia
Antoni Gaudi, Architect

picture © Adrian Welch

Sagrada Familia
Key 20th Century Architecture, alphabetical:

Canary Wharf Building, London, UK

photograph © Jason Baxter

Chep Lap Kok Airport, Hong Kong

photo : Dennis Gilbert/VIEW

Chrysler Building, New York

photo © Joe Lekas

CN Tower, Toronto
Emirates Stadium, London, UK

photo © Hufton and Crow

Galeries Lafayette, Berlin

picture © Adrian Welch

Hong Kong & Shanghai Bank Building, Hong Kong

photo © Andrew McRae

John Hancock Center, Chicago

photo : Royce Douglas

Lloyds Building, London, UK

picture © Adrian Welch

Millennium Dome, London

photo © webbaviation
National Gallery Building Berlin, Germany

picture © Adrian Welch

Petronas Towers Buildings, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

picture © Tom Ravenscroft

Royal Festival Hall, London

photo © Dennis Gilbert

Sears Tower, Chicago

photo courtesy of Jan Klerks

Waterloo Station Building, London
Design: Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners

image © Nick Weall

The International Terminal Waterloo is a multifaceted transport interchange, the busiest railway
station in London. The International Terminal Waterloo was designed to be a monument to the new
railway age heralded by the advent of cross-channel rail travel in Britain. To this end, it complements
the neighbouring Waterloo Station, but retains its own distinct identity signified, primarily, by its 400m
long roof.

Famous Historic Buildings

Famous Historic Architecture, alphabetical:

Brooklyn Bridge, New York

Buckingham Palace, London
The Capitol, Washington DC
Colosseum, Rome
Eiffel Tower, Paris
Forbidden Palace, Beijing
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
Houses of Parliament, London
L’Arc de Triomphe, Paris
The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy
Mosque of Córdoba, Spain
Natural History Museum, London
Neues Museum, Berlin
The Pantheon, Rome
Parthenon, Athens
Prado, Madrid
Pyramids, Giza, Egypt
Red Square, Moscow
Royal Albert Hall, London

picture © Nick Weall

St Mark’s, Venice

St Pancras Station, London

photo © Nick Weall

St Paul’s Cathedral, London

picture © AW
St Peter’s Basilica, Rome
Sphinx, Egypt
Statue of Liberty, New York
Taj Mahal, India
Tower Bridge, London
The Tower, London
Uffizi Palace, Florence
Victoria & Albert Museum, London
Washington Monument, Washington DC
Washington National Cathedral, Washington DC
White House, Washington DC
Windsor Castle, England
Suggestions for Famous Buildings welcome: info(at)e-architect.co.uk

More World Famous Building Links online very soon

Global Architecture
Famous World Architects
World Architects – Complete A-Z list
New York Buildings

photo © Andrew McRae

London Buildings

image © Adrian Welch

Glossary of Architectural Terms
Over the course of centuries, architects and
builders have developed specialized terms to
describe their buildings. This section of the
guide provides definitions for some of the more
common technical terms. It should be used with
reference to other Historic Resources Branch
materials that are part of this series (specifically
Architectural Styles in Manitoba and Historic
Construction Materials and Techniques) where
technical subjects are also discussed. The
contents of this section have been drawn from a
larger glossary that is included in a more
detailed branch publication, Identifying
Architectural Styles in Manitoba.

This guide groups terms according to how we

generally perceive a building, from the large to
the small. Thus we start with some of the terms
that help describe a building’s basic form: the
plan and roof shape. Terms that distinguish
certain construction materials and techniques are
presented next. Windows and doors are often a
source of great interest for designers and some
of the key technical terms associated with those
elements are noted here. Finally, the multitude
of details that may be applied to a building are
introduced, with some of the more common
terms defined.

A host of architectural details, each with its own

technical term, animate the Hotel Fort Garry in
Winnipeg.
Plan Shapes
Whether for the sake of efficiency, cost,
tradition, or style, building designers often look
to a basic plan shape to determine the overall
form, or massing, of their building. The most
common shape is the rectangle, but others,
illustrated here, are also frequently used.

There are a few additional technical words that

are used with reference to the basic shape of a
building:
bay
a regularly repeated visual division of a
façade
façade
the exterior face or presentable front of a
building
pavilion
a part of a façade given prominence because
it projects out from the façade
proportion
the relationship between individual elements
of a building (such as windows and doors)
and their size within the whole building
rhythm
a regularly repeating sequence or pattern
storey
the habitable space between a floor and a
ceiling, floor or roof above
Roof Shapes
The structural imperative of a roof is to protect gable
the interior and to efficiently shed water and mansard
snow. This can be accomplished with a number gambrel
of shapes, which have been exploited throughout pyramidal
history by building designers. The most hipped
common shape is the gable, which can be steep shed
or shallow in its slope. Some other common
shapes are noted at right and illustrated below.
Building Materials
and Construction
Techniques
This subject is also addressed in Historic
Materials and Construction Techniques, where
basic definitions of materials and construction
techniques are explained. There are, however,
some technical terms associated with this subject
that need further clarification.

Heavy Timber Frame

Construction
bent
a prefabricated network of large posts and
beams (right)
board and batten
wide vertical wood sheathing (boards) with
narrow vertical wood strips (battens) covering
the joints between the boards (below)
peg
a pin or dowel, slightly tapered, used to join
two parts together
Light Wood Frame Construction
joists
a series of horizontal members used to
support floors or ceilings
plate
a member laid horizontally to accept the ends
of joists or studs
purlins
horizontal structural members that run
perpendicularly across the top edges of other
roof members
rafter
a structural roof member that slopes up from
the wall to the peak of a roof
studs
a series of vertical members used to support
wall sheathing
sheathing
the exterior cladding of a building
Brick Construction
bonds
an arrangement of masonry units (brick or Below: Types of typical brick bonds.
concrete block) to provide structural strength The type of bond affects the ultimate
and visual appeal; common bonds are called appearance of the wall.
header, stretcher, English or Flemish
(illustrated at right)
mortar
a mixture of cement and lime with sand and
water used as a bonding agent between
masonry units
repointing
to repair the joints in masonry construction
with the addition of new mortar

Stone Construction
ashlar
hewn stone blocks with straight-cut edges
coursing
a continuous layer of material, a row
fieldstone
building stone collected from a field
finish
the surface texture; common finishes are
rock-faced, rusticated and vermiculated
rustication
stonework emphasized by roughly cut block
faces
rubble
construction with fragments of broken stone
vermiculated
ornamentation in stone created with winding,
wavy lines, as if caused by worms
Windows and Doors
The openings in the walls of a building—the
windows and the doors—are the source of great
attention in a design. (The technical name for
the placement of openings in the walls of a
building is fenestration, from the French,
“fenêtre,” meaning window). The placement and
the detail work that comprises windows and
doors can be the source of great attention.

Window
Types
bay
double hung
casement
Palladian
Shapes of Openings
round arch (below left)
pointed arch (bottom left)
flat top
segmental arch (right)
triangular
Tudor arch (below right)
 trim around a window or door opening
tracery
a pattern of interlocking muntins in the upper
part of a Gothic pointed window (see pointed
arch drawing, page 5)
transom light
a window located above a door (door
drawing)

Parts of Windows and Doors

fanlight
a semi-circular window over a door with
radiating bars (or muntins) resembling a fan
(refer to drawing of a door, top)
head
the top of a window or door opening (door
drawing)
jamb
the vertical member on each side of a window
or door opening (both drawings)
label
a moulding that runs across the top and part-
way down the sides of a window or door
opening (see pointed arch drawing)
lintel
a horizontal beam over a window or door
opening that carries the weight of the wall
above the opening bottom drawing (refer to
the window drawing, bottom)
mullion
a vertical member between adjacent window
sashes or between windows and doors
(window drawing)
muntin
a small member that supports several pieces
of glass within a sash (window drawing)
sash
the framework that holds a piece of glass
(window drawing)
shutter
hinged panels used to cover window openings
(window drawing)
sidelights
windows located at the sides of doors (door
drawing)
sill
the horizontal piece forming the bottom of a
window or door opening (both drawings)
surround
 buttress
a vertical structural member resembling a
massive post built against an exterior wall

capital
the decorative feature at the top of a column or
pilaster

column
an upright post, usually a tapered cylinder, used
for support or decoration; in classical
Elements and Details architecture a column consists of a base, shaft
The elements and details that either are part of a and capital
building’s structure (like the parts of a window)
or are applied to it (like cresting or brackets) are corbel
often what creates visual delight. The following a masonry unit or series of masonry units that
list of words is only a brief catalogue of the progressively step out from a supporting wall or
hundreds of technical terms that have been column
developed over centuries to describe the many
and marvellous details of a building. corbel table
a projecting line of masonry or belt courses
supported by corbels
arch
a curved structure spanning across the top of an cornice
opening in a vertical surface (such as a wall) a horizontal, projecting decorative moulding
along the top of a wall or building, or the top
balcony portion of an entablature
a structural platform extending from the wall of
a building and enclosed with a balustrade; crenellation
supported from below or cantilevered from a a series of square indentations in a parapet
supporting wall giving a castle-like appearance

baluster/balustrade cresting
balusters are upright posts or spindles that ornamental ridge, like a miniature fence, along
support a handrail/a balustrade is a series of the top of a roof
balusters under a handrail
cupola
bargeboard a small domed structure on top of a roof or
a board, often decorative, covering the larger dome
projecting edge of a gable roof
dentils
belt course band of small, tooth-like blocks usually used in
a slender, horizontal band that projects from an Classical architecture
exterior wall often at window sill or interior
floor levels dome
a roof structure in the shape of a portion of a
bracket sphere
an angular support for a horizontal element that
projects from a wall dormer
a roofed projection from a sloping roof often
with a window
 pediment
in classical architecture, the triangular end of a
low-pitched gable; a triangular element used
over doors and windows

pendant
an ornamental feature that hangs down from a
supporting structure or architectural feature

pier
eaves a massive vertical support of masonry, placed
the part of a sloping roof that overhangs a wall under columns, arches or walls to support a
concentration of loads
entablature
the upper horizontal part of a Classical order, pilaster
consisting of the cornice, frieze and architrave; a shallow pier or post, often decorative,
similar to a beam projecting slightly from the surface of a wall;
resembles a square post attached to a wall
gable
the triangular upper portion of a wall formed by pinnacle
the slopes of a pitched roof a small vertical ornament with a spire-like
pyramidal or conical shape, usually used to
half-timbering crown buttresses or the corners of parapets and
a method of construction where the spaces in a towers
timber-frame wall are filled with rubble or
brickwork pitch
the angle at which a roof slopes from its peak to
finial its eaves
an ornament at the top of a roof gable, spire or
other architectural feature porch
a structure projecting from a building and
frieze located in front of an entrance; usually roofed,
the central band in a classical entablature above often open-sided and occasionally supporting a
the architrave and below the cornice; or often a balcony above
decorative band running under the cornice of an
interior or exterior wall portico
an open-sided porch with a column-supported
keystone roof
the central uppermost member of an arch
quoins
massing stones or bricks used to decoratively emphasize
the organization of three-dimensional volumes the outside corners of a building
or spaces into a coherent composition
shingles
moulding wood or asphalt tiles for covering roofs and
a decorative element that defines edges, joints or walls
surfaces through the use of a continuous profile
spindle
parapet lathe-turned wood elements, often used as
the portion of an exterior wall that projects balusters and porch decoration
above the edge of a roof area
spire
a tall, narrow, steep roof structure ending in a
point, rising from a tower or roof peak

terra cotta
fired clay cast in moulds, often used for
decorative elements or to clad a building exterior

tower
a building, either freestanding or attached as a
prominent element of another building, of great
height compared to its floor area; a slender, tall
structure usually rising above the building to
which it is attached

turret
a small, slender tower characteristically
projecting from the corner of a building

vault
a roof or ceiling structure over an area that is
based on the form of an arch

verandah
a roofed porch or balcony attached to the
elevation of a building
Classical Greek and Roman architecture is
defined by a great many technical terms, only a
few of which are noted here.
Grade (slope)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the grade of a topographic feature or constructed element. For other uses,
see Slope (disambiguation).

d = run
Δh = rise
l = slope length
α = angle of inclination

The grade (also called slope, incline, gradient, pitch or rise) of a physical feature, landform or
constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a special
case of the gradient in calculus where zero indicates gravitational level. A larger number
indicates higher or steeper degree of "tilt". Often slope is calculated as a ratio of "rise" to "run", or
as a fraction ("rise over run") in which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical
distance.
The grades or slopes of existing physical features such as canyons and hillsides, stream and
river banks and beds are often described. Grades are typically specified for new constructions
(such as roads, landscape grading, roof pitches, railroads, aqueducts, and pedestrian or bicycle
circulation routes).
Nomenclature[edit]

Illustration of grades (percentages), angles in degrees and ratio.

There are several ways to express slope:

1. as an angle of inclination to the horizontal. (This is the angle α opposite the "rise" side of
a triangle with a right angle between vertical rise and horizontal run.)

2. as a percentage, the formula for which is which could also be expressed as the
tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. In the U.S., this percentage "grade" is the
most commonly used unit for communicating slopes in transportation (streets,
roads, highways and rail tracks), surveying, construction, and civil engineering.

3. as a per mille figure, the formula for which is which could also be expressed
as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000. This is commonly used in Europe to
denote the incline of a railway.
4. as a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run. For example, a slope that has a rise of 5
feet for every 100 feet of run would have a slope ratio of 1 in 20. (The word "in" is
normally used rather than the mathematical ratio notation of "1:20"). This is generally the
method used to describe railway grades in Australia and the UK.
Any of these may be used. Grade is usually expressed as a percentage, but this is easily
converted to the angle α from horizontal or the other expressions.
Slope may still be expressed when the horizontal run is not known: the rise can be divided by
the hypotenuse(the slope length). This is not the usual way to specify slope; it follows
the sine function rather than the tangent function, so it calls a 45-degree slope a 71-percent
grade instead of a 100-percent. But in practice the usual way to calculate slope is to measure the
distance along the slope and the vertical rise, and calculate the horizontal run from that. When
the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal displacement
(i.e. using the sine of the angle rather than the tangent) makes only an insignificant difference.
Railway gradients are usually expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along the
track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant,
the tangent is used.
In Europe, road gradients are signed as a percentage, the exception being Britain, where
for road signs, maps and construction work, the gradient was traditionally expressed as a ratio
such as 1 in 12, but signs showing gradient as a percentage are becoming more common.[1]
Equations[edit]
Grades are related using the following equations with symbols from the figure at top.
Tangent as a ratio

This ratio can also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying by 100.

