sensors

Review
Fruit Quality Monitoring with Smart Packaging
Arif U. Alam , Pranali Rathi, Heba Beshai , Gursimran K. Sarabha and M. Jamal Deen *

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada;
[email protected] (A.U.A.); [email protected] (P.R.); [email protected] (H.B.);
[email protected] (G.K.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-905-525-9140 (ext. 27137)

Abstract: Smart packaging of fresh produce is an emerging technology toward reduction of waste and
preservation of consumer health and safety. Smart packaging systems also help to prolong the shelf
life of perishable foods during transport and mass storage, which are difficult to regulate otherwise.
The use of these ever-progressing technologies in the packaging of fruits has the potential to result
in many positive consequences, including improved fruit quality, reduced waste, and associated
improved public health. In this review, we examine the role of smart packaging in fruit packaging,
current-state-of-the-art, challenges, and prospects. First, we discuss the motivation behind fruit
quality monitoring and maintenance, followed by the background on the development process of
fruits, factors used in determining fruit quality, and the classification of smart packaging technologies.
Then, we discuss conventional freshness sensors for packaged fruits including direct and indirect
freshness indicators. After that, we provide examples of possible smart packaging systems and
sensors that can be used in monitoring fruits quality, followed by several strategies to mitigate
premature fruit decay, and active packaging technologies. Finally, we discuss the prospects of smart
packaging application for fruit quality monitoring along with the associated challenges and prospects.





 Keywords: smart packaging; intelligent packaging; active packaging; fresh produce; fruit quality;
Citation: Alam, A.U.; Rathi, P.; fruit processing; fruit smart packaging; fruit sensor; RFID; IoT
Beshai, H.; Sarabha, G.K.; Deen, M.J.
Fruit Quality Monitoring with Smart
Packaging. Sensors 2021, 21, 1509.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041509 1. Introduction
Present civilization has an extreme urgency of innovation in the field of food produc-
Academic Editor: Spyridon Kintzios
tion, storage, and distribution to solve hunger problems that still afflict several parts of the
world. Food production is rapidly growing with the help of science and technology due
Received: 23 December 2020
to increased demand. However, there is a large disparity between the different countries
Accepted: 17 February 2021
where there are constant food shortages and some other countries where food is wasted at
Published: 22 February 2021
an alarming rate [1]. Despite the differences, all societies have a common need for better
methods of preventing unnecessary food spoilage. Also, the global food market has a
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
higher than ever demand to deliver fresher, higher quality food at a reasonable cost [2].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
With a global population of 7.6 billion producing over 1.3 billion tonnes of food wastage,
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
and a projected population of 9.6 billion by 2050 [3], current food processing practices and
technologies must be assessed and improved.
Fruits and vegetables are living biological bodies, having a respiratory system that
continues during their living processes and even after harvest. By respiration, fruits
and vegetables take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. Therefore, the handling
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
and packaging of fruits are key toward maintaining their freshness until they reach the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
consumer’s table. One of the major sources of premature spoilage in perishable fruits is
This article is an open access article
during transport and storage. This is a key issue for fresh fruits, which gets very little
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
quality monitoring after it has been harvested, treated, and packed. Fruits are necessary
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
parts of the human diet, as they contain vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, fiber, and many
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
other essential nutrients [4]. Most countries suggest daily servings of fruits and vegetables
4.0/). in their dietary recommendation guides, emphasizing the importance of accessibility to

Sensors 2021, 21, 1509. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041509 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 2 of 30

good quality produce [5]. The health and safety of the consumers are also important
factors in the consideration of fruits quality. Many harmful microorganisms can infect
fresh produce, especially through poor handling and processing practices. A majority of
these pathogens are picked up during transport and storage and due to faulty packaging
techniques [6]. Due to the potential severity of these hazards, regulations on fresh fruits are
stringent, particularly in the developed countries. Resellers take precautionary measures
such as disposing of food that has passed its “best before” date, which the United States
Department of Agriculture states is not a true indicator of spoiled food [7]. Products are
often still viable after this date, meaning that large amounts of unsold food are unnecessarily
discarded [8].
Conventional packaging aims to limit the harmful environmental exposure of fruits
and fruit products, but it is often not enough. It is difficult to monitor and retain the
peak level of quality during all stages of food processing. In most cases, the fruit may
not have warning about problems before it is too late. To address this need in produce
processing, along with other food-processing innovations, freshness sensors and smart
packaging system for fruit monitoring have emerged. Fruit freshness sensors or indicators
can sense and inform the status of a fruit’s quality, such as freshness, ripeness, leak,
microbial pathogens, and emitted gases, correlated to the safety of the food being consumed.
Therefore, the freshness sensors can be defined as the on-package sensors or indicators
that can sense the freshness of the food associated to the environment inside or outside
of the package and advise about the quality and safety of the food [9]. On the other
hand, smart packaging systems offer methods for both passive and active packaging
solutions. Embedded with sensor technology that can detect changes in fruits’ health
and environmental conditions that impact quality, intelligent packaging allows for the
use of real-time monitoring until the product is delivered to the customer. In fact, smart
packaging systems can be further applied to create response systems that can mitigate
spoilage conditions and prolong the shelf-life of perishable items. While still in its early
stages, the numerous opportunities for the applications of smart packaging technology in
spoilage prevention for fruits is a key motivator for further research and development [2].
There have been many studies on the use of freshness sensors and smart packaging
systems in food and beverage industries [6], as well as their applications in water quality
monitoring [10–12]. A few studies also focused on freshness monitoring and controlled
packaging of meat and animal products [4,9,13]. However, there has been very limited
studies that focused on the freshness monitoring and sensing of fruits and fruit products.
In fact, many of these studies focused on the freshness of produces [14–17], with less
attention to fruits and fruit products. The high spoilage rate of fruits and the increased
instances of diseases outbreaks related to fruits demands a comprehensive study on the
state-of-the-art technologies and future research trends on freshness monitoring and smart
packaging of fruits inside a package. Freshness sensors and smart packaging systems
for fruit monitoring can also have great potential in terms of the presence of emerging
contaminants such as plastic micropollutants migrating from the plastic packages [18].
Also, a comprehensive review on the freshness sensors and smart systems technologies
for fruits monitoring will illustrate current challenges and outlook for the technology
roadmaps towards the possibility of further commercial use of smart packaging in the
fruits packaging industry.
In this review, we provide state-of-the-art discussion of freshness sensors as smart
packaging technologies for fruit quality monitoring. In Section 2, we provided a short
background on fruit classification, processing stages, and harvesting procedures to under-
stand the important biological parameters that can affect fruit deterioration. In Section 3,
we discuss smart packaging systems, their compatibility, challenges toward integration
with freshness sensors, and their classification into active and intelligent packaging in term
of sensing mechanisms, scavenging, and data processing along with several commercial
state-of-art examples of each type. In Section 4, we discuss the challenges and prospects of
fruits monitoring and associated opportunities, especially overcoming the challenges in
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30

Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 3 of 30

term of sensing mechanisms, scavenging, and data processing along with several com-
mercial state-of-art examples of each type. In Section 4, we discuss the challenges and
prospects of fruits monitoring and associated opportunities, especially overcoming the
challenges in bridging
bridging between between
freshness freshness
sensors sensors
and smart and smart
packaging packaging
systems. systems.
Finally, Finally,
a conclusion
aisconclusion is provided highlighting
provided highlighting the importancethe of
importance
freshnessof freshness monitoring
monitoring and smart
and smart packaging
packaging
systems in systems
assessinginfreshness
assessingoffreshness offruit
fruits and fruits and fruit
products products
toward toward
reduced reduced
wastes and
wastes andconsumer
improved improvedhealth.
consumer health.

