DISCRETE

MATHEMATICS

SUBMITTED BY
KOMAL
APPLIED SCIENCE
 Introduction
 Discrete Mathematics is the part of Mathematics devoted
to study of
Discrete (Disinct or not connected objects )
 Discrete Mathematics is the study of mathematical
structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than
continuous .
 As we know Discrete Mathematics is a
backbone of mathematics and
computer science
 Scope
 It Develops our Mathematical Thinking
 It Improves our problem solving abilities
 Many Problems can be solved using Discrete mathematics
 For eg .
 Sorting the list of Integers
 Finding the shortest path from home to any destination
 Drawing a garph within two conditions
• We are not allowed to lift your pen.
• We are not allowed to repeat edges
 Algebraic Structures
 Algebraic systems Examples and general
properties
 Semi groups
 Monoids
 Groups
 Sub groups
 Algebraic systems

 N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.

Z = { 0,  1,  2,  3,  4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
 Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary
operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if
a * b  A for all a, b  A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
 Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)
operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
 Properties

 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.

The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to
be an identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be
an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
 Semi group
 Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
 Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
 Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
 Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

 Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the

following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
 Subsemigroup & submonoid
Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a
subset of S. If T is closed under operation * , then (T, * ) is
called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of positive
integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.

Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T

be a non- empty subset of S. If T is closed under the
operation * and e  T, then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of
(S, * ).
 Group

 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if

the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

 Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is

said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a*b =b*a .
 Theorem
 In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c  b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c  a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
 In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.

 Order of a group : The number of elements in a group is called order

of the group.

 Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a

finite group.
Ex. Show that set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect to
multiplication .

 Solution: Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers.

Let a, b, c are any three elements of R* .
1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real
numbers is again a nonzero real number .
i.e., a . b  R* for all a,b  R* .
2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  R* .
3. Identity : We have 1  R* and a .1 = a for all a  R* .
 Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  R* , we have 1/a  R* such that
a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has an inverse.
 Contd.,
 5.Commutativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
commutative.
i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b  R*.
Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.

 Ex: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with respect
to multiplication.
 Solution: We have 0  R .
The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.
Hence. R is not a group.
 Example
 Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n, m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
 Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b)  Z for all a,b  Z

Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c)

 (Z, *) is a semi group.

Identity : There is no integer x such that

a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a  Z
 Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.
 Ex. Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian
group under the composition * defined by
a * b = (ab)/2 .

 Solution: Let A = set of all positive rational numbers.

Let a,b,c be any three elements of A.
1. Closure property: We know that, Product of two positive rational
numbers is again a rational number.
i.e., a *b  A for all a,b  A .
2. Associativity: (a*b)*c = (ab/2) * c = (abc) / 4
a*(b*c) = a * (bc/2) = (abc) / 4
3. Identity : Let e be the identity element.
We have a*e = (a e)/2 …(1) , By the definition of *
again, a*e = a …..(2) , Since e is the identity.
From (1)and (2), (a e)/2 = a  e = 2 and 2  A .
 Identity element exists, and ‘2’ is the identity element in A.
 Contd.,

 4. Inverse: Let a  A
let us suppose b is inverse of a.
Now, a * b = (a b)/2 ….(1) (By definition of inverse.)
Again, a * b = e = 2 …..(2) (By definition of inverse)
From (1) and (2), it follows that
(a b)/2 = 2
 b = (4 / a)  A
 (A ,*) is a group.
 Commutativity: a * b = (ab/2) = (ba/2) = b * a
 Hence, (A,*) is an abelian group.
 Theorem

 Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is

unique.
 Proof :
a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.
Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e 1 = e2
 Identity element in a group is unique.
 Theorem

 Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is

unique.
 Proof:
 Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
 Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
 Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
 Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
 From (1) and (2), we have
 a*b=a*c
  b = c (By left cancellation law)
 In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
 Theorem

 Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that

(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a,b G.
 Proof :
 Consider,
 (a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1)
 = (a * ( b * b-1 ) * a-1) (By associative property).
 = (a * e * a-1) ( By inverse property)
 = ( a * a-1) ( Since, e is identity)
 = e ( By inverse property)
 Similarly, we can show that
 (b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
 Hence, (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 .
 Ex. If (G, *) is a group and a  G such that a * a = a ,
then show that a = e , where e is identity element in G.

 Proof: Given that, a * a = a

  a * a = a * e ( Since, e is identity in G)
  a = e ( By left cancellation law)
 Hence, the result follows.
 Ex. If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that
the group must be abelian .

 Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.

 Let a and b are any two elements of G.
 Consider the identity,
 (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
  (a * b ) = b * a ( Since each element of G is its own
 inverse)
 Hence, G is abelian.
Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.

 Solution: The composition table of G is

 . 1 –1 i -i
 1 1 -1 i - i
 -1 -1 1 -i i
 i i -i -1 1
 -i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know
that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
 Contd.,

 4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse

elements of
1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
 Sub groups

 Def. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,

 if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.
 Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
 Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).
 Theorem: A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G
iff
 i) a * b  H  a, b  H
 ii) a-1  H aH
 Theorem

 Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty

subset H of a group (G, *) to be a sub group is that
a  H, b  H  a * b-1  H.
 Proof: Case1: Let (G, *) be a group and H is a subgroup of G
Let a,b  H  b-1  H ( since H is is a group)
 a * b-1  H. ( By closure property in H)
 Case2: Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, *).
Let a * b-1  H  a, b  H
 Now, a * a-1  H ( Taking b = a )
 e  H i.e., identity exists in H.
 Now, e  H, a  H  e * a-1  H
 a-1  H
 Contd.,

  Each element of H has inverse in H.

Further, a  H, b  H  a  H, b-1  H
 a * (b-1)-1  H.
 a * b  H.
 H is closed w.r.t * .
 Finally, Let a,b,c  H
 a,b,c  G ( since H  G )
 (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
 * is associative in H
 Hence, H is a subgroup of G.
 Homomorphism and Isomorphism.

 Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )

A function f : G  G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a)  f (b)

 Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G  G1 is a bijection then f is

called isomorphism between G and G1 .
Then we write G  G1
 Cosets
 If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a  G then the set
Ha = { h * a h  H}is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly aH = {a * h  h  H}is called a left coset of H is G.
 Note:- 1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or
disjoint.
 2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a
partition of G. i.e., the union of all right cosets of a sub group H is
equal to G.
3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group of a finite group
is a divisor of the order of the group.
 4) The order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the
order of the group.
 5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not be true.
 State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem

 Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group H of a finite

group G is a divisor of the order of the group.
 Proof: Since G is finite group, H is finite.
 Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is finite.
 Let Ha1,Ha2, …,Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G.
 Then, G = Ha1Ha2 …, Har
 So that O(G) = O(Ha1)+O(Ha2) …+ O(Har).
 But, O(Ha1) = O(Ha2) = ….. = O(Har) = O(H)
  O(G) = O(H)+O(H) …+ O(H). (r terms)
 = r . O(H)
 This shows that O(H) divides O(G).
THANK
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