Angle from a tangent gradient

If the tangent is expressed as a percentage, the angle can be determined as:

If the angle is expressed as a ratio (1 in n) then:

Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2019

Green buildings have been in the limelight for a long time. Have you ever wondered what a
green building is? How it differs from other buildings? How can a building be rated green?
Who gives this rating?

What is Green Building?

A structure that makes efficient use of natural resources like water, energy, building materials
and other resources for sustainable development of environment is called a green building.
Using energy efficient lighting system like CLFs and LEDs, technologies like sensor system
for air conditioning and lighting to save energy and reduce emission of carbon dioxide,
appliances that consumes less energy and reduce the usage of water and other water saving
technologies makes a building green and make it different from other conventional buildings.

What is Green Building Rating?

Green building rating is certification of a building as green on the basis of sustainable

performance in several areas like site development, resource utilization, selection of material,
maintenance and environment quality of predefined rating systems.

Rating System In India:

In India, there are three primary rating systems, namely:

GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment): GRIHA is jointly developed
by TERI and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India. It is India’s own
rating system. It consists of 34 criteria divided in four sections namely site selection and site
planning, Conservation and efficient utilization of resources, Building operation and
maintenance, and Innovation. GRIHA has a three tier process for rating any building.

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IGBC (Indian Green Building Council): IGBC is a non-profit research institution formed
by Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) in 2001. IGBC has licensed the LEED green
building rating standard from USGBC. LEED-INDIA approach for green building is divided
into five key areas namely, 1) Sustainable site development, 2) Water saving, 3) Energy
efficiency, 4) Material selection and 5) Indoor environment quality.

BEE (Bureau of Energy Efficiency): BEE has developed a rating system of its own. It gives
rating on a scale of 1 to 5 stars on the basis of energy efficiency of a building. The unit of
Kilo watt hours per square meter per year is the Energy Performance Index (EPI) for rating
any building.

Rating Parameters for Green Building

There are several parameters on which a building is evaluated before being given a green
rating:

 Efficiency of site planning and building design.

 Conservation of soil and protection of top soil during construction.
 Reducing demand of conventional energy by optimization of building design and structure.
 Incorporating renewable sources of energy and renewable energy based systems such as solar
water heater to reduce the use of conventional energy.
 Efficient water and waste management for reducing water usage and waste.
 Enhancement of indoor environment quality like indoor air and thermal quality.
 Efficiency in selection of sustainable materials for construction.
 Optimization of operation and maintenance.

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Egyptian Architecture (3000BC-100AD)

1. Columnar and trabeated style (trab=beam)

2. Mainly tombs and temples.
3. contrast to west Asiatic architecture(palaces)
4. Egyptian-Massive walls, made of sun dried mud bricks
5. Housing- One or two storey high, living hall in centre.
6. Temples- rectangular plan, fronted by monolithic pillars, oriented to word
nile.
7. Columns- vegetable origin like the lotus stalk, tied intervals by bands.
8. Advanced in use of colors, blue, red, yellow
9. Tomb was an eternal home to Egyptians.
10. 3 types of tombs-mastabas, royal pyramids & rock cut caves.
11. Mastaba- central space-sarcophagus
12. Pyramids-only for pharaohs-massive & impregnable tombs.
13. Material used for core-Lime stone.
14. Granite for king’s chamber, passages.
15. Entrance from north.
16. Great pyramid of cheops at Giza(230.5m*230.5m), 146m height.
17. Built in solid stones with a casing of finally dressed Tura lime stones & the
apex stone was once coated with gold.
18. Rock cut tombs- eg:Trit-Aukh-Amon at Thebes.
19. temples 2 types- Mortuary, Ministration to pharaohs(cult)
20. Mortuary-Series of rooms, pillared court, phypo style hall- the dark
mysterious chamber, chapel.
21. Only the royal & privileged persons were admitted for stately
22. Religious functions.
23. In cult temples, the processions were unique features.
24. Sphinxes & obelisks were set up in pairs to dignify the temple entrances
25. eg of cult temple, temple of khons at konark.
26. Obelisks are large sizes monoliths square in plan(sun worship)
27. Height of obelisk is 9 or 1- times its lower diameter.
28. 4 sides of base are cut with fingers of hieroglyph.

Greek architecture (650BC-30BC)

1. Greek temples were surrounded by open colonnades in full view of common

people
2. Oriented to words east(sun)
3. Civilization spread mainly during bronze ages.
4. Hellenic(650-323BC)
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5. Columnar & trabeated style evolved from wooden hut of up right posts &
supporting beam & sloping rafters.
6. two periods-Hellenic period, Hellenistic period.
7. Arches, domes, vaults were not used by the Greeks.
8. Greek used timber & after built.
9. In 600BC - Masonry from coursed rubble to fine ashlars.
- no mortar was used.
- Minimized the joints by using large sized stones.

10. 3 orders of architecture-Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.

11. Hellenistic period(323-30BC)
12. Influenced by Middle Eastern culture.
13. Religious character but after 4th century BC, public buildings began
14. Arches started appearing on wall openings.
15. 3rd century BC roof trusses came to cover larger spaces.
16. Ornate Corinthian order was more popularly used.

Roman architecture (300BC-365AC)

1. Followed columnar style and also Etruscan’s arch &vault.

2. Columns were superimposes in case of colosseum of rome.
3. Use of lime concrete was started(cement)
4. Character of rome arch is the capacity to span over large spaces.
5. Roman buildings were of several storied, ornamented by half attached
columns superimposed one above the other.
6. arch. of romes was essentially an art of shaping space around rituals.
7. Many structures were utilization type such as acqueducts & bridges.

Medieval period

1. Early Christian architecture (313-800 AD)

i. Fallowed roman style.

ii. Columns were either closely spaced to carry entablature or widely
spaced to carry semi-circular arches.
iii. The basilican churches were rendered spacious, graceful, impressive
and dignified by arranging the columns & rows.
iv. Main entrance was provided in one shorter side.
v. Biblican scenes become usual features of decoration.
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vi. Architecture represents their fantacism, passion search for mystery of

the real presence.

2. Byzantic architecture ()330-1453AD)

i. Characterized by the novel devt of dome cover square or polygon

plans of churches and tombs.
ii. Various type of domes used were, simple, compound, melon shaped,
onion shaped.
iii. Domes were constructed with out centering with thin radiating
bricks or light weight fumic stones.
iv. Used the columns decorately as well as structurally to support
galleries and semi circular arches.
v. Walls were fully covered with marble mosaics and fresco-decoration

3. Muslim architecture 7th century

i. Major constructions- mosque, tombs, palaces.
ii. Constructions- Jama masjid
- madrassah
- rauza
- dargah
- khans
- the pointed architecture
- the dome
- arabesque

4. Romanesque architecture (9 to 15th century)

i. Is direct modification of roman architecture which grew in Italy,

France, Germany, central Europe, Spain, and Britan.
ii. Used lighter materials.
iii. Stained glass was little used.

5. Gothic architecture (12th century)

i. Introduction of pointed architecture, buttress and high pinnacle.

ii. Invented flying buttress in place of vaults to support walls.
iii. Gothic style is a synthesis of aesthetic and technical qualities.
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iv. Invented stained colored glass.

v. Designed town halls, royal places, court houses, hospitals.
vi. Churches were convenient rather than symmetry.

renaissance periods

6. Renaissance architecture (15th 19th century)

i.Is the revival of classic Greek and roman architecture.

ii.Large sized stone blacks were used to dignity
iii.Buildings were arranged with special regard to symmetry.
iv. 5 order of architecture were standardized and used both
constructively and decoratively.
v. Ornamentation was based on classical methodology and pagan
subject.
vi. Status was neither proportion to human scale nor an integral part of
the buildings.
vii. In place of stained glass, fresco paintings were used.

Buddhist architecture (300BC-820BC)

1. Major features- stupas or topes, stambhas or lats, chaityas, viharas or monasteries.

2. stupa- monument propagates the ‘Doctrine’.
3. stupa- circular, section and the total form of which were all derived from circle.
4. eg:stupas,sanch(250BC), Saronath(7th century), Amaravath(3rd c,AD), bar hut(2rd
c,AD),budh gaya(75BC)
5. Column-2types-persepolitan type, graeco-roman type.
6. First-octagonal, bell shaped capital.
7. graeco- roman type is rectangular with shallow flucts.
8. Eg: ashoka pillars (274-237 BC)
9. chaityas-temple as well as assembly halls created out of particular demands of
Buddhist region.
10. Eg: Bhaja,kondane,karle,ajanta(2nd C,BC), tllora.
11. Vihara- residential places of Buddhist priests.
Indus valley civilization (Harappan)(3000)
Indian architecture (500 BC to present)

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1. 5000 yrs ago, people from Sumerian origin came and settled nearest river
Indus.
2. Is a contemporary of ancient Mesopotamia.
3. cities were systematic and divided into 12 blocks (365*244m each)
4. English bonds in walls.
5. Streets-9m wide.
6. Under ground drainage lines with inspection chambers at regular
intervals.
7. houses consisted of rooms around a courtyard and staircase.(kiln burnt
bricks)
8. Ox- driven carts of large solid whets for transportation.
9. Tools of stone and copper were in use.
10. Pots were made of clay, wood.

Vedic (1500-1000BC)
1. Dravidians-The builders of the city civilization of Indus valley.
Indo-Aryan (1500BC)

1. Aryan village was made of timber and thatch huts.

2. Protected by timber fence consisting of rectangular wooden posts.
3. Gate way at entrance.
4. All Indian art is derived from the Aryan village.
Dravidian architecture (600AD-1000AD)
1. Temple consists of garbha-gritha (womb-house) with a mandope or the
open porch.
2. Mainly adopted trabeated system of construction.
3. No arches, avoid mortar.
4. Temples were expanded with courtyards called prakaras enclosing
gopurams.
5. Temples on hill tops, situated amidst beautiful surroundings.
6. 5 types-pallava, chola, pandya, vijayanagar, late pandya/madhura
7. pallava- rock cut temple, structural temples(shore temple)
8. chola: temple consists of usual compartment such as a pillared halls
attached to the vimana or the tower over the sanctum.(brihadeshwar temple
of tanjavur)
9. Pandya- practice of constructing the vimala over the cella; importance to
the temple entrance gopuram.
10. Vijayanagar style-temple of modulate sizes, rich in beauty, form,
proportion,
In addition to main temple in centre, there were separate shrines,
pillared halls, and pavilions.
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11. Another important is kalian-mantapa.

12. Late pandyan/madhura style
- Temples with vast size and impressive appearance.
- Pillared halls, parkares outside.
- Eg: Ranganath, Madhura, Rameswaram, Tirupathi.

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Concept of shelter
1. Agglomeration – An urban region whose boundaries may exceed those of one,
usually large city.
2. Primary city – One or more of the largest cities in a country that holds a relatively
high percentage of the total urban population.
3. Urban population growth – refers to the increase in the absolute number of people
residing in cities.
4. Urbanization – refers to the proportion of the overall population that resides in
urban areas.
5. Decentralization – the process where by growth in urban population and
employment takes place in secondary cities that may be 150 km away from the
metropolitan area and beyond
6. Deconcentration – the expansion of employment and population in peripheral
areas around a city.
7. Housing is a medium for self expression as well as a sanctuary for old age.

Concrete
1. Cement concrete – is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate, course
aggregate.
2. the proportion of cement, sand and aggregates is 1:2 or 3:4 or 6
3. Lime concrete – mixture of slaked lime, fine aggregate, course aggregate. (1:2:4),
water.
4. R.C.C – the concrete and reinforcing metal.

Role of government agencies

1. Cooperative housing societies are helped by the govt. in
a. Acquiring land at cheap rates
b. Providing financial help at reasonable rates
2. First 1915 Saraswat Coop. Housing Society, Bombay.
3. HUDCO (1970) Housing and Urban development cooperation : aims to help
backward classes, SC,ST

Category Cost ceiling Rate of int. Repayment period % of loans from

HUDCO
EWS 8000 5% 20 yrs 30
LIG 18000 7 15 25
MIG (I) 25000 9.5 12
25
MIG (II) 42000 10.5 12
HIG 100000 11.5 10 20
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4. CIDCO (City and Industrial Development cooperation), Bombay.

a. MRT (mass rapid transit ) through cancroids of residential and industrial
nodes
b. Each node having 1 lakh population

Housing policies and design

1. constraints of housing commodity
a. immobility
b. initial investments
c. finance, transport, land policy
2. housing policies in India – two approaches are
a. demand-led housing approach - rural development
Bring down the migrations
Encouraging small and medium towns
b. supply-led approach - maximize the no of dwelling units
Improve the quality of environment
Promote low cost alternatives
Use of vacant land
Taxation policies
Suitable amendments for rent control
3. housing activity depends on
a. availability of labor
b. availability of cheap finance
c. available transport facilities
d. methods of construction
e. rate of interest or investment
f. predictions of future demands
g. development of population
h. taxation policy on real estates
i. Tour planning and environmental conditions.