2. Freshness of Fruits Related to Classification, Stages, Stages, and

and Harvesting
Harvesting
Freshness of fruits are governed by several aspects such as fruits classification, stages
and harvesting procedure. Fruits Fruits are
are naturally occurring plant structures that provide
nourishment for many animals, including humans. In this section, the classification and
nourishment
general development
general development of offruit
fruitisisdiscussed
discussedtotoprovide
providea basis
a basis forfor
thethe remainder
remainder of this
of this re-
review. When classifying plant anatomy, fruits are defined as the reproductive
view. When classifying plant anatomy, fruits are defined as the reproductive components. components.
Produced from
Produced fromtissues
tissuesofofthe theplant’s
plant’s flower
flower structure,
structure, thethe fruit
fruit contains
contains the the seeds
seeds that that
will
will produce
produce the next
the next generation
generation of botanical
of botanical offspring.
offspring. The process
The process of pollination,
of pollination, wherewhere
pol-
pollen
len is used
is used to fertilize
to fertilize a plant’s
a plant’s ovum,ovum, marks
marks the beginning
the beginning of seed
of seed development.
development. The
The sur-
surrounding ovary tissue, known as the pericarp, starts to develop into
rounding ovary tissue, known as the pericarp, starts to develop into a protective layer that a protective layer
that will
will be used
be used to house
to house thethe seeds.
seeds. In In most
most cases,
cases, thethepericarp
pericarpisisthe
theedible
edible portion
portion of
of the
the
fruit. The fruit itself is classified into one of three categories: simple fruits, aggregate
fruit. The fruit itself is classified into one of three categories: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, fruits,
and multiple
and multiple fruits,
fruits, asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 11 [19].
[19].

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Fruit
Fruit classification
classification hierarchy
hierarchy and its relevance
and its relevance to
to different
different freshness
freshness parameters
parameters [19,20].
[19,20].

Simple
Simple fruits
fruits are
are fruits
fruits that
that are
are formed
formed from
from aa single
single ovary, containing one
ovary, containing one or
or more
more
seeds. Simple fruits
fruits can also
also be
be further
further categorized
categorized into
into fleshy
fleshy or succulent
succulent and
and dry
dry fruits.
fruits.
The pericarp of fleshy fruits is pulpy and soft at maturity, while dry fruits turn hard and
leathery. Nuts like the chestnut are a prime example of simple dry fruits, while grapes,
bananas, and citrus fruits are examples of simple fleshy fruits [19]. Blackberries and
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 4 of 30

raspberries are examples of aggregate fruits. This category is characterized as fruits that
are derived from a single flowering fruit structure (similar to simple fruits) but contain
multiple ovaries that can individually contain one or more seeds [19]. Multiple fruits take
the definition of aggregate fruits even further, by containing not only multiple ovaries, but
including multiple flowering bodies into one fruit component. Pineapples and figs are both
multiple fruits and derived from the combination of multiple flowering structures [19].
Fruits can also be classified as climacteric and non-climacteric [20]. While climacteric
fruits such as banana can ripen even after they are picked, non-climacteric fruits such as
strawberries do not ripen after they are picked. Freshness of climacteric fruits and/or
succulent fruits (e.g., bananas) are related to ripeness and emission of ethylene, whereas
freshness of non-climacteric and/or aggregate fruits (e.g., blackberries) are mostly related
to time, temperature, and/or spoilage (e.g., pH and color).
Fruits go through different stages of growth that vary depending on the type of
environmental requirements of the fruit production. For example, maturation refers to
the chemical and physiological changes of the fruit throughout its lifetime. For some
fruit to continue to mature, it must still be attached to the parent plant, thus maturation
is only possible during the pre-harvest period of the crop. As the fruit matures, many
noticeable changes occur, including the reduction in chlorophyll allowing the pericarp to
take on the actual fruit color, softening of the pericarp, and full seed development. During
maturation, most fruits also begin to lower their acidity levels and develop their sweet
taste through accumulation of sucrose, fructose, and glucose. As the fruit continues to
mature, its rate of respiration will slowly increase. The cell growth rate of the fruit will
be steady or increase during this maturation stage and will eventually slow down as the
fruit reaches full maturity [19]. While maturation and ripening both describe processes
where the fruit will reach a certain peak in its growth, they represent different attributes.
Maturation is defined by the biological growth rate of the fruit, but ripeness refers to the
development that causes the fruit to reach a desirable stage for consumption. This stage is
often described using characteristics such as color and physical texture. This is also the
growth characteristic that describes when the desired fruity aroma and flavor levels are
reached. Fruits can ripen while being attached to the plant and can continue to ripen even
after being harvested [19]. Therefore, freshness monitoring of fruits will mostly utilize
ripeness parameters such as color and pH. Senescence in fruits refers to the stage of growth
where the plant exceeds its peak maturity or ripeness and begins the irreversible phases of
deterioration that will eventually lead to death. During this stage, the cells break down
and the fruit loses many of the characteristics that makes it appealing [19]. The senescence
of fruits is associated with the emission of different types of gases such as ethylene. Thus,
monitoring of senescence can provide important freshness indication of fruits.
The different processing stages of fruits have a big impact on their quality that re-
quires good handling, storage, and transportation techniques to help limit spoilage and
wastage while preserving freshness. Once fruits reach maturity or a desirable stage in their
maturity, they are harvested and collected for further processing. Although harvesting
and processing techniques may differ from fruit to fruit, the general guiding principles,
which are known as post-harvesting procedure, are similar [21]. One of the most important
prerequisites to maintain fruits freshness is the post-harvesting practices to ensure that the
fruits are harvested at the right level of maturity. Maturity indices such as visual, physical,
and chemical indices, are all examples of freshness indicators that are used to judge when
a fruit can be harvested. For example, the freshness of apples can be identified by using
firmness as a physical index to determine desirable maturity, and mangos can use starch
content as a chemical index. Furthermore, the calendar date is also a useful estimation for
the best harvesting period [22].
Most fruits, especially climacteric fruits, are harvested before they are ripened, so
that they can ripen during storage or transport. Fruits should be harvested carefully
without any damage. For example, a small bruise on an apple can result in up to a 400%
increase in the rate of moisture loss [21]. Although fruits can be harvested by harvesting
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 5 of 30

