CELL CYCLE M Phase

Cell Division - Mitosis: division of nucleus

- Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
- Process by which a parent cell divides into
two or more daughter cells MITOSIS: pmat
- Functions:
Karyokinesis: division of nucleus
 Reproduction
 Growth (irreversible change) and Interphase
development (progression)
 Tissue Renewal (production of new  Occurs between divisions
cells)  Longest part of cycle
- TYPES:  3 stages: G1, S, G2
 Binary Fission – prokaryotes, new Prophase
organism
 Mitosis and Meiosis  Preparatory stage
 Chromosomes condense
Genome: all of a cell’s genetic information (DNA)  Nucleoli disappear
Prokaryote: single, circular chromosome  Spindle fibers form in cytoplasm, extending
from one centrosome to the other
Eukaryote: more than one linear chromosomes  Centrioles begin to migrate to the poles
 Nuclear membrane disintegrates
Human: 46, Mouse: 40, Fruit fly: 8
 Longest phase
How is DNA packed into chromosome?
Metaphase
- DNA will wrap around histones (protein), will
 Chromosomes line up single file on the
from nucleosomes, will further coil together
equator or metaphase plate
-> chromatid -> replication -> sister
 Centrosomes are at opposite poles of cell
chromatid
 Spindle fibers run from centrosomes to the
*Each chromosome must be duplicated before cell centromeres
division
Anaphase
Duplicated chromosome = 2 sister chromatids
 Centromeres of each chromosome separate,
attached by a centromere
spindle fibers begin to pull the sister
Somatic Cells Gametes chromatids apart
 Body cells  Sex cells  Shortest phase
 Diploid (2n): 2 (sperm/egg)
Telophase & Cytokinesis
of each type of  Haploid (n): 1 of
chromosome each type of  ‘opposite’ of prophase
 Division by chromosome  Chromosome cluster at opposite ends of cell
mitosis  Division by  Nuclear membrane re-forms
 Humans: 2n = meiosis  Chromosomes begin to unravel
46  Humans: n = 23
 Cytokinesis Animals – pinching of plasma
 Membrane plants – elongates and cell plate
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE forms future cell wall and cell membrane

Interphase:
G1 – grows, normal functions, organelles start to
replicate
S (DNA synthesis) – DNA is replicated
G2 – preparation for division
SPINDLE APPARATUS  Kinases (cyclin-dependent kinase, CDK):
protein enzyme controls cell cycle; active
 construction begins at the centrosome and
when connected to cyclin
works towards the chromosomes
 Cyclins: proteins that activates kinases; levels
 spindle fibers attach to the kinetochore on the
fluctuate in the cell cycle
centromere of replicated chromosomes
 MPF = maturation-promoting factor
 motor proteins “walk” the chromosomes
o Specific cyclin-Cdk complex which
toward the opposite poles using ATP as
allows cells to pass G2 and go to M phase
energy source
 non-kinetochore spindles are used to “push” EXTERNAL REGULATORY FACTORS
the poles farther apart (to elongate) and to
Growth Factor: proteins released by other cells to
help produce cleavage furrow
stimulate cell division
BACTERIAL CELLS DIVIDE BY BINARY FISSION
Density-Dependent Inhibition: crowded cells
 Chromosomes replicate normally stop dividing; cell-surface protein binds to
 One copy of the origin is now at each end of adjoining cell to inhibit growth
the cell
Anchorage Dependence: cells must be attaches to
 Cytoplasm divide
another cell or ECM to divide
 Two daughter cells
CANCER CELLS
CELL CYCLE CONTROL SYSTEM
 Some have abnormal number of
Checkpoint – control point where stop/go signals
chromosomes
regulate the cell cycle
 Metabolism disabled
G1 Checkpoint  Lose attachment to ECM -> spread to other
tissues
 Cell has appropriate size  Signaling molecules cause blood vessels to
 Adequate energy reserves grow toward tumor
 DNA damage  Treatment: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy,
 If not fit, G0 phase personalized medicine
 Inactive cells
 Won’t divide Cancer
 Wait for signals when conditions  disorder in which cells lose the ability to
improve control growth by not responding to
o Post-mitotic cells – hindi na talaga regulation
mag mumultiply (muscle and neuron cells)  multistep process of about 5-7 genetic
G2 changes for a human cell to transform
 loses anchorage dependency and density-
 Ensures chromosomes are accurately dependency regulation
replicated without damage  tumor – mass of abnormal cells
M-spindle checkpoint o Benign: lump of cells remain at
original site
 Ensures that each kinetochore of o Malignant: invasive – impairs
chromosome is attached to a spindle fiber functions of 1+ organs (cancer)
 ^^ will turn on the enzyme -> Anaphase o Metastasis: cells separate from tumor
Promoting Complex and travel to other parts of body
INTERNAL REGULATORY MOLECULES