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4. General requirements of resi. Buildings

a. Height – wrt road, street.
b. Location – near schools, amenities, away from noise, smoke.
c. Privacy
d. Orientation – wrt sun, winds.
e. Security – safe construction.
f. Space – 4.56 M2 per person.
g. Utilities – electricity, water, drainage, at reasonable rates.
h. Ventilation.
5. classification of residential buildings
a. detached houses - where land value is low
House and little land surrounding it
Margins on all sides
Highest form of housing
b. Semi-detached houses - plot divided into 2 by a wall
Advantages like sharing of costs
c. Row houses - min requirements with regards to space
Single or double strayed
Yield more net resi.density
Preferred for LIG
d. Apartments - sharing the cost of land and amenities
e. Sky scrappers - similar as apts.
6. Design of resi. areas
a. Aesthetics
b. Basic materials
c. Housing unit - 300-1000 people
d. Lay out - showing parks, schools, comm. centers
e. Size and shape 3000-12000 pop. Of a resi. Unit
f. Street system

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7. National housing policy

Govt has passed the Urban land act, 1976 for securing excess land from
private land holders for development of housing schemes for the weaker sections.
Objectives
1. for increasing housing supply to weaker sections
2. to check the growth of population
3. proper land use policy to prevent haphazard development
4. removal of slums
5. encourage housing cooperatives
6. adequate financial provisions for housing
7. Propagation and use of new, cheap locally available buil. Material.

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 Behavioral characteristics of building materials

Timber
1. Timber is derived from Timbrian means ‘built’.
2. Timber is obtained from trees not less than 600 mm in circumference.
3. Three types of timber
a. Converted – is sawn and cut into suitable sizes
b. Rough – after felling of trees
c. Standing – living tree
4. Properties of good timber
Low heat conductivity
Amenability
Small bulk density
Relatively high strength
5. Drawbacks of timber
Susceptibility to decay
Inflammability
Fluctuations due to moisture content
Variations in strength, length
6. Wood waste – saw dust, shavings are used with admixture of organic glues
to make fiber-slabs, fiber boards.
7. Other uses of wood – organic acids, rosin, paper, cardboard, cellulose.
8. Age of the wood capable of producing quality timber with adequate girth is
50 yrs.
9. Babul, Eucalyptus, poplar, sissioo (20 yrs).
10. A single tree can cool the summer heat for an entire day and night and is
found better than 20 ACs running for 20 Hrs.
11. A hectare of trees produce about 10 times of O2 (for 45 persons for 1 year)

Item Soft wood Hard wood

Annual rings Distinct Opposite
Color Light ”
Fire resistance Poor ”
Modular rays Indistinct ”
Strength Strong for direct pull and weak for
”
resisting thrust or shear
Structure Resinous and split easily ”
Weight Light ”

12. Defects in timber

a. Conversion
b. Fungi
c. Insects
d. Natural forces
e. Seasoning
13. Qualities of good timber
a. Hard and shining appearance
b. Color is dark
c. Free from knots, flaws, shakes
d. Should be durable
e. Should be elastic
f. Should have straight fibers
g. Fire resistance
h. Hardness
i. Should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
j. Capable of retaining its shape while burning
k. Sweet smell
l. Clear ringing sound when struck
m. Sound in wood is 2 to 17 times greater than in air.
n. Strong for working as structural member such as joint, beam, rafters.
o. Toughness – capable of resisting shocks
p. Low water permeability
q. Stand for weathering effect
r. Heavy weight
Bamboo
1. Flexible, very strong and durable.
 2. Used for scaffolding, thatched roofs, rafters, temporary bridges, fancy
goods.

Bricks
1. Prepared by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size.
2. Bricks are durable and having strength, reliability, low cost, easy
availability.
3. Great Wall of China (210 BC) by burnt and sun dried bricks.
4. India has production capacity to manufacture over 10000 crores.
5. Compositions of good brick earth
Use
20-30% alumina (plasticity for moulding)
50-60% silica (prevents cracks, shrinks, wrapping)
5% lime (prevents shrinkage)
5-6% oxide of iron (as lime to fuse sand and provides red color
Magnesia (yellow tint, decrease shrinkage)

6. Harmful ingredients
Effect
Excess of lime (lumps)
Iron pyrites (crystallized and disintegrated)
Alkalies (cause bricks fuse, twists, wrap)
Pebbles (unregulations)
Vegetation & (porous)
Organic matter

7. Classification of brick earth

Ingredient Loamy, mild or Marls, chalky or Plastic, strong or
sandy clay calcareous clay pure clay
Alumina 27% 10 34
Silica 66 35 50
Lime & magnesia 1 48 6
Oxide of iron 1 3 8
Organic matter 5 4 2

8. Qualities of good bricks

a. Table moulded, well burnt, copper colored, free from cracks with
sharp and square edges.
b. Uniform in shape and standard size.
c. Should give clear metallic ringing sound
d. When broke should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact
structure free from voids.
e. Should not absorb water > 20% by weight when soaked in cold water
for 24 Hrs.
f. Sufficiently hard, no impression should be left when scratched.
g. Should not break into pieces when drop from 1 Mt height.
h. Low thermal conductivity and sound proof.
i. Should not show deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade
after soaked in water.
j. Should not have crushing strength < 5.5 N/mm2.

Concrete
1. The tensile and shear strengths are about 8 to 12 % and 8 to 10 % of their
compressive strengths respectively.
2. The comprehensive strength of concrete is influenced by
 Quality of materials
 Water
 Water – cement ratio
 Age of concrete
 Cement content
 Methods of mixing placing, curing

3. generally the strength decrease with increase in degree of workability

4. With the age, the concrete goes on hardening, there by increase in strength
5. not truly elasticity modulus is influenced by strength, age, moisture content
 6. Concrete under goes extra strain on application of load is called creep of
concrete which , not recovered on removal of load
7. Concrete is a good insulator
8. When used with steel in R.C.C,it can with stand both compressive and
tensile stresses
9. Free from corrosion
10. Concrete is proved to economical than steel
11. Other types
 Vibrated concrete – for high compressive strength
 Light weight concrete – for fire resistance, partitions
 Vaccum concrete – for more strength
 Lime, surkhi concrete – for economy
12.
Proportion Max. size of aggregate Nature of construction
1:1:2 12 to 20 mm Loaded R.C.C columns and R.C.C
arches
1:2:2 12 – 20 Small precast member like,
fencing poles, water tight
constructions
1:2:3/3:5:10 20 Water tanks, bridges, sewers
2:5:7 25 Foot path, concrete roads
1:2:4 40 R.C.C work, stairs, beams,
columns, sunshades, slabs, lintels
1:3:5 50 Mass concrete works in culverts,
retaining walls.
1:4:8/1:5:10/1:6:12 60 Heavy walls, foundation footings

Glass
 1. Is a mixture of number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of
an alkali metals
2. it is basically a hard, brittle, trans par cut material
3. Not effected by ordinary chemical reagents, air or water.
4. Possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion
5. Affected by alkalis but can take up high polish
6. Provides excellent electric insulation due to uncertain crystalline structure
7. Absorbs, refracts or transmits light
8. Available in colors, no sharp melting points

Design of structural elements in wood, steel, RCC

Wood

1. Art of cutting, framing and placing of raw timber in a position is called

carpentry and joinery
2. timber which is thus dressed and finally placed in position is called wrought
and put up
3. The art of cutting of wood by means of saws is called sawing
4. Process of planning off the flat edges off timber piece to form an angle 45
deg is called chamfering
5. The process of chamfering, if the angle formed is other than 45 deg is
known as bevel
6. Taking the shaving of wood is called planning
7. Process of shaping the various units of construction by hand or machine to
produce molded sections is called moulding.
8. The process of joining two boards or pieces of timber at an angle I called
mitring.
9. This is the process of cutting away a rectangular portion from the edge of
timber piece for sufficient depth is called rebating
 10. Dressing the edges of the boards so as to male them straight and square
with the face is called shooting
11. The sinking of the edge of one piece of timber in to another is called
housing
12. The semi circular object formed on edges or surfaces of wood is called bead
13. Covering the entire or part of surface with veneers is called veneering
14. Method of joining two boards at right angle is called Dovetailing

Steel
1. Plats may be of any size or thickness butt generally they are not rolled to
thickness <5 mm and> 28 mm
2. Maximum area of rolled plates is limited to 30 sq.m
3. plates < 4mm in thickness are sheets
4. Flats are rolled as in the case of plate but are much longer in lengths and
have shorter widths
5. Widths vary from 18mm to 50 mm, thickness – 3 mm to 8 mm
6. Angles

 Equal legs – 2 cm * 2 cm to 20 cm to 20 cm, 3 mm to 5 mm

 Unequal legs – 2 cm*3 cm to 22 cm *10 cm, 4 mm – 20 mm

7. T section – 4 cm*4 cm to 15*15 cm, 6 mm to 8 mm

8. Channels – 5*7 pow(1/2)*3 kg to 42*10*30 kg
9. Joists – 7*4 to 60*17 cm]
10. Uses

 Plats – as webs and flanges of deep beams, column flanges, column

bases
  Flats – considerable use
 Angle – used in diff. components
 T section – for roof trusses and for certain built up columns
 Channels – beams, columns
 Joists/I – section – beams columns

11. Riveting – the common practice to connect the members by rivets.

12. Rivets used in building construction are made of soft steel with a tensile
strength of 3500 to 4000 kg/cm sq
13. Lap joint connections – connecting plates are lapped one over the other and
riveted
14. Butt joint connection – connected with the aid of additional plants
15. Welded connected – the diameter of the holes is kept 1 mm larger than
external diameter of the bolt thread.

Structural members
1. Steel beams – include girders, lintels etc
2. Simplest beam consists of a single rolled steel joint section or an angle
section
3. To take greater loads, compound sections are used
4. plate girders are used when very large loads have to be carried
5. Beams carrying light loads and where the shearing forces are not excessive,
open web beams are used.
6. If the beam is accommodated below the top flange of the girder the
connection is called under girder flange.
7. If the top flange of the beam and portion of the web is cut off so as to
accommodate the top flange of the order that is called top flush.
8. When a beam at a lower level is to be connected to a girder at a higher level
that is called blocked connection.
9. Beams meeting at higher levels with the girder are called blocked and
elevated connection.
10. If beams and girders are connected at different levels, is called hanger
connections.
Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2017

Onsite Sanitation
Rural areas and the outskirts of the urban areas may have insufficient population and
infrastructure to support the sewer system and central treatment plant. Hence, onsite
sanitation becomes necessary to maintain hygienic living conditions. For environmentally
safe onsite sanitation, satisfactory wastewater management techniques should ensure that:
 water body used for water supplies are not contaminated;
 flies and vermin have no access to excreta;
 surface water bodies are not polluted by runoff; and
 nuisance conditions such as odour are minimized.
Acceptable onsite sanitation systems, depending on circumstances, include septic tanks and
surface percolation; extended aeration, alone or following a septic tank; and in some area
without running water the pit privy is still used.

24.1 Septic Tanks

This is basically a sedimentation tank with some degree of solid destruction due to
sedimentation and subsequent anaerobic digestion. Septic tanks are ordinarily designed for 24
h liquid retention time at average daily flow. Considering the volume required for sludge and
scum accumulation, the septic tank may be designed for wastewater retention time of 1 to 2
days. The flow and characteristics of the wastewater that can be considered for design of
septic tank is presented in the Table 24.1. Septic tanks can be made from concrete, masonry
or fiberglass. Prior two are of rectangular shape and later is generally of circular shape. The
inlet and outlet are baffled so that the floating matter and grease will be retained in the tank.
Heavy solids settle at the bottom of the tank, where the organic fraction will decompose
following anaerobic pathway. The production of biogas may interfere with the sedimentation
of the solids. Every septic tank should be provided with the ventilation pipe with the top of
the pipe covered with suitable mosquito proof wire mesh. The top of the pipe should extend
to at least 2 m above the highest building height present in the vicinity of 20 m from the
septic tank.

The ratio of peak flow to average flow may be very high for the small septic tanks, and can
disturb the functioning of the tank due to flow surges, leading to washout of the settled solids.
The liquid depth of the tank is 1 to 2 m and the length to the width ratio is in the range of 2:1
to 4:1 (Figure 24.1). The sludge accumulated in the tank is cleaned at the frequency of once
in 2 to 3 years. Minimum of 300 mm of free board should be provided in the tank. The
effluent of the septic tank is offensive and potentially dangerous. Hence, further treatment for
septic tank effluent is necessary to protect the receiving environment. Due to inadequate
treatment offered to the sewage, septic tanks are recommended for individual houses and for
cluster of houses or institutes where contributing population is not exceeding 300 persons.

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Table 24.1 Characteristics of household wastewater to be considered for septic tank design

Average flow per capita 100 - 160 L/day

Peak flow per capita 170 - 270 L/day
BOD per capita 0.045 kg/day
Suspended solids per capita 0.070 – 0.090 kg/day
Soluble solids per capita 0.035 kg/day
Sludge accumulation per capita 0.073 m3/year

Figure 24.1 Construction Details of the Septic Tank

Post treatment can be achieved by aerobic treatment or subsurface disposal. Diffused air
aeration with solids recycling (extended aeration), sand filter or synthetic media filter
(attached growth process) can be used for treatment of septic tank effluent. Filter bag
equipment and hypochlorite addition will also be suitable for treatment. However, frequent
replacement of filter bag and hypochlorite addition makes it costly.

24.1.1 Design Features of Septic Tank

The tank should be large enough to provide space for sedimentation of solids, digestion of
settled sludge, and storage of sludge and scum accumulated between successive cleaning.

Sewage flow: The flow of sewage is considered to be proportional to the number of fixture
units discharging simultaneously. One fixture unit is treated as equivalent to the flow of 10
L/min. This is equivalent to the discharge generated from one water closet (WC) when
flushed. The number of fixtures discharging simultaneously depends on the population
served. For example for the population of 5 persons, number of fixtures will be one and
probable peak discharge will be 10 L/min. Similarly for population of 10, 20, and 30 numbers
of fixtures will be 2, 3, and 4, and probable peak discharge will be 20 L/min, 30 L/min, and
40 L/min, respectively.

Detention time: The detention time of 24 to 48 h is provided for average flow conditions.
However, the flow variation is substantial from tank to tank depending upon water usage; and
it is not important design criteria.

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Sludge withdrawal: The sludge is withdrawn at a frequency of 6 months to year in large

tank. For small tank it can be 2 to 3 years.

Capacity of the Tank: The total capacity of the septic tank is worked out using following
considerations.

1. Sedimentation: An area of 0.92 m2 is required for every 10 L/min peak flow rate to
support adequate sedimentation of suspended solids. This will favour sedimentation of solids
with 0.05 mm size and sp. gravity of 1.2. A minimum of 0.25 to 0.30 m depth is necessary for
sedimentation.