machines, most fruits, such as apples, pears, plums, and cherries for the fresh market, are
harvested manually, which usually results in better quality harvest [23]. After fruits are
harvested, storage temperature and humidity are calibrated so that freshness is preserved
with minimum spoilage. Inappropriate storage temperatures may increase respiration and
water loss, leading to premature ripening. The temperature coefficient (Q10 ) is a measure
that is used to show the change in rates of biological processes with every increase in
10 ◦ C [24].
rate o f reaction at T1 + 10 ◦ C
Q10 = (1)
rate o f reaction at T1
For most produce, the Q10 for respiration rate, where T1 ranges between 5 ◦ C and
25 ◦ C, is about 2.0 to 2.5. This implies that for every increase of 10 ◦ C in that temperature
range, the respiration rate will be doubled from the minimum and reduce the overall shelf-
life by half. While storage at cooler temperatures is preferred to slow down ripening, too
low temperatures can cause chilling injury to the fruit, leading to physical damage and loss
of flavor and aroma. Therefore, it is important that minimum and maximum temperatures
per fruit are maintained [24]. Relative humidity of the storage room is also critical. Relative
humidity (RH %) is a ratio of the actual water vapor density in an environment compared
to how much the environment can potentially hold. For most fruits, a desirable relative
humidity ranges between 85% to 95% [25], as defined by the following equation for relative
humidity [26]:
PWater vapour
RH % = × 100 (2)
PSaturation water vapour
Low humidity can cause moisture loss in fruits affecting physical texture and taste.
On the other hand, high humidity can speed up fruit decay and rot. Thus, temperature
and humidity management are excellent ways to significantly slow down further aging
of harvested fruits. Additional examples of external agents to slow down aging include
calcium, chlorine solution, and edible coating. For example, calcium can slow down
the aging of fruits and microbial growth. Treatments like chlorine solutions or thermal
cleansing treatments can prevent microorganisms attaching to living fruit cells and tis-
sues. Edible coating provides a waxy texture as well as barrier between the fruit and
microbial invaders [27]. The above discussion of fruits classification, stages of growth,
and harvesting/post-harvesting conditions provides an understanding of fruit freshness
parameters. This discussion also helps to quantify and estimate the range, sensitivity, and
lifetime assessment of freshness sensors and to optimally choose the best freshness sensor
for different types of fruits. For example, fruits that degrade quickly due to temperature
and humidity are best monitored with temperature and humidity sensors rather than
using a microbial pathogen sensor. Also, fruit physiology, growth stages, and harvesting
can provide a bridge between freshness sensors and smart packaging sensors for a more
improved monitoring of fruits quality.

3. Smart Packaging Systems for Fruit Freshness

Freshness sensors or indicators can sense and inform about the quality of fruits in
terms of their freshness level, ripeness, or firmness. Therefore, fruit freshness sensors
are on-package indicators that monitors the environment inside or outside the package
and allow consumers to make informed decisions about the quality of the fruits [28].
On the other hand, smart packaging and/or sensors refer to an embedded system, which
is a combination of electronics and electrochemical/electro-optical sensors that are near
packaged fruits, allowing continuous monitoring of the quality of packaged fruits once the
package leave the plant until it reaches to consumers, as illustrated in Figure 2. The use of
freshness sensors in fruits’ packaging vastly depends on the type of fruits and the fruits
physiology. Therefore, a general classification and understanding of the fruit’s physiology
is important when designing and implementing freshness sensors and smart packaging
systems, as discussed in the following subsections.
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 30

sensors in fruits’ packaging vastly depends on the type of fruits and the fruits physiology.
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 Therefore, a general classification and understanding of the fruit’s physiology is 6 ofim-
30
portant when designing and implementing freshness sensors and smart packaging sys-
tems, as discussed in the following subsections.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram illustrating
illustrating the
the details
details of
of aa smart
smart fruit
fruitpackaging
packagingsystem.
system.

3.1.
3.1. Importance
Importance of of Smart
Smart Packaging
Packaging and and Its
Its Relationship
Relationship withwith Freshness
Freshness Sensors
Sensors
Fruits
Fruits packaging is a critical step toward the transport and sale sale
packaging is a critical step toward the transport and of produce,
of produce, and itand
can
itbecan be categorized into two main types based on its objectives:
categorized into two main types based on its objectives: consumer packaging and trans- consumer packaging
and transportation
portation packagingpackaging
[29]. Consumer [29]. Consumer
packaging packaging is the individually
is the individually packaged
packaged collection of
collection
fruits thatofare fruits
soldthatas aare soldunit,
single as a single
whichunit, which are
are usually madeusually made offilm
of a plastic a plastic film or
or container.
container.
On the other Onhand,
the other hand,packaging
transport transport packaging
is designedistodesigned
allow large to allow large of
quantities quantities
produce
of produce to be transported easily, efficiently, and safely. Usually,
to be transported easily, efficiently, and safely. Usually, large plastic, wooden, and card- large plastic, wooden,
and
board cardboard
crates arecrates
usedare for used for transportation;
transportation; however,however, plastic containers
plastic containers are preferred
are preferred because
because of their high durability and easier sanitation [24].
of their high durability and easier sanitation [24]. The primary aim of both types The primary aim of both types of
of pack-
packaging is to ensure that the products inside are protected
aging is to ensure that the products inside are protected from damage and to provide from damage and to provide
accurate
accurate and and thorough
thorough information
information about about thethe origin,
origin, grade,
grade,nutrition
nutritionetc.
etc. of
of the
theproducts
products
within
within them [29]. The transparency, mechanical stability, and chemical inertness ofplastic
them [29]. The transparency, mechanical stability, and chemical inertness of plastic
packaging
packaging containers
containers are are important
important aspects
aspects to to be
be adapted
adapted to tointegrate
integratesmart
smartpackaging
packaging
sensors.
sensors. ThisThis will
will cause
cause minimal
minimal change
change in in fruit
fruit packaging
packaging industry
industry standards.
standards.
Fruits are sold to consumers in a variety of packaging forms. For example, frozen
Fruits are sold to consumers in a variety of packaging forms. For example, frozen
fruits without fat that do not oxidize typically show very long shelf life as compared to
fruits without fat that do not oxidize typically show very long shelf life as compared to
their as-harvested counterpart. However, some studies indicated loss of nutrients, such as
their as-harvested counterpart. However, some studies indicated loss of nutrients, such as
vitamin C, and distortion of the texture of the fruit when thawed after long-term storage
vitamin C, and distortion of the texture of the fruit when thawed after long-term storage
of frozen fruit [30]. Another possible effect of frozen fruit is freezer burn, which is the
of frozen fruit [30]. Another possible effect of frozen fruit is freezer burn, which is the
distortion of taste and texture through dehydration when the frozen food comes in contact
distortion of taste and texture through dehydration when the frozen food comes in contact
with air [31]. On the other hand, canned fruits have an even longer shelf life; however,
with air [31]. On the other hand, canned fruits have an even longer shelf life; however,
they contain preservatives and sugars that can take away the nutritional value of the fruit
they contain preservatives and sugars that can take away the nutritional value of the fruit
itself compared to a fresh living fruit. Although fresh produce has the shortest shelf life
itself compared to a fresh living fruit. Although fresh produce has the shortest shelf life
and can easily be the most expensive, particularly if it is of all-natural or organic grade,
itand can easily
is still be theto
considered most expensive,
be most particularly
flavorful if it is of all-natural
and nutritionally richer form or of
organic
producegrade, it
[32].
is still considered to be most flavorful and nutritionally richer
For this reason, it is still one of the most popular forms of produce delivery and makes up form of produce [32]. For
athis
largereason,
portionit isofstill
theone
fruitofandthe vegetable
most popular marketforms[32].ofTherefore,
produce delivery and fresh
monitoring makesfruits
up a
largesmart
with portion of the fruit
packaging and vegetable
is critical for deliveringmarket [32]. Therefore,
customers monitoring
with quality, freshvalue,
nutritional fruits
with smart packaging is critical for delivering customers
and safety [33]. Thus, the need for better quality monitoring and management systems with quality, nutritional value,
andbecome
has safety [33]. Thus,force
a driving the need
in thefor better quality
industry. Once the monitoring
produce has andbeen
management systems
checked, treated,
and left the packaging plants, there is very little to no monitoring that occurs treated,
has become a driving force in the industry. Once the produce has been checked, during
and left the
transport or bypackaging plants,Inthere
the resellers. mostiscommercial
very little supermarkets,
to no monitoring that
fresh occurs isduring
produce kept
refrigerated in storerooms at around 2–4 ◦ C to slow down ripening. While monitoring the
storeroom temperature and humidity levels may help slow down decay, some fruits such
as bananas that blacken when refrigerated, cannot undergo such growth-inhibiting storage
practices. There is also reduced environmental control in the display sections of grocery
stores, where produce is left out in the open [34]. The lack of monitoring infrastructure
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 7 of 30