 Crucial for growth and development

 High cyclin concentration and MPF activity
during M phase
LESSON 6B - Pachytene: DNA exchanged by non-sister
chromatids
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION - Diplotene: Chiasma visible within bivalent
- Diakenesis: Nuclear membrane disintegrates
Genes – segments of DNA that code for basic units of
heredity Metaphase I

- Chromosomes/tetrads line up at the middle

Asexual Sexual Anaphase I
Clones, single Meiosis produces
parent gametes, 2 parents: - Each pair of homologous chromosomes
F&M separates
Little variation Lots of - Sister chromatids still attached by
variation/diversity centromere
Fast and energy Slower and energy
efficient consumptive Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Eg. Budding, Eg. humans, trees
binary fission - Two haploid cells form
- Each chromosome = 2 sister chromatids
Tetrad – 2 chromosomes of 4 chromatids - Some species: chromatin & nucleus reforms
Synapsis – pairing of homologous chromosomes Meiosis II
forming a tetrad
Crossing Over – chromatids of tetrad exchange Prophase II
parts/genetic material
- The same
Chiasmata – site of crossing over
Metaphase
Karyotype
- Picture of an organism’s complete set of - Sister chromatids line up at the middle
chromosomes Anaphase II
- Arranged from largest to smallest pair
- Sister chromatids separate
MEIOSIS
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
- Involves two successive divisions of a diploid
nucleus (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) - Haploid daughter cells form
- Result: 4 daughter cells, each with half as
Events unique in Meiosis
many chromosomes as parent cell
- Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I
Meiosis I: Interphase I
SOURCES OF GENETIC VARIATION
- Similar to mitosis interphase
- Chromosomes replicate in S phase 1. Crossing over – exchange of genetic material;
- Each duplicated chromosome consists of two recombinant chromosomes
identical sister chromatids attached at their 2. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes –
centromeres random orientation of homologous pairs in
- Nucleus and nucleolus visible Metaphase I
3. Random Fertilization – any sperm + any egg =
Four Phases: 8M x 8M = 64 trillion combination
Prophase I

- Synapsis, crossing over

- Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense
- Zygotene: synaptonemal complex forms
 Mitosis Meiosis
 Somatic cells  Gametes
 1 division  2 division
 2 diploid  4 haploid
daughter cells daughter cells
 Clones  Genetically
 Zygote to death different
 For growth and  Females before
repair birth follicles
 No synapsis, are formed.
crossing over Mature ova
released
beginning
puberty
 For
reproduction

Nondisjunction

- Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister

chromatids to separate properly during cell
division
3 FORMS

- Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes

to separate in meiosis I
- Failure of sister chromatids to separate
during meiosis II
- Failure of sister chromatids to separate
during mitosis
Aneuploidy – Abnormal chromosome number
Chromosomal rearrangements

 Duplication – chromosome ends up with two

or more copies of a gene segment
 Deletion – chromosome ends up with no
copies of a particular gene segment
 Inversion – chromosomal region is flipped
around so that it points in the opposite,
wrong direction
 Translocation – a piece of one chromosome is
attached to another non-homologous
chromosome