2. Sludge digestion: The SS per capita may be considered as 70 g/day. It is assumed that that
60% of the solids will be removed in the tank, out of which 70% solids will be volatile, with
5% solid content i.e., 94% water content. The volume of fresh sludge = 0. 84 L/Capitaday.
Considering that 2/3 of the volatile matter is destroyed of which ¼ is mineralized during
digestion and solids content of 13 % in digested sludge, the volume of total digested sludge,
i.e., mineralized sludge with 13% solids plus undigested sludge with 5% solids, will be 0.234
L/Capita-day. The digestion zone contains both the fresh sludge (which is simultaneously
getting destroyed by 2/3 of its volume) and digested sludge; hence volume of both of these
will work out to be (0.848*1/3+0.234) = 0.516 L/Capita-day. At 25 0C the typical time
required for digestion will be 63 days. Hence, capacity of digestion zone works out to be 63 *
0.0005 = 0.032 m3/capita.

3. Volume required for sludge and scum storage: For interval of 1 year of sludge cleaning,
a sludge storage capacity of 0.0002*365 = 0.073 m3/cap is required. The 25 to 50 mm of
seed volume should be considered, and care should be taken while withdrawing the sludge to
leave this volume of sludge to act as seed. No separate depth is provided for this.

Total Capacity: Hence the total capacity of the septic tank will be equal to sum of the above
three requirements, plus a minimum free board of 0.3 m should be provided. Therefore for
20 persons the total capacity of the septic tank will be
1. Sedimentation: Considering peak flow of 30 L/min for 20 persons, the area required =
0.92*30/10 = 2.76 m2. Keeping depth of min. 0.3 m for sedimentation, the volume =
2.76*0.3 = 0.828 m3
3
2. Digestion: 0.032 * 20 = 0.64 m
3. Sludge storage: 0.073 * 20 = 1.46 m3 for one year. For 2 year cleaning frequency
sludge storage volume required = 1.46 * 2 = 2.92 m3
4. Free board = 2.76 * 0.3 = 0.828 m3.
Hence, total volume of septic tank for 20 person = 0.828 + 0.64 + 2.92 + 0.828 = 5.216 m3.
Height of the septic tank = 0.3 + 0.231 + 1.05 + 0.3 m = 1.881 m, and provide length to the
width ratio of 3; hence L = 2.88 m and W = 0.96 m

24.1.2 Other details of Septic Tank

1. Septic tanks are provided with water tight cover, along with ventilation pipe extending up
to 2.0 m above the highest building in the 20 m radius.
2. Inlet and outlet pipes are located on opposite walls with baffle to avoid exit of floating
matter.

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24.2 Subsurface disposal of Septic Tank Effluent

The subsurface disposal field can serve as a further treatment system and for disposal of
treated wastewater, which has undergone some reduction in SS and grease content. Many
natural soils are suitable for such systems. The design is based on the long term capacity of
the soil to percolate the water and it is decided upon the standard percolation test. The
subsidence rate of water in the test bore hole (100 mm dia.) with the test depth of proposed
disposal field (min. 500 mm) is recorded. After removing the loose soil 50 mm of fine gravel
or coarse sand is placed at the bottom. The hole is then filled with the water to the depth of
300 mm, and the depth is maintained overnight (at least 4 h) by adding water. The depth is
then adjusted to 150 mm above gravel and the drop in water level is recorded at 30 min
nterval for next 4 h. If the hole does not hold the water in the morning, it is filled with the
water (150 mm above gravel) and the drop in water level is recorded. The drop recorded in
the last 30 min is used for the determination of percolation rate. The flow rate which can be
applied per unit area as a function of percolation rate is calculated as Q = 204/ (t0.5), where, Q
flow (L/m2.d), t = time in min, required for the water to fall 25 mm. [Q = 130/ (t0.5) as per
CPHEEO (1993)].

If the subsidence rate is over 0.5 mm/min, then a septic tank and the disposal system will
work satisfactorily. The disposal field is constructed by using short length open joined pipe
(100 mm dia.) or perforated plastic or fiber pipe. The length of individual pipe is up to 30 m
and laid with the slope of 0.017 to 0.33%. The pipe is placed in a ditch (300 to 900 mm
width) and minimum 500 mm depth (or it has been excavated to the depth of permeable
stratum). The ditch is backfilled with gravel for a depth of 300 to 400 mm and over which
pipes are placed. An additional 50 mm gravel cover is given to the pipe before the soil
backfilling material is placed. The total length of pipe depends on the trench width, since the
product of this, i.e., the plan area of the trench, should be equal to the area required to be
provided as per the percolation test. Laterals (pipes) are placed about 2 m c/c.

Example: Determine the size of the septic tank and percolation field for hostel which has 200
residents. The average percolation rate has been determined to be 5 mm/min. Consider rate of
wastewater generation 120 L/capita.day.

Solution:
Total wastewater volume per day = 120 x 200 x 10-3= 24 m3
Hence, for 24 hr HRT the volume of Septic tank = 24 m3 + volume for sludge accumulation
@ 0.073 m3/capita.year = 24 + 0.073 * 200 = 38.6 m3
(The exact volume requirement for the septic tank can be worked out using peak discharge of
480 L/min for 200 persons)
The percolation rate (time to fall water to the depth of 25 mm) is = 25/5 = 5 min.
Hydraulic loading applicable = Q = 130/ (t0.5) = 58 L/m2.day
Therefore, total trench area = 24/ 0.058 = 413.8 m2
If width of trench is 900 mm, length of trench = 414/0.9 = 460 m
Provide 15 laterals of 30.7 m length each, placed at 2 m c/c.
The area dedicated to the field would be = 30 x 30.7 = 921 m2.

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Mounds may be constructed above the surface of the ground where the parent soil
permeability is poor by bringing pervious material. The area of mounds depends on
evapotranspiration rate for disposal of the bulk liquid. The remainder may be able to
percolate below. Grass cover and proper shaping of the mound are important to ensure that
rainfall will run-off and that evapo-transpiration of wastewater will be maximized.

Sand filters or buried filters or intermittent sand filters may be provided when soils are
relatively impermeable. Loading rates on intermittent sand filters treating septic tank effluent
ranged from 0.16 to 0.20 m3/m2.day.

Subsurface sand filters are installed in place of permeable material in a suitable excavation
(Figure 24.2). Loading rate of about 0.04 m3/m2.day can be applied, when relatively coarse
sand (1 mm) and uniform size is used (McGhee, 1991). The effluent from either filtration
process must be collected and discharged after disinfection as per the requirements.

Figure 24.2 Subsurface filter (a) Sand filter trench (b) sand filter

Onsite wastewater treatment systems have a potential to provide excellent effluent quality if
they are properly designed and operated. Constructed Wetland system can also be used for
removal of nitrogen along with other contaminant such as heavy metal removal.

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Question 81- find the total volume of liquid in a septic tank with the following criteria,
i. No. of users = 20
ii. Cleaning interval = 365 Days
iii. The capacity required for sludge digestion = 0.033 m3 per capita at 25 0c
iv. Volume of digested sludge = 0.0002 m3 per capita per day.

(A) 4080 liters (B) 2580 liters (C) 5250 liters (D) 3289 liters

Solution

Total Capacity: Hence the total capacity of the septic tank will be equal to sum of the above
three requirements, plus a minimum free board of 0.3 m should be provided. Therefore for
20 ersons the total capacity of the septic tank will be

1. Sedimentation: Considering peak flow of 30 L/min for 20 persons,

the area required = 0.92*30/10 = 2.76 m2. Keeping depth of min. 0.25 m for
sedimentation, the volume = 2.76*0.25 = 0.69 m3
2. Digestion: 0.033 * 20 = 0.66m3
3. Sludge storage volume required: 0.073 * 20 = 1.46 m3 for one year.
4. Free board = 2.76 * 0.2.5 = 0.69m3.

Hence, total volume of septic tank for 20 persons = 0.69 + 0.66 + 1.46 + 0.69 = 3.5 m3.
Now in question it asked the total volume of liquid in septic tank,
We know that 94% of water present in total waste,
So volume of water in septic tank = 94 % of 3.5 m3
= 3.29 m3
= 3290 litre.

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The Pritzker Architecture Prize is awarded annually "to honor a living architect or architects whose built work
demonstrates a combination of those qualities of talent, vision and commitment, which has produced consistent
and significant contributions to humanity and the built environment through the art of architecture. Founded in
1979 by Jay A. Pritzker and his wife Cindy, the award is funded by the Pritzker family and sponsored by
the Hyatt Foundation and is considered to be one of the world's premier architecture prizes, it is often referred to
as the Nobel Prize of architecture.

List of Pritzker Architecture Prize Recipients

S.No Year Recipients Nation Photo

1 1979 Philip Johnson United States of

America

Luis Barragan
2 1980 Mexico

3 1981 James Stirling Great Britain

4 1982 Kevin Roche United States of

America

5 1983 Ieoh Ming Pei United States of

America

6 1984 Richard Meier United States of

America

7 1985 Hans Hollein Austria

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8 1986 Gottfried Böhm Germany

9 1987 Kenzo Tange Japan

10 1988 Gordon Bunshaft, U. S. A,

Oscar Niemeyer Brazil

11 1989 Frank O. Gehry United States of

America

12 1990 Aldo Rossi Italy

13 1991 Robert Venturi United States of

America

14 1992 Alvaro Siza Portuga

15 1993 Fumihiko Maki Japan

16 1994 Christian de France

Portzamparc

17 1995 Tadao Ando Japan

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18 1996 Rafael Moneo Spain

19 1967 Sverre Fehn Norway

20 1998 Renzo Piano Italy

21 1999 Sir Norman Foster United Kingdom

22 2000 Rem Koolhaas Netherland

23 2001 Jacques Herzog and Switzerland

Pierre de Meuron

24 2002 Glenn Murcutt Australia

25 2003 Jorn Utzon Denmark

26 2004 Zaha Hadid Great Britain

27 2005 Thom Mayne United State

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28 2006 Paulo Mendes da Brazil

Rocha

29 2007 Richard Rogers Great Britain

30 2008 Jean Nouvel France

31 2009 Peter Zumthor Switzerland

32 2010 Kazuyo Sejima and Japan

Ryue Nishizawa

33 2011 Eduardo Souto de Portugal

Moura

34 2012 Wang Shu China

35 2013 Toyo Ito Japan

36 2014 Shigeru Ban Japan

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37 2015 Frei Otto Germany

38 2016 Alejandro Aravena Chile

39 2017 Rafael Spain

Aranda, Carme
Pigem, and Ramón
Vilalta
(RCR Arquitectes)

40 2018 B. V. Doshi India

41 2019

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Q 56 (Gate 2010)- 25 person are in room. 15 of them play hokey, 17 of them play football
and 10 of them play both hockey and football. then the number of person playing neither
hockey nor football is.
(A) 2 (B) 17 (C) 13 (D) 3

SOLUTION:

15 - plays hockey
17 - plays football
10 - plays hockey and football
25 - people all in all

Now, since there are people who are into both sports, we're going to try to figure out
how many people are into just one sport (hockey or football).

15 (hockey) - 10 (hockey and football) = 5 (only hockey)

The subtraction above tells us how many of the people are into hockey, alone. Since
10 of those 15 people who play hockey also play football, then 15 - 10 = 5 of them
are those which are just into hockey. Similarly, we have

17 (football) - 10 (hockey and football) = 7 (only football)

Thus, summarizing your data again, we have

5 - plays hockey only

7 - plays football only
10 - plays hockey and football

Right now, you've already considered 5 + 7 + 10 = 22 people. Since there are only
25 people in the room, then those who neither play hockey, nor football is 25 - 22 = 3
people.

Thus, the correct answer is (D) 3.

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2020

ARCHITECTURE
GATE
SOLUTION
GATE PREPRATION SERIES

SECRET OF GETTING A GOOD RANK IS TO STUDY

STRICLY BASED ON GATE SYLLABUS.
ARCHITECTURE GATE SOLUTION 2020

1. PLANNING REGULATIONS AND BYE – LAWS

This set of Construction and Building Materials Multiple Choice Questions & Answers
(MCQs) focuses on “Planning Regulations and Bye-Laws”.

1. Subdivision/layout plan which shall be drawn on a scale of not less than _______
a) 1:100
b) 1:500
c) 1:1000
d) 1:50
Answer: b
Explanation: As per National Building Code, scale for Layout plan is specified as 1:500. In this plan,
location of all proposed and existing roads, dimensions of plot along with building line, locations of sewer
and drainage line etc. are mandatory.

2. The plan of the buildings and elevations and sections accompanying the notice
shall be drawn to a scale _____
a) 1:10
b) 1:50
c) 1:100
d) 1:500
Answer: c
Explanation: This plan includes floor plans which shows the use or occupancy of all parts of the building.
Hence this parts needs to be large enough for the Engineers to understand well. Therefore NBC have
specified scale of 1:100.

3. A _____ line usually parallel to the plot boundaries and laid down in each case by the Authority, beyond
which nothing can be constructed towards the site boundaries.
a) Building line
b) Control line
c) Property line
d) Plot line
Answer: a
Explanation: Building line or Set-back is provided to avoid traffic congestion in front of the building.
Buildings like mall, multi-complexes, factories, etc. which attract large number of vehicles, should have
be set-back a further distance apart from the building line. This line after this extra margin is called as
Control Line.

4. The ratio of the total floor area inclusive of all the floors to the area of the plot on which building stands is
known as _____
a) Groundage
b) Plot area
c) Floor area
d) Built-up area

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ARCHITECTURE GATE SOLUTION 2020
Answer: d
Explanation: It is also known as the Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR). The value of
built-up area is determined by local authorities and it may be different for different areas for different
buildings of the town. Floor area means built up area excluding area of walls.

5. The aggregate area of doors and windows shall not be less than _____ of the floor area of room.
a) 1/10
b) 1/9
c) 1/7
d) 1/6
Answer: c
Explanation: As per IS code, if the area is less than the specified area, occupants of the building will not
receive enough lighting and ventilation. The area of such openings excluding area of doors should be
minimum 1/10 of the floor area for dry-hot climate and minimum 1/6 of the area for wet-hot climate.