at this point in the processing chain makes it difficult to ensure that the quality of fruits
and vegetables is maintained before it reaches the customers. To address these challenges,
many companies [35] have started to develop smart packaging technology that can be used
to ensure quality monitoring and management from the beginning and throughout the
entirety of the process.
While normal packaging practices have been in use since the industrial revolution,
the recent innovation of smart packaging systems have made quite an impact in the food
industry. In fact, the value of the global smart packaging market is estimated to become
USD 26.7 billion by the year 2024 [36]. Smart Packaging describes the embedded systems
technology used in product packaging. Traditional commercial packaging does not possess
the ability to monitor the quality of the product once it has left the packaging plant.
Smart packaging allows us to continue to monitor and maintain quality all the way until
the product is consumed. Smart systems can vary from simple self-contained units to
fully integrated subsystems interacting together to perform multiple tasks. These specific
subsystems can be categorized into the following components: intelligent packaging, data
handling and communication, and active packaging. Intelligent packaging refers to the
monitoring component of the smart packaging system, where sensors and indicators are
used to gauge the quality of the packaged product. Data handling and transmission are
also integral to the overall system. Many of the sensors on packages operate independently
and can both detect relevant information and display it on the package. However, some
smart packaging systems relay sensor data to an external resource for real-time data
processing and analysis. Furthermore, smart packaging not only focuses on the monitoring
of packaged goods but can also incorporate active elements to mitigate product spoilage
for better quality maintenance.

3.2. Intelligent Systems in Fruit Packaging

Smart packaging solutions utilize a variety of sensor technologies to recognize and
resolve problems in fruit packaging. Different sensors may be used depending on the type
of fruit being monitored. This subsection of the review describes the common freshness
sensors used for packaged fruits.

3.2.1. Direct Freshness

There are two types of freshness sensors—namely, direct sensors and indirect sensors.
As the name suggests, a direct freshness sensor detects a particular analyte directly from
the fruit as an indicator for food freshness. On the other hand, an indirect freshness sen-
sor is based on indirect or reaction-based detection of fruits degradation due to certain
freshness parameters such as temperature and/or time. These sensors are uniquely de-
signed based on different stages of monitoring such as the food distribution chains and
consumer package on the shelf. In any case, the sensors should correctly monitor the rate
of deterioration of fruit freshness [37]. An array of concepts for fruit freshness sensors or
indicators have been developed including aldehyde [38,39], volatile organic compounds
(VOC) [40], ethanol [41], hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) [42], pH [43,44], and CO2 [45]. The sensors
or indicators are integrated into the food package as a visible indicator, label, or tag that
undergoes color changes according to changes in the freshness markers and/or analytes.
Freshness sensors can consist of single, dual, or multiple sensors array. Most commercial
freshness sensors utilize a single sensor. Single sensors can only monitor one freshness
parameter at a time, such as pH or time-temperature. Dual freshness sensors use two
sensors that reference each other in the sensing process while informing food freshness at
the same time. However, dual, and multiple sensor array architectures are being developed
at the lab scale and will soon be available in the market. Figure 3 shows different types of
fruits freshness sensors based direct and indirect sensing methods.
 Direct fruit freshness sensors can detect or sense the freshness level of fruits based on
unique markers or compounds. Conventional types of direct fruit freshness sensors in-
clude spoilage, ripeness, leak, microbial pathogens, ethylene, and senescence indicators.
In most cases, the sensors contain a color indicator for easy visualization of freshness level
by the naked eye. The indicator undergoes a change of color, and the rate of color change
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 8 of 30
corresponds to the rate of deterioration of the food, which is also correlated with temper-
ature variation and time while the food is in distribution cycles and on the shelf [9].

Figure3.3.Classifications
Figure Classificationsofofsensors
sensorsfor
formonitoring
monitoringfreshness
freshnessofof fruits.
fruits.

Direct fruit
Spoilage. Thefreshness
spoilagesensors canisdetect
of fruits causedorbysense
the the freshness level
deterioration of fruits
of their qualitybased
to a
on unique markers or compounds. Conventional types of direct fruit
degree when they are no longer edible. Although spoilage indicators of food may be more freshness sensors
include
related tospoilage,
fish andripeness, leak, microbial
meats, fruits also showpathogens, ethylene,
certain spoilage and senescence
indicators indicators.
due to different ex-
In most
ternal cases,The
factors. the spoilage
sensors of contain
fruits aoccurs
color due
indicator for easy
to external visualization
factors of freshness
including temperature,
level by the
humidity, naked
gas, eye. The indicator
and surrounding undergoes
atmosphere. a change
Detection of color,
of food andcan
spoilage theberate
doneof using
color
change corresponds to the rate of deterioration of the food, which is
chemical sensors including a pH sensor that perform noninvasive and real-time monitor-also correlated with
temperature variation and time while the food is in distribution cycles and
ing of the fruit freshness. The pH of an enclosed fruit package changes within the head- on the shelf [9].
Spoilage. The spoilage of fruits is caused by the deterioration
space inside, which can be measured by a pH sensor. Typically, pH indicator dyes are of their quality to a
degree when they are no longer edible. Although spoilage indicators
used that undergo color change when put into an acid or base. When a fruit spoils, it re- of food may be
more
leasesrelated to fish
different typesand meats, fruits
of volatile alsocompounds
organic show certain spoilage
that can be indicators
detected withdue pHto different
sensors.
external factors. The spoilage of fruits occurs due to external factors including
pH sensors provide a cost-effective, highly sensitive, and easy-to-use means for detecting temperature,
humidity,
on-packagegas, and surrounding
freshness. For example, atmosphere.
colorimetricDetection
pH indicatorsof food spoilagealdehyde
for sensing can be donehave
using chemical sensors including a pH sensor that perform noninvasive and real-time
been reported. In one study, a pH sensor used to identify glutaraldehyde in the liquid
monitoring of the fruit freshness. The pH of an enclosed fruit package changes within
phase was based on the chemical reaction mechanism of hydrogen bond between glutar-
the headspace inside, which can be measured by a pH sensor. Typically, pH indicator
aldehyde oligomer created by an aldol reaction and the sensor [39]. In another study, for-
dyes are used that undergo color change when put into an acid or base. When a fruit
maldehyde was detected by exploiting the chemical reaction between formaldehyde and
spoils, it releases different types of volatile organic compounds that can be detected with
primary amines [46]. In both studies, the color change originated from changes in the
pH sensors. pH sensors provide a cost-effective, highly sensitive, and easy-to-use means
fruit’s basicity.
for detecting on-package freshness. For example, colorimetric pH indicators for sensing
aldehyde have been reported. In one study, a pH sensor used to identify glutaraldehyde in
the liquid phase was based on the chemical reaction mechanism of hydrogen bond between
glutaraldehyde oligomer created by an aldol reaction and the sensor [39]. In another study,
formaldehyde was detected by exploiting the chemical reaction between formaldehyde
and primary amines [46]. In both studies, the color change originated from changes in the
fruit’s basicity.
Ripeness. An important indicator of fruit freshness is ripeness, which is often difficult
for the consumers to estimate. This situation almost always puts the customer in a dilemma
about when the fruits are safe to be purchased, stored, or consumed. Several commercial
ripeness indicators have been developed. For example, ripeSenseTM [47], a New Zealand—
based company, has shown a potential solution to this problem, in which the sensor reacts
with the aromas emitted by ripening fruit. The sensor becomes red at the beginning (crisp)
and changes to orange (firm) and then finally to yellow (juicy) with increasing ripeness, as
shown in Figure 4. Consumers can make informed decisions about the ripeness state of the
 for the consumers to estimate. This situation almost always puts the customer in a di-
lemma about when the fruits are safe to be purchased, stored, or consumed. Several com-
mercial ripeness indicators have been developed. For example, ripeSenseTM [47], a New
Zealand–based company, has shown a potential solution to this problem, in which the
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509
sensor reacts with the aromas emitted by ripening fruit. The sensor becomes red at the
9 of 30
beginning (crisp) and changes to orange (firm) and then finally to yellow (juicy) with in-
creasing ripeness, as shown in Figure 4. Consumers can make informed decisions about
the ripeness state of the fruit by simply noting the color of the sensor. The use of this sensor
fruitalso
can by simply
reduce noting the color
fruit damage andof shrinkage,
the sensor. which
The use of this
may sensor by
be caused canthe
also reduce fruit
handling and
damage and
inspection ofshrinkage,
fruits by thewhich may be caused
consumers. by thepackage
The sensor handling is and inspection
typically madeofoffruits by the
recyclable
consumers. The
polyethylene sensor package
terephthalate (PET)isclamshell
typically that
madecanof provide
recyclable anpolyethylene terephthalate
increasingly hygienic and
environmentally conscious packaging solution. The ripeness of different typesconscious
(PET) clamshell that can provide an increasingly hygienic and environmentally of fruits
packagingpears,
including solution. The ripeness
kiwifruit, of different
melon, mango, types ofcan
and avocado fruits including with
be monitored pears, kiwifruit,
this sensor.
melon, mango,
Moreover, and avocado
different stages of can
fruitbe monitored
ripeness maywith
also this sensor.
release Moreover,
volatile different
compounds thatstages
have
of fruit
been ripeness
studied maye-noses.
using also release
Onevolatile compounds
such example that
is the have
use been
of an studied
e-nose forusing e-noses.
the ripeness
One such example
determination is the use
of tomatoes of an e-nose for the ripeness determination of tomatoes [48].
[48].