6. The placing of various rooms or units of a structure in proper correlation of their functions and in due
proximity with each other is known as _____
a) Aspect
b) Prospect
c) Circulation
d) Grouping
Answer: d
Explanation: Grouping is the proper arrangement of rooms according to their functions leads to better
planning of a building. It is observed that grouping leads to saving in unnecessary movements, proper
correlation, easy control and overall economy.

7. The term ______ is used to mean the external views as seen from certain rooms of the building.
a) Aspect
b) Prospect
c) Elegance
d) Roominess
Answer: b
Explanation: Prospect is dictated by the surrounding peculiarities of the site of the project. This can help
us to conceal some unwanted views and reveal the beauty of the building.

8. The area on the earth which lies between the zones of cancer and Capricorn is known as the _______
a) Tropic zone
b) Frigid zone
c) Torrid zone
d) Arctic zone
Answer: a
Explanation: Topic zone lies between zone of cancer (i.e. 231/2 degree north latitude) and Capricom
(i.e. 231/2 degree south latitude). The typical features of tropical countries are burning sun, fixed
seasons and rainfall which is heavy, moderate and with storm.

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ARCHITECTURE GATE SOLUTION 2020

9. Landscape architecture comes under in which principle of planning?

a) Function
b) Form
c) Aesthetic
d) Elegance
Answer: c
Explanation: Aesthetic plays major role in the architectural landscaping. It includes the appearance of
the building and overall beauty. Whereas function and form are both same which deals with the utility of
the rooms according to their functions.

10. When building bye-laws came into force?

a) April 1984
b) July 1983
c) April 1983
d) July 1972
Answer: a
Explanation: Building bye-laws came into force on April 1984. This local law was framed by the
subordinate authority. Its specifications are designed to minimum safeguard to the workers during
construction; to the health and comfort of users; and to provide enough safety to the public in general.

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2. CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS

This set of Construction and Building Materials Multiple Choice Questions &
Answers (MCQs) focuses on “Climate and its Effects”

1. Burnings sun, fixed seasons and rainfall which is heavy, moderate and with storm are the typical
features of _______
a) Cancer zone
b) Capricorn zone
c) Torrid zone
d) Tropical zone
Answer: d
Explanation: The area on earth which lies between the zone of cancer and Capricorn is known as
the tropics. Whole part of India is considered to be typically tropical climate.

2. The tropical climate which consists of heat waves hot winds and low humidity comes under which
climatic conditions?
a) Hot-wet
b) Hot-dry
c) Cool-dry
d) Rainy
Answer: b
Explanation: Hot-dry places are cool in winter. The maximum day temperature in summer will be
about 27°C to 42°C and the night temperature will be moderate say about 15°C to 25°C.

3. Which city of Maharashtra experiences Hot-dry climatic conditions?

a) Nagpur
b) Hyderabad
c) Mumbai
d) Nasik
Answer: a
Explanation: Ahmedabad, Nagpur and similar other places situated away from the coastal regions
are the typical example of experiencing hot dry climate. These regions are famous for highest
temperature records in India during summer season.

4. Which type of climate consists of high humidity throughout the year and even in the dry season with
variations in day and night temperatures?
a) Hot wet
b) Hot dry
c) Cool dry
d) Rainy

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Answer: a
Explanation: The temperature ranges in hot season and cold season or 25°C to 30°C and 10°C to
22°C respectively. Bombay which is situated near the sea is a typical example of experiencing hot
wet or humid climate.

5. The data regarding temperature, moisture, timings of sunset and sunrise and direction of wind are
collected and preserved by ____________
a) Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
b) Meteorological Department of the Ministry of Commerce, Govt. of India
c) Indian Institute of Weather Forecasting and Research Centre
d) National Institute of Technology
Answer: b
Explanation: Meteorological Department of the Ministry of Commerce, Govt. of India works
throughout the year and records every data possible. They predict the future climatic conditions by
comparing the past records of 10 to 15 years. This department has recognized the following four
seasons of the year: Cool-dry, Hot-dry season, General Rainy season, Season of the Retreating
South-West Monsoon.

6. From the given climatic conditions which have its worst effects on the building structure in India.
a) Dust storm
b) Humidity
c) Heavy rain
d) Hot summer days
Answer: c
Explanation: Every year due to heavy rain huge destruction of building materials takes place.
Mumbai itself invests more than Rs.10000 crore maintenance and repair of buildings

7. Which building material has high Seismic resistance and flexibility of nailed joints?
a) Bamboo
b) Timber
c) Ply
d) Husk
Answer: b
Explanation: As long has materials and workmanship are of good quality, timber structures can
perform very well in an earthquake. A wooden frame is usually considered to have medium to low
vulnerability towards earthquake.

8. Pyramids are the best example of ______

a) Flood Resisting structure
b) Dust storm Resisting structure
c) Insulating structure
d) Earthquake resisting structure
Answer: d
Explanation: Triangle is the most stable geometric structure. Hence, the pyramids are very well
designed and can sustain for long periods. Along with durability, these structures can withstand
severe weather conditions like earthquake.

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9. Which is the most important advanced technique of earthquake resistant design and construction?
a) Flexible steel form
b) Reinforced concrete
c) Base Isolation
d) Steel strengthening Treatment
Answer: c
Explanation: Along with energy dissipation devices, Base Isolation technique is most advanced
which isolates the structure by a series of bearing pads. This bearing pads absorbs maximum
shocks develop due to seismic activity.

10. The temperature at the _______ is the highest and it is lowest at the ______
a) longitude, latitude
b) poles, equator
c) north, south
d) equator, poles
Answer: d
Explanation: India is in the Tropics zone and hence there is a temperature gradient from equator to
poles and depending upon the latitude of the locality, its temperature range can be decided.

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3. ESSENTIAL FACTOR OF PLANNING

This set of Building Materials MCQs focuses on “Essential Factors of Planning”.

1. _______ used to mean the regulation of admitting more or less sunshine in the room.
a) Elegance
b) Roominess
c) Circulation
d) Aspect
Answer: d
Explanation: The meaning of aspect has now been given wider scope and it includes the
arrangement of doors and windows in the external walls of buildings particularly of residential
buildings, so as to fully enjoy the natural gifts of sunshine, Breeze, scenery, etc.
2. The term ______ is used to mean the link or access or movement between the various rooms and
floors of building.
a) Flexibility
b) Prospect
c) Circulation
d) Elegance
Answer: c
Explanation: The proper provision of circulation makes the building comfortable and convenient. The
circulation in a building is of two types- Horizontal circulation and Vertical circulation.
3. _________ is used to indicate the architectural effect produced by elevation in relation to width,
height position of doors and windows, materials employed in the construction of external walls, etc.
a) Furniture requirements
b) Elegance
c) Roominess
d) Grouping
Answer: c
Explanation: The proper provision of circulation makes the building comfortable and convenient. The
circulation in a building is of two types- Horizontal circulation and Vertical circulation.
4. The placing of various rooms or units of a structure in a proper correlation of their functions and in
due proximity with each other is known as ________
a) Sanitation
b) Prospect
c) Economy
d) Grouping
Answer: d
Explanation: Correct grouping grants the status of a balanced design. For instance, in a residential
building, kitchen and dining room should be grouped close to each other. It is observed that grouping
leads to saving in unnecessary movement’s proper correlation easy control and overall economy.

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5. One of the important requirements of good planning is ______

a) Privacy
b) Furniture requirements
c) Prospect
d) Roominess
Answer: a
Explanation: Privacy offers special comfort to the occupants. It should not be confused as it is the
total isolation and is desirable only in certain cases as study rooms, library, etc. Privacy is of two
types- External privacy and internal privacy.

6. The term _______ is used to refer the effect derived from space of a room that is its length, width
and height.
a) Prospect
b) Sanitation
c) Privacy
d) Roominess Answer: d
Explanation: Roominess is nothing but the feeling of spaciousness. The planning of room should be
such that maximum benefit is obtained from the minimum dimensions of the room. For example
rectangle shaped room looks more spacious than square shaped room of same area.

7. As a principle of planning, the term _______ is used to mean architectural hygiene.

a) Sanitation
b) Drainage
c) Water supply
d) Waste water
Answer: a
Explanation: Sanitation comprise of drainage system and water supply. It includes proper sanitation
of waste water along with its treatment and supply to the major pipelines.

8. Due to improper ventilation, which gas gets stuck into house and develops dizziness to the
occupants.
a) Oxygen
b) Nitrogen
c) Carbon dioxide
d) Hydrogen
Answer: c
Explanation: If the room is not properly ventilated, there will be excessive quantity of carbon dioxide
in the air. The more the amount of carbon dioxide, the more difficult is the breathing. For comfortable
working, the carbon dioxide content should be limited to about 0.6% by volume.

9. The proper and sufficient ventilation results in absence of _________

a) Condensation
b) Deposition
c) Precipitation
d) Circulation

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Answer: a
Explanation: The difference of temperature between the outside air and the inside air tends to the
deposition of moisture on the room surfaces. This is known as the condensation and it can be
effectively controlled by the provision of suitable ventilation of the room.

10. The ________ is required to control dust and other impurities in the air.
a) Circulation
b) Sanitation
c) Ventilation
d) Purification
Answer: c
Explanation: Controlling dust and other impurities from coming into the building is the main cause of
insisting proper ventilation in the commercial buildings. The ventilation is also required to suppress
odors, smoke, concentration of bacteria, etc.

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4. BASIC FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING.

This set of Building Materials Interview Questions and Answers focuses on “Basic
Functional Requirements of a Building”

1. Construction of cavity walls as external walls to protect the building from outside heat or cold as the
hollow space between two walls act as an________
a) Burning material
b) Insulating material
c) Destructive material
d) Building material
Answer: b
Explanation: Properly insulated building cuts down the cost of electric burning in summer as well as in
winter. A cavity wall is one of the types of thermal insulation which consists of two walls with cavity in
between them.

2. __________ in a building means the free passage of clean air in a building.

a) Habitation
b) Protection
c) Sanitation
d) Ventilation
Answer: d
Explanation: Ventilation is essential in every building. The main cause of insisting proper ventilation in
the industrial buildings is to control dust and other impurities from entering into the building rooms.

3. Which gas leads to suffocation and dizziness to the occupants when increase in its quantity in the air.
a) Carbon monoxide
b) Hydrogen
c) Nitrogen
d) Carbon dioxide
Answer: d
Explanation: If the room is not properly ventilated, there will be excessive quantity of carbon dioxide in
the air. It is observed that breathing is difficult when the amount of carbon dioxide by volume is about 6%
and a man loses consciousness when it reaches about 10% or so.

4. The termite, which are responsible for the destruction of wooden materials, are popularly known as
_______
a) Red ants
b) White ants
c) Black ants
d) Big ants

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Answer: b
Explanation: There are over 2300 species of termites but only about 4% of the termite spaces are
responsible for the damage of the buildings. The termites live in a colony and they are very fast in eating
wooden and other cellulosic materials as food.

5. The science which deals with the sound insulation in a building is known as _____
a) Reverberation
b) Transmission
c) Acoustic
d) Air borne
Answer: c
Explanation: The terms sound insulation all soundproofing is used to indicate the reduction in the level of
sound when it passes through a building component. Acoustics becomes very essential in some
buildings like cinema hall, Auditorium, Opera House, etc.

6. Fire extinguisher extinguishes the small fires in the house by using _____
a) Carbon dioxide
b) Nitrogen gas
c) Water
d) Foam
Answer: a
Explanation: Standards of fire safety or fire extinguishers are specified in the Building Code should be
provided with sufficient and quick fire exit. Fire extinguishers are one of the important building
requirements which help in extinguishing small fires.

7. The process in which the difference of temperature between the outside air and the inside air tends to
the deposition of moisture on the room surfaces is known as ______
a) Saturation
b) Accumulation
c) Precipitation
d) Condensation
Answer: d
Explanation: The temperature difference which leads to condensation can be effectively controlled by
the provision of suitable ventilation of a room.

8. The treatment given to the roof of a building to prevent the roof from the leakage of water is known as
_________
a) Fire proofing
b) Damp proofing
c) Termite proofing
d) Sound proofing
Answer: b
Explanation: One of the basic requirements in case of all the buildings is that the structural should
remain dry as far as possible. If this condition is not satisfied, it is likely that the building may become
inhabitable and hence damp proofing or water proofing is required.

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9. _________ is a flexible material which is commonly used for the damp proofing.
a) Hot bitumen
b) Bituminous felts
c) Mastic asphalt
d) Metal sheets
Answer: a
Explanation: Due to its physical nature, hot bitumen remain flexible even after cooling and it is placed on
the bedding of concrete or mortar. This material should be applied with the minimum thickness of 3 mm.
whereas Mastic Asphalt is a semi rigid material and it forms and excellent impervious layer for damp
proofing.

10. Which one of the given below is a chemical insecticide for termite proofing.
a) Dieldrin
b) Sulphuric acid
c) Rodenticide
d) Pyrethrins
Answer: a
Explanation: Dieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon. The application of this chemical serve as a chemical
barrier between the building and the ground and this method has proved to be most effective method of
termite proofing. Whereas, Rodenticide is used for killing rats.

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5. FOUNDATION

This set of Construction and Building Materials Multiple Choice Questions & Answers
(MCQs) focuses on “Foundation

1. The part of a building constructed below ground level is known as _________

a) Plinth
b) Superstructure
c) Basement
d) Foundation
Answer: d
Explanation: Foundation is laid below the ground level and it is in direct contact with sub-strata and
transmits all the loads to the sub-soil. The structure below the ground level is also known as
Substructure or Foundation (excluding plinth)

2. The load of the structure distributed by the foundation is __________

a) Concentrated
b) Varying
c) Uniform
d) Eccentric
Answer: c
Explanation: The foundation is laid below the ground in a such a way that the load of structure is
uniformly distributed to the ground to make the structure stable.