Figure
Figure 4.
4. (A)
(A)Application
Applicationofofthe
thefreshness indicator
freshness forfor
indicator guavas packaging
guavas [49],
packaging reproduced
[49], with
reproduced permission
with fromfrom
permission [49].[49].
(B)
Schematic representation of the RipeSense indicator, reproduced from [35].
(B) Schematic representation of the RipeSense indicator, reproduced from [35].

Secondary
Secondary species
species such
such asas aldehyde
aldehyde emission
emission is is another
another marker
marker ofof fruit
fruit (e.g.,
(e.g., apple)
apple)
ripeness.
ripeness. Although
Although extensive
extensive studies
studies were
were conducted
conducted regarding
regarding aldehyde
aldehyde detection
detection and and
apple
apple flavor
flavor analysis,
analysis, there
there have
have been
been very
very few
few studies
studies on on colorimetric
colorimetric sensors
sensors for for fruits
fruits
ripeness
ripeness detection
detection using
using secondary
secondary species
species emission.
emission. For For example,
example, aa colorimetric
colorimetric sensorsensor
was developed that utilized pH indicators based
was developed that utilized pH indicators based on methyl on methyl red (MR) to detect aldehyde
emission
emission as as aa marker
marker of of apple
apple ripeness,
ripeness, asas shown
shown in in Figure 5A–C [38]. In In another
another ap- ap-
proach, bromophenolblue
proach, bromophenol blue(BPB)
(BPB) waswas used
used as on-package
as an an on-package colorcolor indicator
indicator to detect
to detect guava
guava
ripeness ripeness [49].
[49]. The BPBThe BPB
was was immobilized
immobilized on a bacterial
on a bacterial cellulose cellulose
membranemembrane
using ausing
simple a
simple
absorptionabsorption
method. method.
With anWith an increased
increased guava ripening
guava ripening process,process,
volatilevolatile
organicorganic
acids wereac-
ids wereemitted
slowly slowly emitted
into the into the package
package headspace,
headspace, which caused
which caused a decrease
a decrease in pH in pH level.
level. With
With decreased
decreased pH level,
pH level, the membrane
the membrane ripeness
ripeness indicator
indicator subsequently
subsequently changedchanged its color
its color from
from
blue toblue to green,
green, indicating
indicating over-ripeness.
over-ripeness. Moreover,
Moreover, the membrane
the membrane ripenessripeness color in-
color indicator
could successfully
dicator detect guava
could successfully detect ripeness stored at
guava ripeness a varying
stored temperature
at a varying range ofrange
temperature 4 ◦ C of
to
◦
428°CC.to In
28both
°C. Intemperature ranges,ranges,
both temperature the membrane indicators
the membrane could accurately
indicators estimateesti-
could accurately the
changes
mate the of severalof
changes parameters including including
several parameters pH, solidspH, soluble contents,
solids solubleroughness
contents, or softness,
roughness
and
or sensoryand
softness, assessment that usuallythat
sensory assessment characterizes guava ripeness.
usually characterizes guava ripeness.
In another study,
In study,aasimple,
simple,low-cost,
low-cost,andandon-package
on-package color indicator
color indicatorwas wasfabricated
fabricated us-
ing methyl red (MR) towards the detection of ripeness of non-climacteric
using methyl red (MR) towards the detection of ripeness of non-climacteric fruits (e.g., fruits (e.g., straw-
berries) [50]. In this case, an increase in the pH in the package headspace caused the release
of volatile acids, which gradually reduced the MR that was immobilized onto a bacterial
cellulose membrane and caused enzymic formation of esters during ripening. The color
of the indicator thus changed from yellow to red-purple, indicating an over-ripeness, as
demonstrated in Figure 5D–F. A high correlation was observed between the color changes
and the strawberry ripeness. Therefore, real-time ripeness monitoring of strawberries
was successfully shown with the use of the on-pack color indicator both in ambient and
refrigeration temperatures.
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 10 of 30

Figure 5. (A) Reaction setup for the detection of apple flavor using a sensor label, (B) degree of sensory ripeness and RGB
index plot vs storage time, and (C) color changes in sensor label after exposure to apple flavors, reproduced with permission
from ref. [38]. Application of color ripeness indicator for strawberry, (D) yellow for fresh (crunchy), (E) orange for medium
(firm), and (F) purple for not fresh (juicy), reproduced from ref. [50].

Leak. The last section discussed about the ripeness of fruits that indicates the freshness
of raw fruits. However, the freshness of processed/packaged fruits is another important
parameter. The freshness of packaged fruits can be compromised by the package integrity.
Hence, leaks can pose a significant challenge in maintaining the freshness of packaged
food. Therefore, leak sensor or indicator can be used to monitor the integrity of packaged
fruits that are directly related to fruit freshness. The leak indicators are typically gas
indicators that can indicate whether there is any toxic composition of gases produced
from the decomposition of packaged fruits endangering consumer health and safety [51].
As shown in Figure 6, changes in the colors of the indicators induced by chemical or
enzymatic reactions can then be used to determine the freshness of processed fruits [35].
In many instances of processed fruit packaging, modified atmosphere packaging
(MAP) and equilibrium MAP are used, which require gas sensors to indicate fruit fresh-
ness [52]. The atmosphere in MAP typically consists of lower O2 level (~2%) and higher
CO2 level (20%–80%). Two major types of MAPs are passive and active MAPs. Passive
MAP depends on produce respiration and permeability of the packaging material, which
establishes an equilibrium atmosphere inside the MAP. For example, fresh cut apples stored
at 2 ◦ C showed that the O2 content decreased from 21% (first hour) to 6.89% (190 h), and
the CO2 content increased from 0.02% to 7.98%; after that, the concentration became almost
constant or equilibrium [53]. In contrast, in active MAP, additives are incorporated into
the package that help to maintain or extend the product quality. Leak detection sensors
(e.g., O2, and CO2 ) can thus monitor the condition of packaged food to give information
about the fruit’s quality. Reduced oxygen level in the packaging provides many benefits
to fruits. For example, 0.5–5 kPa O2 induces reduced ethylene perception and suppressed
 establishes an equilibrium atmosphere inside the MAP. For example, fresh cut apples
stored at 2 °C showed that the O2 content decreased from 21% (first hour) to 6.89% (190
h), and the CO2 content increased from 0.02% to 7.98%; after that, the concentration be-
came almost constant or equilibrium [53]. In contrast, in active MAP, additives are incor-
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 porated into the package that help to maintain or extend the product quality. Leak11detec- of 30
tion sensors (e.g., O2, and CO2) can thus monitor the condition of packaged food to give
information about the fruit’s quality. Reduced oxygen level in the packaging provides
many benefits to fruits. For example, 0.5–5 kPa O2 induces reduced ethylene perception
respiratory
and suppressedand metabolic activity
respiratory in applesactivity
and metabolic [54]. Hence, any[54].
in apples leakHence,
in the MAP package
any leak in the
considerably
MAP package considerably increases the O2 level that comes from the atmosphereCO
increases the O 2 level that comes from the atmosphere and decreases the and2
level, allowing aerobic microbial growth. Therefore, MAP leak sensors can easily
decreases the CO2 level, allowing aerobic microbial growth. Therefore, MAP leak sensors detect
the
canOeasily
2 leveldetect
ratherthe
than
O2 the CO
level 2 level
rather [52].the CO2 level [52].
than

Figure6.6.Schematic
Figure Schematicrepresentation
representationof
ofthe
theleak
leakindicators,
indicators,reproduced
reproducedfrom
from[35].
[35].

Commercial
CommercialOO22-sensitive
-sensitive MAP
MAP indicator,
indicator,for forexample,
example,AGELESS
AGELESSEYE EYEmanufactured
manufactured
by
by Mitsubishi, uses an O2 absorbing sachets [55]. The indicator is placed in directcontact
Mitsubishi, uses an O 2 absorbing sachets [55]. The indicator is placed in direct contact
with
withthe
thegaseous
gaseousenvironment
environmentsurrounding
surrounding thethe
packaging,
packaging, which
whichis activated at the
is activated time
at the of
time
consumption. When the seal is broken by the consumer, a timer goes
of consumption. When the seal is broken by the consumer, a timer goes off and the indi- off and the indicator
color
cator starts changing
color starts over time
changing [56]. [56].
over time In another
In another study, a nontoxic
study, a nontoxicsurface coating
surface coatingon on
a
substrate was synthesized that activated the irreversible formation of colored spots because
a substrate was synthesized that activated the irreversible formation of colored spots be-
of the exposure to molecular oxygen [57]. Another major disadvantage of an O2 indicator is
cause of the exposure to molecular oxygen [57]. Another major disadvantage of an O2 in-
the very low sensitivity of the sensor and that it cannot distinguish the presence of residual
dicator is the very low sensitivity of the sensor and that it cannot distinguish the presence
O2 often entrapped in the MAP [58]. The low sensitivity of the O2 sensor complicates the
of residual O2 often entrapped in the MAP [58]. The low sensitivity of the O2 sensor com-
handling of the sensor requiring anaerobic conditions during sensor manufacturing and
plicates the handling of the sensor requiring anaerobic conditions during sensor manu-
the packaging processes. In addition, the change in the color of the O2 gas sensors is not
facturing and the packaging processes. In addition, the change in the color of the O2 gas
obvious in the presence of acidic CO2 gas in MAPs [58,59].
sensors is not obvious in the presence of acidic CO2 gas in MAPs [58,59].
On the other hand, CO2 leak indicators do not typically detect leaks in a reliable
On the other hand, CO2 leak indicators do not typically detect leaks in a reliable man-
manner as compared to O2 gas sensors. The drawback of the CO2 indicators is due to
ner as compared to O2 gas sensors. The drawback of the CO2 indicators is due to absorp-
absorption of CO2 in the food within the first few days that results in the decrease in the
tion of CO2 in the food within the first few days that results in the decrease in the concen-
concentration of CO2 in the headspace during storage. This applies to only active MAP, in
trationthe
which of package
CO2 in the headspace
is flushed during
at the storage.
beginning. This applies
In contrast, to onlymetabolism
microbial active MAP, mayin result
which
the
in anpackage
increaseisinflushed at the beginning.
the concentration of CO2In contrast, microbial
. Therefore, metabolism may
the CO2 concentration mayresult
still bein
an increase in the concentration of CO 2. Therefore, the CO2 concentration may still be con-
constant even in the case of leakage and/or microbial spoilage. Commercial CO2 -sensitive
stant indicators
MAP even in the case ofplastic
include leakage and/or
optical microbialfilms
fluorescent spoilage. Commercial
[60]. However, the CO 2-sensitive
sensors may
MAP indicators include plastic optical fluorescent films [60]. However,
suffer from irregular reversibility as the O2 entering the package through the leak might the sensors may
suffer
be from irregular
consumed by microbialreversibility
growth as thecan
that O2lead
entering
to thethe package
loss through integrity.
of the package the leak might
As a
result, the color of the indicator may remain the same as that of an intact package evenAsina
be consumed by microbial growth that can lead to the loss of the package integrity.
the case of a food spoilage [60].
Microbial pathogens. Microbial pathogens detection is another important criterion
for fruit freshness. In many cases, extraction of a sample is required to be detected with the
sensors. Therefore, it is challenging to integrate such sensors within the package that can
provide an easily distinguishable change in color at low manufacturing cost. As discussed
in the previous section, the easiest way to detect microbial contamination is by measuring
changes in gas composition inside the package caused by microbial growth. However, there
is a low prevalence of pathogens in fruit packages (Table 1) [61], and there are few reports
of package sensors for pathogens detection [62]. Detection of microbial spoilage due to
CO2 is difficult in a fruit package that already has a high concentration of CO2 . Therefore,
CO2 gas detection—based microbial pathogen sensor may only work in packages that do
not contain any CO2 gas [63]. Gas-detection-based biosensors were also developed using
conducting polymers that may also detect gas released due to microbial metabolism [64,65].
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 12 of 30

The biosensors were fabricated using conducting polymer nanoparticles inserted into an
insulating matrix. The resistance of the matrix changes is correlated with the amount of
gas released [66].

Table 1. Pathogen prevalence in fruits, median prevalence and country of prevalence, reproduced from [61].