3. For loose soil, the formula used to find the minimum depth of foundation is given by _______
a) Rankine’s formula
b) Hiley formula
c) Bernoulli’s formula
d) Newtonian formula
Answer: a
Explanation: The depth of foundations can also be obtained by drawing the lines of angles 45 degree
and 60 degree from the base of the foundation towards ground level. Hence to simplify the method,
Rankine formula is used.

4. The foundation in which the loading on the soil remains practically the same after the construction of the
building is known as _______
a) Step foundation
b) Grillage foundation
c) Raft foundation
d) Inverted arch foundation
Answer: b
Explanation: Grillage foundation or Floating foundation is so adjusted that the weight of the excavated
earth is just equal to the total load of the building. In such case, the settlement is reduced to a minimum
extent.

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5. _________ method of increasing the bearing power of soil becomes very useful when the load coming
on the soil is practically uniform.
a) Raft foundation
b) Grillage foundation
c) Mat foundation
d) Inverted arch foundation
Answer: a
Explanation: Raft foundations are very useful in the soil which is of yielding nature that is soft clay or
reclaimed soil. The raft is designed as an inverted RCC roof with uniformly distributed load of the soil
pressure and supported by walls, beams and columns.

6. When the ground is sloping, _______ foundations are used to correct the levels of the sloping ground on
which the building is to be constructed.
a) Shallow foundation
b) Combined foundation
c) Cantilever foundation
d) Steeped foundation
Answer: d
Explanation: Stepped foundation is adopted when the construction becomes uneconomical to provide
foundations at the same level. In this, minimum depth of 800 mm should be provided at all the points.

7. Which type of foundation is used for the construction of building on black cotton soil.
a) Inverted arch foundation
b) Floating foundation
c) Mat foundation
d) Grillage foundation
Answer: c
Explanation: Black cotton soil is a clay or loose type of soil and is considerably swells and shrinks by
variation in moisture content. The variation in the volume of the soil is to the extent of 20 to 30% of the
original volume. Hence, Raft Foundation or Mat Foundation plays important role in uniform distribution of
the load of structure over black cotton soil.

8. ________ is applied to the process of laying down certain lines and marks on the ground before the
excavation of foundation trenches.
a) Ground tracing
b) Surveying
c) Dumpy level
d) Digging
Answer: a
Explanation: The sitting out or Ground tracing is mainly done for two purposes- firstly, the excavation of
foundation trenches can be started immediately after this process is completed and secondly, the lines
and marks established by this process serve as a guide.

9. If the foundation of the structure is to be divided into two or more independent units, ________ are
provided to take care of unequal settlement.

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a) Construction joints
b) Mechanical joints
c) Slip joints
d) Connecting joints
Answer: c
Explanation: Slip joints are situated on the boundary of independent units and they help in localizing the
effect of unequal settlement in affected portion of the structure only.

10. A common footing provided for two or more columns is known as _________
a) Continues footing
b) Combined footing
c) Cantilever footing
d) Eccentric footing
Answer: b
Explanation: Combined footing becomes useful when an exterior column is situated near the boundary
line of the plot and it is not possible to project its footing symmetrically on both the sides.

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6. PLINTH

This set of Construction and Building Materials Multiple Choice Questions & Answers
(MCQs) focuses on “Plinth”

1. The part of the building above the ground level and up to the floor level immediately above the ground is
known as __________
a) Plinth area
b) Formation level
c) Ground level
d) Plinth
Answer: d
Explanation: Plinth is therefore defined as the portion of the structure between the surface of the
surrounding ground and surface of the floor, immediately above the ground. Plinth is an important
component of building which prevents crawling animals, water and other insects from coming inside the
building.

2. The built up area measured and the plinth level is known as __________
a) Total area
b) Plinth area
c) Plot area
d) Floor area
Answer: b
Explanation: Plinth area is nothing but the build-up covered area measured at the floor level.

3. What should be the average height of plinth?

a) 300-500 m
b) 1-2 m
c) 300-450 mm
d) 50-100 mm
Answer: c
Explanation: Generally the plinth level is provided at about 300 to 400 mm above finished ground level. It
is suggested that plinth level should be decided by considering the top level of the ground and hence
considering the level.

4. In a market area, the plinth area should not exceed ____ of the area of site.
a) 75%
b) 25%
c) 95%
d) 55%
Answer: a
Explanation: As per regulations, the plinth area should not exceed 75% of the area of commercial sites,
provided sufficient off-street parking facilities for loading and unloading of vehicles are provided on the
same plot as the building.

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5. The ______ provides support to the occupants, furniture, fixtures and equipment’s of a building.
a) Plinth
b) Ramp
c) Floor
d) Lifts
Answer: c
Explanation: Different floors divide the building in two different levels to provide more accommodation on
a given plot of land. The floor of a building immediately above the ground is known as ground floor.

6. _________ is known as Substructure of the building.

a) Plinth
b) Trenches
c) Foundation
d) Footing
Answer: c
Explanation: Superstructure is the part of the building constructed about the plinth level. Foundation,
plinth, basement, ground level, etc. comes under Superstructure.

7. The height of the Plinth should not be less than ____

a) 45 cm
b) 20 cm
c) 1 m
d) 500 cm
Answer: a
Explanation: According to Indian Standards, the minimum height for the Plinth is 45 cm. The height of
the plinth depends upon architectural elevation, ground level, highest flood level, etc.

8. The portion below the plinth level is known as ______

a) Plinth area
b) Superstructure
c) Sub-structure
d) Formation level
Answer: c
Explanation: Substructure or foundation is the lower portion of the building which lies below the plinth
level. Substructure transmits the loads of the superstructure to the supporting soil.

9. Foundations are more susceptible to ______

a) Settlement
b) Corrosion
c) Fracture
d) Shocks
Answer: a
Explanation: Settlements is most commonly seen in foundation which are within the permissible limits,
without causing cracks in the superstructure and soil does not fail in shear.

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10. The word Plinth is derived from _____

a) Latin
b) Greek
c) Spanish
d) Polish
Answer: b
Explanation: In architecture, a Plinth ( from Greek plinthos, “brick”) is the base or platform upon which a
column, pedestal, statue, monument or structure rests.

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7. SUPERSTRUCTURE

This set of Construction and Building Materials Multiple Choice Questions & Answers
(MCQs) focuses on “Superstructure”.

1. _______ is the part of building constructed above the plinth level.

a) Superstructure
b) Substructure
c) Foundation
d) Plinth
Answer: a
Explanation: Superstructure is constructed of above the plinth level which consists of RCC walls and
columns, upper floors, sills, Lintels, etc. Whereas, substructure is a part of building constructed below
the plinth level which consists of foundation plinth, etc.

2. In order to secure superstructure from earthquake, _________ technique is most preferred and used
worldwide.
a) Reinforcement
b) Base Isolation
c) Energy Dissipation
d) Seismic Dampers
Answer: b
Explanation: Base Isolation technique separates the building from the building foundation by wearing
pads. It consists of lead rubber bearing or spherical sliding isolation system. In case of an earthquake,
fix base building deform and damaged, whereas base isolated building rocks back and forth like a boat
and reduce the shock by 60%.

3. In old times, the construction of superstructure was done by using _________ building material.
a) Rubber
b) Bamboo
c) Mud
d) Timber
Answer: d
Explanation: Timber floor consists of Plank of wood with 25 mm thickness which is supported by joist
with size of 50 mm×75 mm to 100 mm. Timber was most preferred building material as compared to
bamboo as Timber was cheap and easily available.

4. __________ wall is constructed in order to support load other than its own.
a) Load supporting
b) Load distributing
c) Load bearing
d) Load releasing

Answer: c
Explanation: Load bearing walls support all loads before transferring them to the foundation the wall

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thickness is not money not less than one break or 215 mm. This wall also uses reinforcement Steel bars
to strengthen its position.

5. In architecture, _________ refers to such super-structural element that also has certain proportional and
decorative features.
a) Beam
b) Column
c) Lintels
d) Sills
Answer: b
Explanation: Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece of stone, usually by
turning on a lathe-like apparatus. Single piece columns are among the heaviest stones used in
architecture. Modern columns are constructed out of Steel, precast concrete, or brick.

6. ________ are structural members design to carry and transfer transverse loads across space to support
elements.
a) Beams
b) Columns
c) Lintels
d) Sills
Answer: a
Explanation: A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force introduced into the material of the bean as a result of external loads, own
weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

7. In architecture, a _________ is generally the lower horizontal surface of a room, and/or the supporting
structure underneath it.
a) Sill
b) Basement
c) Ramp
d) Floor
Answer: d
Explanation: A floor typically consists of a support structure called a sub-floor on the top of which is laid
a floor covering to provide a working surface. The floor is actually constructed above the plinth.

8. ______ is the top most part of building which provides covering to the entire assembly and the
occupants.
a) Roof
b) Ceiling
c) Coping
d) Parapet wall

Answer: a
Explanation: Roof is one of the most important building structures which provides safety and protect
occupants from sun light, storms and rain. Basic types of a room designs are Flat roof, Shed roof, Gable
roof, Hip roof, etc.

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9. __________ is special material used to make sure that no moisture leaks in those areas of a roof that
are particularly vulnerable to penetration.
a) Dampers
b) Flashing
c) Ceramic
d) Wax
Answer: b
Explanation: Flashing is a strip of metal used to stop water penetrating the junction of a roof with another
surface. Areas where flashing is commonly used: where roofs meet walls, wherever the roof is pierced
by a Chimney, skylight, air or plumbing vent.

10. ________ is the structural method to maintain the favorable room temperature in every season of the
year.
a) Condensation
b) Damping
c) Air conditioning
d) Insulation
Answer: d
Explanation: Because hot air rises, roof lose more heat than walls and does require greater degree of
insulation. There is a multitude of different locations for the insulation in a roof such as resting above
ceiling, attached between rafters, between substrate and roofing, etc.

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8. METHODS OF SITE EXPLORATION

This set of Construction & Building Materials Multiple Choice Questions & Answers focuses on
“Methods of Site Exploration”.

1. A square pit, known as _________ with side as about 1.50 m, is excavated upto a depth at which
sufficiently hard soil is available.
a) Test pits
b) Probing
c) Test piles
d) Deep boring
Answer: a
Explanation: Using Trail pits or Test pits, various Tata of the soil can be inspected, studied and classified
accordingly. This method is useful when hard soil is available within a maximum depth of 1.50 meter.

2. _________ consists of driving either a hollow tube or a steel rod or an iron rod into the ground.
a) Trail pits
b) Test piles
c) Probing
d) Digging
Answer: c
Explanation: In Probing, a hollow tube of diameter 35 mm to 50 mm is taken. The tube is driven into the
ground 300 mm or so at a time. It is then withdrawn and the material caught in the slit is inspected.

3. The ____________ is the term used to denote a method in which case is driven into the ground and the
material inside the casing is washed out and brought to the surface for inspection.
a) Deep boring
b) Percussion boring
c) Rotary drilling
d) Wash boring
Answer: d
Explanation: The process of wash boring consists in driving an inner tube of diameter 25 mm to 50 mm,
inside an outer tube of diameter 100 mm to 150 mm. Whereas, percussion boring and rotary drilling are
the types of Deep boring.

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4. Identify the given diagram below.

a) Percussion machine
b) Rotary drilling machine
c) Electrical resistivity method
d) Seismogram
Answer: b
Explanation: In this process, a hollow tube is driven by rotary motion which cuts solid core. The water is
used to facilitate the cutting process. The machine can be used either for soft or hard material.

5. The method in which 4 electrons are driven in the ground at equal distance apart and in a straight line up to
a depth which the ground distance is to be measured.
a) Seismic refraction method
b) Geophysical method
c) Electrical resistivity method
d) Current extraction method
Answer: c
Explanation: This method is based on the principle that each soil has different electrical resistivity,
depending upon its water content, compaction and composition. For instance, the saturated soil will have
lower electrical resistivity as compared to the loose dry gravel or solid rock.

6. The number of blows required to drive the penetrometer into the ground through a distance of 300 mm is
measured which is known as _____________ of the soil.
a) Standard penetration resistance
b) Bearing power of soil
c) Maximum safe bearing capacity
d) Allowable bearing pressure
Answer: a
Explanation: The bearing capacity and the other engineering properties of certain types of soil are they
known by referring to the curves correlating Standard Penetration Resistance or SPT and the corresponding
characteristics of soil. The values of SPT of soil and different depths are determined.

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7. The resistance of the soil with depth is measured by means of a tool known as the _______
a) Seismometer
b) Potentiometer
c) Penetrometer
d) Ammeter
Answer: c
Explanation: The penetrometer is used under static or dynamic loading which may consist of a sampling
spoon, a cone or tool of other shape. The penetrometer is driven in the ground with the help of blows from a
650 N weight falling from a height of 750 mm.

8. Identify the given diagram below.

a) Post-hole auger
b) Screw auger
c) Shell auger
d) Rod
Answer: a
Explanation: The length of the tube is about 1.50 M and it is provided with a Jaws at the end so that it can be
suitably explore or dig the ground easily. The auger is work by applying leverage at the top.

9. The shock waves so produced travel down in the sub soil strata and get reflected after striking a hard rock
surface below and recorded by the instrument known as _____
a) Microphone
b) Geophone
c) Receiver
d) Sensors

Answer: b
Explanation: A number of geophones are arrange along a line. Some of the waves, known as direct or
primary waves are picked first buy Geophones. The Other waves which travel down through the soil get
reflected after striking a hard rock surface below.

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10. What is average depth of a Test pit?

a) 10 m
b) 2 m
c) 1.50 m
d) 15 m
Answer: c
Explanation: Test Pit is excavated up to a depth about 1.50 m at which sufficiently hard soil is available. The
various data of soil can be inspected, studied and classified accordingly. This method is useful when hard
soil is available within a maximum depth of 1.50 m.

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9. BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

This set of Construction Materials Assessment Questions and Answers focuses on

“Bearing Capacity of Soil”.

1. _________ is used to indicate the maximum load per unit area which the soil will resist safely without
displacement.
a) Bearing power
b) Maximum safe bearing capacity
c) Strength of soil
d) Allowable bearing pressure
Answer: a
Explanation: The Load of the structure is ultimately coming on the soil and hence it is of utmost
importance to know the strength and behavior of the soil. Dividing the ultimate bearing power of soil by a
factor of safety, the safe bearing capacity of soil is obtained.