Pathogens Fruits Median (Range) Sample Country

Apple 0 (0)
Cantaloupe 1.7 (0–40.0) United States, Mexico,
Escherichia coli O157:H7 Fruit (not articulated) 0 (0–4.00) Germany, South Africa,
Peach 2.5 (0–10.0) United States
Raspberry 0 (0–40.0)
Verotoxin-producing E. coli Citrus 0 (0) Japan, United States
Pathogenic E. coli Kiwifruit 0.50 (0–3.9) China
Apple 0 (0)
Cantaloupe 1.7 (0–40.0)
Citrus 0 (0) United States
Fruit (not articulated) 0 (0–4.00) Mexico, Japan, Germany,
Salmonella
Kiwifruit 0.50 (0–3.9) South Africa, China,
Peach 2.5 (0–10.0) Poland, Poland, Spain
Raspberry 0 (0–40.0)
Strawberry 0 (0–30.0)
Blackberry 0
Blueberry 0
Cantaloupe 1.7 (0–40.0)
Poland, Mexico, United States,
Listeria Fruit (not articulated) 0 (0–4.00)
Germany, South Africa, Spain
Peach 2.5 (0–10.0)
Raspberry 0 (0–40.0)
Strawberry 0 (0–30.0)
Staphylococcus aureus Kiwifruit 0.50 (0–3.9) China
Norovirus Raspberry 0 (0–40.0) Poland

Microbial pathogen sensors were fabricated based on microbial metabolites reactions

to the enzymes produced by contaminating microbes [67] and the consumption of particular
nutrients in the food [68]. These sensors are based on changes of color, which motivated
the widely developed optical-based biosensor together with acoustic transduction systems
over electrochemical transduction methods. Common pathogens detected in these methods
include Staphylococcal enterotoxin A and B; Salmonella typhimurium; Salmonella group
B, D, and E; and Escherichia coli and E. coli 0157: H7 [68,69]. Commercial efforts for
making biosensors for food packaging include the Food Sentinel System (SIRA Technologies
Inc., CA, US) [70] and ToxinGuard (ToxinAlert, ON, Canada) [4]. In the Food Sentinel
System, the biosensor can detect food pathogens through specific antibodies attached
to the membrane. The membrane was used as part of the biosensor’s barcode. The
barcode turned unreadable when the pathogens detected caused localized dark bars. In
ToxinGuard, antibodies were printed on polyethylene-based plastic packages as a visual
diagnostic system that can detects food pathogens such as E. coli, Listeria sp., Salmonella
sp., and Campylobacter sp. A comparison of different direct freshness sensors is given in
Table 2 below.
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 13 of 30

Table 2. Comparison between different direct freshness sensors.

Freshness Parameter Smart Systems/Sensor Main Components Response Advantages Disadvantages Reference
Spoilage pH chemical sensors • pH indicator dyes • Color change due to • Cost-effective • No quantitative data [50,71]
pH increase • High sensitivity • Chemical migration
• Easy-to-use to food
Ripeness Aromas sensors, • Electrical circuits • Absorption of volatile • Very accurate • Expensive [48,50,71]
e-noses sensors, • pH indicator dyes organic compound leads • Can be used in
pH chemical sensors to physical change on bulk packaging
surface sensor
• Color change due to
pH increase
Leak O2 sensors, • Plastic optical • Color change in the films • Integrated into • Low sensitivity [60,72]
CO2 sensors fluorescent films • Light absorption packages • CO2 absorption
• Infrared Red measurement • May be checked by by food
technology eye or optical devices • Spectral interference

Microbial Microbial metabolites based, • Antibody specific • Color change due to • Low cost. • Possible migration of [67–69]
Gas detection based, membranes, reactions with • Can be used in chemicals to food
Optical based biosensors • Optical fluorescent metabolites headspace. • Sensitivity depends on
films transducer and quality
of antibody
Ethylene Chemoresistance sensors, • Electrical circuits • Resistance changes • Provide quantitative • Cross sensitivity [73–76]
Electrochemical sensors • Current changes information with gases
• Good repeatability • Sensitivity to
and accuracy temperature and
humidity
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 30

plastic packages resulting in reduced respiration rate and, hence, faster degradation of
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 14 of 30
fruits. Condensed water may also cause fog inside the package, which would impact the
customer’s decision to buy the product due to obscure vision of the product.
Humidity. A capacitive humidity sensor is a type of humidity sensor (i.e., hygrome-
3.2.2. Indirect Freshness
ter) that utilizes change in capacitance to detect relative humidity levels. This sensor com-
prisesIndirect
of a pairdetection of a fruit
of thin metal freshness
surfaces detection
or plates knownrelies on indirect
as electrodes freshness
separated by amarkers
film of
including temperature, storage time, and associated technologies such as RFID (radio
dielectric material, such as a metal oxide (Figure 7). These two plates form a parallel plate
frequency identification). Indirect freshness sensors replicate the change of a specific
capacitor with some level of capacitance. As the moisture in the atmosphere fluctuates,
quality parameters of the food facing the same exposure to the indirect freshness markers.
the permittivity of the dielectric film also changes. This change results in a change in ca-
The rate of change of the sensors should be correlated with the deterioration rate of the
pacitance between the two plates. The variance in capacitance generates a detectable ana-
packaged food with the variation of temperature/humidity over time during transportation,
logue voltage difference across the two electrodes, which can be measured and used to
distribution, and storage. The indirect sensors should indicate the freshness monitoring
determine the relative amount of moisture in the environment, according to the following
results in terms of change of color and electronic signal output when exposed to abnormal
equation:
storage temperatures and/or humidity. The indirect freshness sensors can be broadly
˳
𝐶classified
= as humidity indicators, temperature indicators (TI), time–temperature indicators (3)
(TTIs), and RFID-based indicators or sensors.
The capacitance
Temperature. is determined
Temperature andthrough
humidity the inside
above the equation, where Cisisan
fruit package capacitance,
important
Afactor
is thetoarea of onefreshness.
monitor plate, d is the
Thedistance
freshness between
of fruitthe may 𝜀˳
two plates,
products is the permittivity
rapidly change due of to
free space constant
improper temperature(8.85and
× 10relative
−12 F/m), and k is the dielectric constant that changes depend-
humidity conditions throughout transportation and
ing on theAcharacteristics
storage. of the dielectric
high relative humidity along withmaterial, as givenfluctuations
temperature by the following
can leadequation:
to conden-
sation𝑄of water. Water condensation can then induce microbial growth such as yeast, mold,
𝑉=
fungus, and bacteria. Condensed water droplets may also create blockage in perforated (4)
𝐶
plastic packages resulting in reduced respiration rate and, hence, faster degradation of
Voltage
fruits. can bewater
Condensed determined
may also by cause
capacitance through
fog inside the relationship
the package, which wouldabove where
impactVthe is
voltage, Q is the amount of charge on a plate, and C is
customer’s decision to buy the product due to obscure vision of the product.the capacitance. One of the most
beneficial features
Humidity. A of these capacitive
capacitive humidity humidity
sensor issensors
a type is ofthat their sensing
humidity sensor range for rel-
(i.e., hygrom-
ative
eter) humidity
that utilizesspans fromin0%
change to the full to
capacitance 100%. This
detect key specification
relative must also
humidity levels. Thisbe con-
sensor
sidered
comprises withofthe accuracy
a pair of thinspecification,
metal surfaceswhichorinplates
general is about
known as +/- 2% relative
electrodes humidity.
separated by
The operating
a film temperatures
of dielectric material,for these
such as asensing devices
metal oxide also incorporate
(Figure 7). These two the range
platesin tem-a
form
perature values
parallel plate of -20 °Cwith
capacitor to 85 °C that
some levelare
ofencountered
capacitance. during fruit transport
As the moisture in the and storage
atmosphere
[26]. While these sensors provide great range and are some of the most
fluctuates, the permittivity of the dielectric film also changes. This change results in a accurate humidity
sensors
change on the market, they
in capacitance betweenare expensive and suffer
the two plates. from long-term
The variance stabilitygenerates
in capacitance problems.a
Therefore,
detectable itanalogue
is important
voltage to recalibrate or replace
difference across these
the two sensors once
electrodes, which they
canhave reached
be measured
their recommended
and used to determine lifethe
span, especially
relative amountwhen reusinginthe
of moisture the same sensor for
environment, different
according to
batches of produce
the following for transportation packaging. Moreover, capacitive humidity sensor
equation:
performance may be limited due to problemskε ◦ A to saturation, hysteresis or exposure
related
C= (3)
to prolonged high humidity conditions. d

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Working
Workingprinciple
principlefor
fora acapacitive
capacitivehumidity
humiditysensor. (A)(A)
sensor. The initial
The setup
initial of the
setup capacitive
of the sensor
capacitive indicating
sensor no
indicating
detectable voltage across the plates. (B) The introduction of water vapor in the atmosphere. (C) The change
no detectable voltage across the plates. (B) The introduction of water vapor in the atmosphere. (C) The change in the in the permit-
tivity of the dielectric
permittivity becausebecause
of the dielectric of the water
of thevapor, generating
water vapor, a detectable
generating voltagevoltage
a detectable across across
the plates.
the plates.