2. The term _________ on soil is used to indicate the maximum pressure which can be exerted on soil
while taking into account shear failure, settlement and the ability of structure to resist settlement.
a) Bearing capacity
b) Net pressure intensity
c) Allowable bearing pressure
d) Maximum safe bearing capacity
Answer: c
Explanation: The value of Allowable Bearing Pressure on soil depends on the nature of ground and the
type of building. The maximum safe bearing capacity of soil is generally more than the allowable bearing
pressure on soil.

3. The maximum differential settlement should not exceed _____ mm in case of foundation on sandy soil.
a) 100
b) 40
c) 50
d) 25
Answer: d
Explanation: The total amount of settlement should be generally limited between 40 mm and 100 mm.
The term differential settlement indicates the relative settlement of the adjacent portion of the structure.

4. The maximum differential settlement should not exceed ____ mm in case of foundation on clayey soil.
a) 40
b) 25
c) 100
d) 50
Answer: a
Explanation: For ordinary frame structures of concrete, the permissible angular distortion is 1/500 i.e.
one horizontal to 500 vertical and the desirable value is 1/1000 i.e. one horizontal to 1000 vertical. The
term angular distortion is used to indicate the deformation of the structure in a vertical plane.

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5. The maximum safe bearing capacity of hard rocks with defects and lamination such as granite, diorite
and trap is _____ kN/m2.
a) 1650
b) 3300
c) 250
d) 100
Answer: b
Explanation: The term maximum safe bearing capacity of soil is used to indicate the maximum pressure
that is soil can be here without any risk of shear failure only, irrespective of any settlement that may
occur.

6. The maximum safe bearing capacity of very soft, wet, pasty or muddy clay is ____ kN/m2.
a) 150
b) 100
c) 50
d) 25
Answer: c
Explanation: As the given soil is very soft, wet, muddy clay, the soil possess very least minimum safe
bearing capacity. This is because, this soil possess very less intermolecular attraction between the
molecules hence it has low bearing capacity.

7. In case of non-cohesive soils such as sand and gravel, ___% reduction in allowable bearing capacity of
the soil should be applied, if the water table is situated below or near the bearing surface of the soil.
a) 20%
b) 50%
c) 80%
d) 100%
Answer: b
Explanation: However, if water table is situated below the bearing surface of the soil at a depth equal to
the width of the foundation trench, no such reduction should be applied. But in this case, 50% reduction
is applied. For intermediate depths of the water table, the proportion and percentage reduction should be
applied.

8. Identify the method given below for the determination of the bearing power of soil.
a) Plate load test method
b) Electrical resistivity method
c) Seismic refraction method
d) Geophysical method
Answer: a
Explanation: Plate load test method is one of the methods of determination of bearing power of soil.
Plate load test method is the improved point method and it is widely used for determination of the
bearing capacity. Other methods for determination are: method of loading, method of dropping a weight,
analytical methods and Presumptive method.

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9. In which method, a square steel plate is used to determine the bearing power of soil.
a) Plate load test
b) Method of loading
c) Analytical method
d) Penetration test
Answer: b
Explanation: In method of loading, a square steel plate is used whose size depends on practical
conditions and it generally varies from 3000 mm2 to 7500 mm2. The plate should have sufficient
thickness to with stand the maximum bending stresses due to probable loading.

10. The bearing capacity of soil is calculated in ______ units.

a) gm/cc
b) kg/m3
c) kN/m2
d) N/m
Answer: c
Explanation: The bearing capacity of soil is calculated as the maximum load divided by the total area of
steel plate i.e. Bearing Capacity = max. Load ÷ area of steel plate and the unit is N/m2 or kN/m2.

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10. METHODS OF DETERMINING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

This set of Construction Materials Interview Questions and Answers focuses on

“Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity of Soil”.

1. For determining the bearing capacity of soil, in method of loading the size for a square steel plate used
is about ________
a) 300 mm2 to 750 mm2
b) 3000 mm2 to 7500 mm2
c) 3 m2 to 75 m2
d) 3 mm2 to 75 mm2
Answer: b
Explanation: In method of loading comma the size of square steel plate generally variance from 3000
mm2 to 7500 mm2. The plates should have sufficient thickness to with stand the maximum bending
stresses due to probable loading. But in no case, it should be less than 25 mm.

2. In method of loading, which material is used for loading.

a) Wooden pegs
b) Square steel plate
c) Sand bags
d) Rocks
Answer: c
Explanation: The number of banks full of sand or arrange on the rolled Steel section. The sand bag is on
the platform till the settlement of the ground ceases or stops. The loading should be applied without
shock or impact at the center.

3. The bearing capacity of sandy soil and gravelly soils is affected to the extent of _____% by the presence
of water table.
a) 50
b) 10
c) 25
d) 80
Answer: a
Explanation: If the water table is above the foundation level, the water should be pumped out before
placing the steel plate. If water is made with at a depth of one metre below the level of the foundation
level, the load test should be carried out at that level.

4. Due to the adjustment of soil particles under the action of loading, there is some settlement at zero
loading, this is known as the ___________
a) Bearing capacity
b) Safe bearing capacity
c) Vibroflotation
d) Zero correction

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Answer: d
Explanation: Zero correction is obtained from the load settlement curve. The zero correction should be
deducted from the observed settlements to get the actual settlements.

5. The loading to the test plate is applied with the help of ______
a) Sand bags
b) Hydraulic jack
c) Wooden pegs
d) Hard rocks
Answer: b
Explanation: In plate load test, the hydraulic Jack is preferably provided with the remote control pumping
unit. The reaction of the hydraulic jack is borne either by the gravity loading platform method or by the
reaction truss method.

6. In analytical methods, which soil parameters used to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
a) Angle of internal friction
b) Permeability
c) Adhesion
d) Porosity
Answer: a
Explanation: Angle of internal friction and Cohesion are the soil parameters which are used in analytical
method to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil. The samples, preferably of undisturbed soil,
are collected from the bore holes or test pits and various test are then carried out in the soil testing
laboratory for the purpose of analytical analysis of the soil.

7. In Penetration test, the formula obtained for the safe bearing capacity of soil per unit area is given by:
a) R÷{A×F}
b) R-{A×F}
c) R+{A×F}
d) R×{A×F}
Answer: a
Explanation: Safe bearing capacity of soil per unit area = R÷{A×F} where R is equals to ultimate
resistance of soil, A = 2 cross sectional area of the substance, F equals two factor of safety. The results
obtained by this method are approximate and hence this method is used for minor engineering
structures.

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8. Identify the method given below.

a) Plate load test

b) Method of loading
c) Analytical method
d) Penetration test
Answer: a
Explanation: Plate load test is the improved refined method and it is widely used for determining the
bearing capacity of soil for important civil structures. Specifically, this method is plate load method with
gravity loading par platform which consists of loading of sand bags.

9. Identify the method given below.

a) Penetration test
b) Method of loading

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c) Plate load test
d) Analytical method
Answer: a
Explanation: Method of dropping a weight or Penetration test is used when a substance of non weight is
dropped from a known height. The date of the impression made by the weight on the soil is noted. Then
the bearing capacity of soil is worked out.

10. Which method for determining the bearing power of soil is most preferred among the given below:
a) Method of loading
b) Plate load test
c) Penetration test
d) Analytical method
Answer: b
Explanation: Plate load test is the improved refined method and it is widely used for determining the
bearing capacity of soil for important civil engineering structures. This method can be carried out in two
ways: gravity loading platform method and reaction Truss method.

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11. INCREASING THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL.

This set of Construction Materials Questions and Answers for Fresher’s focuses on
“Increasing the Bearing Capacity of Soil”.

1. Stone columns are invariably used in which soil.

a) Poor bearing capacity
b) Strong bearing capacity
c) Low bearing capacity
d) Very poor bearing capacity
Answer: a
Explanation: It is normally used in soft inorganic soils. Stone columns are essentially a method of
soil reinforcement in which soft cohesive soil is replaced at discrete points by compacted stone or
crushed rock in pre bored vertical hole to form columns or files within the soil.

2. 2. The construction of which piles proves to be very useful in case of sandy soil or soft.
a) Cast iron pile
b) Sand pile
c) Steel pile
d) Timber pile
Answer: b
Explanation: These piles are formed by making holes in the ground and then filling the holes by
sand. If sand is kept confined, it possesses great crushing strength and becomes incompressible.

3. The movement of soil under the action of load can be prevented by confining the ground by use of
_________
a) Steel pile
b) Sand pile
c) Timber pile
d) Sheet pile
Answer: d
Explanation: When the sheet piles are used in such ground, it will result in the increase of bearing
power of soil. The wooden sheet piles are commonly used for the temporary work such as
cofferdams. They usually consists of wooden boards 80 mm to 150 mm thick, 200 mm to 300 mm
wide and 2 metres to 4 metres long.

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4. Identify the given pile below.

a) Steep pile
b) Sand pile
c) Sheet pile
d) Timber pile
Answer: b
Explanation: Shown above is a typical sand pile. The sand piles are placed at 2 metres to 3 meters,
usually under the column of the structure. Load test should be carried out to determine the bearing
capacity of sand pile.

5. Identify the given pile below.

a) Sand pile
b) Sheet pile
c) Timber pile
d) Steel pile
Answer: c
Explanation: Figure given above is a Timber pile. At the bottom, a cast iron shoe is provided at the
top, a steel plate is fixed. If a group of timber piles is driven, the top of each member of the group is
brought at the same level and then, a concrete cap is provided to have a common platform.
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6. Identify the given Sheet pile below.

a) Arch web sheet pile

b) R.C.C. sheet pile
c) Straight web sheet pile
d) Timber sheet pile
Answer: d
Explanation: The bottom of timber sheet pile is chamfered so as to form a cutting edge and if
necessary, both top and bottom are provided with suitable iron fittings. They are usually consists of
wooden boards 80 mm to 150 mm thick, 200 mm to 300 mm wide and 2 m to 4 m long.

7. Identify the given pile below.

a) Concrete sheet pile

b) Corrugated sheet pile
c) Z-type sheet pile
d) Timber sheet pile
Answer: a
Explanation: Concrete sheet piles are square or rectangular in cross section and they are driven side
by side so as to form a continuous wall. The weight of precast RCC piles varies from 500 mm to 600
mm and the thickness varies from 20 mm to 60 mm.

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8. Identify the given pile below.

a) Universal joist steel sheet pile

b) Z-type steel sheet pile
c) Corrugated steel sheet pile
d) Built up type steel sheet pile
Answer: a
Explanation: The given figure shows a universal joint Steel sheet pile. These piles consist of I-beams
connected by standard clutches or lock bars. But its flanges are curved so as to accommodate the
flanges of I beams as shown in given figure.

9. Identify the given pile below.

a) Timber pile
b) Concrete pile
c) Composite pile
d) Screw pile

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Answer: c
Explanation: Composite pile is formed when it is combination either of a bored pile and driven Pile or
of driven piles of two different materials. In this combination, the advantage is taken of durability of
concrete piles and the cheapness of timber piles.

10. The commercial method which combines the effect of vibration with jetting is known as _______
a) Flooding
b) Ramming
c) Vibration
d) Vibroflotation
Answer: d
Explanation: Vibroflotation is very useful especially when the foundation is required to support heavy
loads spread over a great area. In this method, a heavy cylinder known as Vibroflot is inserted in the
ground while the cylinder vibrates due to a Rotary eccentric weight.

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 Hierarchy of roads and levels of services

1. Classification of urban roads

a. Express ways
i. for motor traffic with full or partial control of access
ii. provided with grade separation at intersections
iii. to provide for movement of heavy volumes at high speeds
iv. free flow conditions
v. connect major points of traffic generation
vi. to serve trips of medium and long lengths between res, ind,
comm., CBD areas
vii. Parking, loading, unloading pedestrians are prohibited.
b. arterial streets
i. thorough traffic usually on continuous route
ii. between CBD to resi, sub urbans
iii. generally spaced at less than 1.5 kms in CBDs 8 kms in
developed urban fringes
iv. parking, loading etc are regulated
v. pedestrians only at intersections
c. sub-arterial streets
i. access to adjoining areas
ii. parking, loading etc are regulated
iii. generally spaced at less than 05 kms in CBDs, 3-5 kms in
developed urban fringes
d. collector streets
i. collection and distribution of traffic
ii. in resi, ind, neighborhoods
iii. few parking restrictions except during peak hours
e. local streets
i. access to resi, business, etc
ii. Allows loading, pedestrians, parking etc.
2. classification of rural roads
a. national highways
i. connects ports, foreign highways, capital of states
b. state highways
i. connects national headquarters and important cities
ii. same standard as national highways
c. district roads
i. serves areas of production and marketing
ii. Capable of taking traffic into the heart of rural areas.
d. village roads
i. connects villages with nearest national , state or railways

Intersection and parking areas

1. intersection – the general area where 2 or more ways join or across

2. Half of the fatal and serious road accidents in built up areas occur at
junctions.
3. principles in a good design
a. The number of intersections should be kept a minimum. If necessary
some minor roads may be connected with each other before joining
the major road.
b. Hazardous movements by drivers are eliminated by various
techniques such as channelizing and staggering.
c. The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from
the layout or traffic signs
d. Layout should follow natural vehicle paths
e. Number of conflict points should be minimized.
f. Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream
should be provided with adequate space at the junctions.
4. At grade junction – where all roads join or cross at the same level.
5. Grade separated junctions – crossing manoeuvres at different levels
6. It is desirable that the intersection roads meet at or nearly at right angles.
 7. Visibility at intersections – any obstructions should be clear of the
minimum visibility triangle for a height of 1.2 Mts above the road way.
8. for rural roads

Design speed of major road min. visibility distance along a major road
In K.P.H
100 220
80 180
65 145
50 110

9. for urban roads

type of road visibility distance along a major road

all purpose primary distributor 120 – 150
district or local distributor 90
access road 60
Parking
Parking space requirement standards

S.NO. Land use Parking space standard

1. Residential
1. Detached,semi-datached row houses:
Plot area up to 100 sq.m
Plot area from 101 to 200 sq.m
Plot area from 201 to 300 sq.m
Plot area from 301 to 500 sq.m
Plot area from 501 to 1000 sq.m
Plot area 1001 sq.m and above
2. Flats
3. Special, costly developed area.
4. Multi-storeyed group housing
schemes.
2. Offices

3. Industrial premises

4. Shops and markets

5. Restaurants

6. Theatres and cinemas

7. Hotels and motels

1.Five and four-star hotels
2. Three-star hotels
3. Two-star hotels
4. Motels
8. Hospitals
 1. max parking area required for a car 3m x 6m (individual)
2.5m x 5m (community)
2. Space reqt. for commercial vehicle 3.75m x 7.5m
3. for bicycle 1.4m – 1.8m

On street parking methods

Parallel parking N=L/5.9

L
X

y
30 ºangle N=L-1.25/5

1.25

N= number of parking spaces

45 º angle N=L-1.25/3.54
60 º angle N=L-2.16/2.89
Right angle N=L/2.5

1. off street parking

a. surface car parks
b. multi storey car parks
c. roof parks
d. mechanical car parks
e. under ground car parks

Traffic safety and traffic laws

1. Traffic regulations deals with control of vehicles, drivers and road users.
 2. Control of vehicles deals with registration, weight, size, design,
construction, and maintenance.
3. Driver regulations deal with licensing, operation of vehicles.
4. Road user regulations deal with rules of pedestrians, cyclists, motor
cyclists.
5. Speed limits in urban areas – Indian conditions

Different categories of road and Speed limits in KPH

streets Group I Group II
Light and med. Vehicles Heavy vehicles
Major roads of arterial/sub arterial 50 40
mostly in open and thinly built up
areas
Roads with moderate traffic suited 40 30
in semi built up areas
Congested roads in built up areas 30 20

6. Uniform vehicle code U.K

Act I – uniform motor vehicle administration, registration certificate of title and
anti – theft act.
Act II – uniform motor vehicle operators and chauffeurs license act.
Act III – uniform motor vehicle civil liability act.
Act IV – uniform motor vehicle safety responsibility act.
Act V – uniform act regulating traffic on high ways.

7. U.K the road traffic act 1972

Part I – principle road safety provisions
Part II – construction and use of vehicles and equipment
Part III – licensing of drivers of vehicles
Part IV – licensing of drivers of heavy goods vehicles
Part V – driving instructions
Part VI – third party liabilities
Part VII – miscellaneous and general.
 8. India, motor vehicles act 1939.

Chapter I – preliminary
Chapter II – licensing of drivers of motor vehicles
Chapter III – licensing of conductors of stage carriages
Chapter IV – control of transport vehicles
Chapter V – construction, equipment and maintenance of motor vehicles.
Chapter VI – control of traffic
Chapter VII – motor vehicles temporary leaving or visiting India
Chapter VIII – insurance f motor vehicles against third party riska
Chapter IX – offences, penalties and procedures.
Chapter X – miscellaneous
Principles of traffic engineering and transportation planning
1. Traffic engineering
Deals with the planning and geometric design of streets, highways
and abutting lands, and with traffic operation thereon, as their use is related to
the safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods.
2. functions of traffic engineering
a. collection, analysis, and interpretation of data pertaining to
traffic
i. OD survey
ii. Volume counts
iii. Speed, delay and travel time measurements
iv. Accident statistics
v. Parking characteristics
vi. Pedestrian behavior and use of streets
vii. Capacity studies
viii. Economic loss caused by inferior traffic facilities
b. Traffic and transportation planning
i. To ensure a safe, orderly and fully integrated transport
system.
ii. Related to land use
 iii. Selection and implementation of alternative solutions
c. Traffic design
i. Geometric design of high ways and streets
ii. Intersection design
iii. Schemes for grade separated interchanges
iv. Design of off street and on street parking
v. Design of terminals
d. Measures for operation of traffic
i. Legislation and enforcement measures – drivers , road users
ii. Management measures – one way streets, turnings at
junctions, tidal flow,
iii. Measures for parking
iv. Traffic control devices
e. Administration
i. Programs intended to safe and efficient traffic
ii. Education, legislation and enforcement measures
3. transportation planning
To under stand the nature of the problems of traffic and formulate
proposals for the safe and efficient movement of goods and people from one
place to another.
4. stages of transport planning
a. survey and analysis of existing conditions
b. forecast, analysis of future conditions and plan synthesis
c. evaluation
d. program adaptation and implementation
e. continuing study

Methods of conducting surveys

Speed, journey time and delay surveys

Vehicle volume counts, classification and occupancy
Origin and destination survey
Parking surveys
Speed, journey time and delay surveys
Speed is the rate of movement of traffic.
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.
Running sped is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course
while the vehicle is in the motion.
Running speed = length of course = length of course
Running time journey time – delay

Journey speed is known as over all travel speed including all delays incurred en-
route.
Journey speed = distance
Total journey time (including delays)

Methods of measuring spot speeds

a) Those that require observation of the time taken by a vehicle to cover a
known distance.
b) Radar speed meter which automatically records the instantaneous speed .
c) Photographic method.
The long base methods used are
i. Direct timing procedure
ii. Enoscope
iii. Pressure contact tubes

Methods for measuring running speed and journey speed

a) Moving observer method
b) Registration number method
c) Elevated observer method

Vehicle volume counts, classification and occupancy

If traffic flow data are available over the past number of years, the rate at
which traffic flow has increased in the past can be easily determined.
Extrapolating the past trend into the future, a reasonable indication of the future
rate of growth of traffic is made possible. Traffic fore casting is an important step
in the transportation planning process.
Types of counts
i. Average annual flow, expressed in vehicles per year.
ii. Annual average daily traffic (AADT), expressed I vehicles per day.
iii. Hourly flow, expressed in vehicles per hour.
Methods for traffic counts
a) Manual methods
b) Combination of manual and mechanical methods
c) Automatic devices
d) Moving observer method
e) Photographic methods
Vehicle occupancy surveys
Vehicle occupancy surveys are easy to conduct for cars and motorized two-
wheelers. The observers can note the number of occupants of every one of such
vehicles by standing by the road side.
For buses, the occupancy can be determined by examining the ticket sales.
Origin and destination survey
In a transportation study, it is often necessary to know the exact origin and
destination of the trips. Information yielded by the O-D survey includes land use
of the zones of the origin and destination, household characteristics of the trip
making family, time, purpose of the trip and mode of travel.
Uses of the study
i. To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town, and
thus establishes the need for a bypass.
ii. To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport
planning process.
iii. To determine the extent to which the present road system is adequate
and to plan for new facilities.
iv. To assess the adequacy of parking and to plan for future.

Survey methods
a) Home interview survey
 i. Full interview technique
ii. Home questionnaire technique
b) Road side interview survey
c) Post card questionnaire survey
d) Registration number plate survey
e) Tags on vehicles.

Parking surveys
Parking is one of the serious problems that confront the urban planner and
the traffic engineer. Before any measure for the betterment of the conditions can
be formulated, basic data pertaining to the availability of parking space, extent of
its usage and parking demand are essential.
Parking accumulation: the total number of vehicles parked in an area at specified
moment.
Parking volume: the number of vehicles parked in a particular area over a given
period of time.
Parking load: the area under the parking accumulation curve during a specified
period.
Parking duration: the length of time spent in a parking space.
Parking index: percentage of the theoretically available number of parking bays
actually occupied by parked vehicles.
Parking index = no of bays occupied x 100
Theoretical number of bays available

Parking turnover: rate of the usage of the available parking space.

Types of parking surveys
i. Parking space inventory
ii. Parking usage survey by petrol
iii. Questionnaire type parking usage survey
iv. Cordon survey
v. Photographic method
 Modes of transportation

1. transport modes
a. railways
surface
underground
elevated
b. road transport
c. air transport
d. water transport
coastal shipping
international shipping
inland water transport
e. pipe lines
f. rope ways
2. speed

S no mode Normal speed India km/hr remarks

1 railway 50-80 Depends on guage
and number of tracks
2 Road transport Depends on
Cara 50-80 pavement width,
Buses and trucks 30-60 terrain
2 wheelers 25-50
cycles 8-15
auto rickshaw 15-30
bullock cart 3-5
4 Air transport
Boeing 747 1000
Boeing 707 950
Feeder aircraft 300-400
5 Water transport
Ocean liners 35-55
 Coastal ships 15-35
Inland water 10-25
barges
6 Pipe lines 5-10
7 Rope ways 5-10

3. safety

Rail transport If adequate measures are taken at signals, it s safe. If

accidents take place loss is heavy
Road transport Unsafe, when crossing, overtaking
Air transport Safety, because o high standards. Accidents because of
fog, birds, storms, etc
Water transport Safe, because of strict standards and construction and
maintenance
Pipelines , rope ways Safe

4. Adequacy

Rail transport Can meet seasonal fluctuations in traffic,

Road transport Unsafe, when crossing, overtaking
Air transport Safety, because o high standards. Accidents because of
fog, birds, storms, etc
Water transport Safe, because of strict standards and construction and
maintenance
Pipelines , rope ways Safe
Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2016

Principles of visual composition

1. Important factor to be considered in Urban Design – Arrangement of spaces

Good composition
Orderly and pleasing
Pleasure follows order
2. principles of composition –
Unity –
Oneness and brings harmony with the surroundings.
Similar forms give coherence to the parts and integrity to the whole.
An urban form so planned and created will create a single picture of unity.
Dissimilar forms, texture, color lack unity.
Segregation –
Composition should form an independent unit by separating from others by
enclosing masses.
It can be made up neutral forms, average textures or subdued colors of
building masses.
Coherence –
Complicated compositions lack coherence.
Too many sorts of buildings, elements, and accessories result in lack of
coherence.
Balance –
Symmetrical balance – Balance means equality and it can be easily
obtained by symmetrical type of plants or features on either side of
the central axis of composition. Balance should be dynamic, vital
hence it should be rhythmic.
https://www.facebook.com/Architecture-GATE-Solution-818266061628451/?ref=hl ar. Deepak singh
IIT Roorkee
1
Architecture GATE Solution GATE 2016

Asymmetrical or Occult balance – Too unequal masses on either side of

the central axis form asymmetrical balance. Meticulously arranged
occult balance adds softness and freedom to the composition.
Scale –
The building or group of buildings must be in scale with its surroundings.
The parts of the composition in relation to each other should exhibit their
true size.
Rhythm and reputation –
It is a devise to give continuity to the design.
It develops rhythmic sequence producing a coherent effect.
Use distinctive elements for a rhythmic arrangement (columns, openings
like windows), to hold together and carry the eye from part to the other.
Color –
Select paints for long color effects.
A feeling of coherence in design is achieved by color as well or by simple
repetition of the same color at regular intervals.
Texture –
It is the surface quality which give a textile sensation when touched, such
as soft cum hard, smooth, rough etc.,
Sandstone – course.
Marble – translucent and soft
Light and Shade –
Occasional Shades cast by large openings produce a pictorial effect.
Columns and arcades throw shadows in the morning and evening producing
a constant change of light and shade.
Quality of color also changes according to the intensity of light.
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3. Visual aspect of plan arrangement –

View: is a scene observed from a given place.
Vista: is a confined view to a dominant feature. Each vista has a
viewing station. A well conceived vista has the balance and
rhythm.
Axis: is a linear element connecting two or more elements such
as a drive, a street or a park way. It is directional, orderly,
dominating.

4. Color theory –
Primary hues - RED, YELLOW, BLUE
Complementary colors: Red and Green
Harmonizing colors – hues adjacent on the color wheel.
Hue – (first dimension), by definition it is pure color, containing no white,
black or grey.
Value – (2” dimension), it is the degree of colors luminosity
Yellow - the lightest color of spectrum wheel- higher value
Violet – the lowest value.
Intensity – (3” dimension), give some measure of quality of relative
colorfulness or grey ness. Also known as chroma, purity or saturation. As
spectral hues become greyer they are called as tones. Red is the most
advancing color.
5. VIBGYOR
cold

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6. Effects of hue
Effect hue contrast
Exciting bright, red, orange high
Stimulating red, orange moderate
Cheering light orange yellow, light grey moderate
Neutralizing grey, white/off white low
Retraining cool grey, light green, light blue low
Relaxing blue, green

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low
Subduing purple moderate
Depressing black low
7. color time size weight volume
Warm overestimated things seem heavier decreases
Cool under estimated things seem lighter increases
8. Use cool colors shorter & for areas where smaller routine or monotonous
tasks are performed.
9. Natural color system – Edward Herings theory
10. Sven Hassel prepared a color atlas.
11. We can’t see an object if beyond a distance of 3500times its size.
12. range of conventional distance – 30’
13. to make out facial expressions – 40’
14. to make recognize a face – 80’
15. Max. Distance for discovering action – 450’ for seeing people – 4000.
16. 450° (1:1) full enclosure
17. 300° (1:2) threshold of enclosure
18. 180° (1:3) minimum enclosure
19. 140° (1:4) loss of enclosure
20. shape is 2-dimensional
21. form is 3-D
22. color – hue or chroma
23. intensity – graying effect
24. value – tint (adding white) (high key)
25. shading (adding black) (low key)
26. tone – range of tints and shades
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27. Various color systems – Munsell, Prang etc.

Sense of place and space, division of space

1. In urban design, there should be skilled deployment of architectural energy

so that the influence of fine buildings radiates outward, articulating the
whole fabric of the city.
2. Architecture is the articulation of space so as to produce in the participator
a definite space experience in relation to previous and anticipated space
experience.
Involvement
Meeting the sky
Meeting the ground
Points in space
Recession places (Patios, entrance gateways etc)
Design in depth (a sense of movement in depth)
Ascent and descent (use of varying levels as the elements)
Convexity and concavity in design
Relationship to man
Designer as participator
Apprehension, representation and realization.
3. The nature of design – simultaneous movement systems.
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4. principles of design
unity – repetition of identical elements
Head of well proportioned human figure = 1/7 oxf total body height.
Proportion – golden mean is a ratio 1:1.618 standard.
Certain proportions are more pleasing than others.
Subliminal effect.

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