Time–temperature. Time–temperature
The capacitance is determined indicators
through the (TTIs) are
above equation, wherealsoCindirect freshness
is capacitance, A is
sensors
the areathat work
of one based
plate, d ison
thedifferent
distancechemical, physical,
between the and biological
two plates, mechanismsof[77].
ε ◦ is the permittivity free
The chemical
space constantand × 10−12 mechanisms
(8.85physical F/m), and k isare
thebased on aconstant
dielectric chemicalthatreaction
changesordepending
physical
change, respectively, due
on the characteristics of theto dielectric
changes in time and
material, as temperature. Examples equation:
given by the following of such mecha-
nisms include acid–base reactions, melting, and polymerization. Biological mechanism is,
Q
V= (4)
C
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 15 of 30

Voltage can be determined by capacitance through the relationship above where V

is voltage, Q is the amount of charge on a plate, and C is the capacitance. One of the
most beneficial features of these capacitive humidity sensors is that their sensing range
for relative humidity spans from 0% to the full 100%. This key specification must also
be considered with the accuracy specification, which in general is about +/− 2% relative
humidity. The operating temperatures for these sensing devices also incorporate the range
in temperature values of −20 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C that are encountered during fruit transport and
storage [26]. While these sensors provide great range and are some of the most accurate
humidity sensors on the market, they are expensive and suffer from long-term stability
problems. Therefore, it is important to recalibrate or replace these sensors once they have
reached their recommended life span, especially when reusing the same sensor for different
batches of produce for transportation packaging. Moreover, capacitive humidity sensor
performance may be limited due to problems related to saturation, hysteresis or exposure
to prolonged high humidity conditions.
Time–temperature. Time–temperature indicators (TTIs) are also indirect freshness
sensors that work based on different chemical, physical, and biological mechanisms [77].
The chemical and physical mechanisms are based on a chemical reaction or physical change,
respectively, due to changes in time and temperature. Examples of such mechanisms
include acid–base reactions, melting, and polymerization. Biological mechanism is, on the
other hand, based on changes in the biological activity. Examples of biological activity
include microorganisms, spores, or enzymes due to changes in time and temperature. TTI
sensors are mostly based on change of colors when the sensors are exposed to higher than
recommended storage temperatures for extended period, and they also signify changes
when the product reaches the end of its shelf life. Therefore, physical, chemical, and
biological activity in fruits can be monitored using TTIs that can give a clear, accurate
indication of the freshness of fruits in terms of their quality, safety, and shelf life.
Irrelevant to the method of detection, some key specifications that all TTI datasheets
should include are threshold temperatures and runout times. As the name suggests, the
threshold temperatures specify the operating range for the indicator, i.e., the maximum and
minimum temperature values that need to be exceeded for the indicator to start recording.
The runout time refers to the minimum amount of time required at a temperature outside
the operating range for the entire indicator to have changed color. While these indicators
do give a relatively good time estimate of exposure to non-desirable temperatures, they
are not as accurate as conventional temperature sensing devices. However, their simple
operating principle, ease of use, and the fact that most customers do not require exact
measurements makes this an ideal sensor to be used for commercial fruit smart packing
systems [78].
Many commercial TTIs has been developed that are widely used for monitoring perish-
able goods. Examples of such TTIs include Fresh-Check® , Monitor MarkTM , OnVuTM , eO® ,
Timestrip® , Checkpoint® , and Tempix® , as illustrated in Figure 8 [37]. These commercial
indicators are mostly based on chemical and enzymatic reactions and, in most cases, can
be used for fruit packages. For example, Fresh-Check® is a polymer-based self-adhesive
chemical indicator with visual color change, which is a full history type sensor based on
a solid-state polymerization reaction. Monitor MarkTM is an example of a partial-history
TTI that provides temperature vs. time history of the product and is based on the diffusion
of blue-dyed fatty acid ester. The OnVuTM indicator is based on photochemical reaction
that indicates whether the product was exposed to high temperatures over time. eO® is
a microbial-based TTI that changes its color due to changes in pH of the degraded food
products. Timestrip® is a diffusion-based TTI in which the dye melts and migrates through
the porous membrane of the indicator when the temperature is higher than the reference
temperature. Checkpoint® indicator is an enzyme-based TTI that changes its color due to
enzymatic reaction. Tempix® is another example of diffusion-based TTI in which activa-
tion liquid diffuses into a barcode in case of any breach of temperatures. Due to diverse
mechanisms of the commercial TTIs, they can be used for freshness detection of different
 that indicates whether the product was exposed to high temperatures over time. eO® is a
microbial-based TTI that changes its color due to changes in pH of the degraded food
products. Timestrip® is a diffusion-based TTI in which the dye melts and migrates through
the porous membrane of the indicator when the temperature is higher than the reference
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 temperature. Checkpoint® indicator is an enzyme-based TTI that changes its color 16 due to
of 30
enzymatic reaction. Tempix® is another example of diffusion-based TTI in which activa-
tion liquid diffuses into a barcode in case of any breach of temperatures. Due to diverse
mechanisms of the commercial TTIs, they can be used for freshness detection of different
types
types of
offruits
fruitsbased
basedonontheir
theirdegradation
degradationmechanism
mechanism with thethe
with breach of time-temperature.
breach of time-tempera-
A comparison of different indirect sensor systems is given in Table 3.
ture. A comparison of different indirect sensor systems is given in Table 3.

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Figure8.8.Schematic
Figure Schematicrepresentation
representationofofthe
theTTI,
TTI,(A)
(a)Fresh-Check,
Fresh-Check,(B)
(b)Timestrip,
Timestrip,(C)
(c) MonitorMark,
MonitorMark,(D)
(d) CheckPoint,
CheckPoint, redrawn
redrawn
and reproduced with permission from [35].
and reproduced with permission from [35].

Table 3. Comparison between different indirect freshness sensor systems.

Freshness Smart Main Components Response Advantages Disadvantages Reference

Parameter System/Sensor
Humidity Capacitive [26]
sensors • Electrical circuits with • Change in • Accurate • Expensive
capacitive electrodes capacitance is • Provide • Cross-
translated to quantitative sensitivity
voltage /qualitative
change information
Time- Polymeric based, [37]
Temperature • Detect quality of • Irreversible • Provide visual • No
Photochemical
based, package environment color change information information
Microbial based, and fruit produce due to • Low cost about food
Diffusion based, • Detect the passing of exposure to • Placed outside quality
Electronic based, threshold limits of above the package
Enzymatic based different factors threshold
(temperature, gas temperature
composition over period
disruption)

3.3. Intelligent Packaging System in Container

RFID-based sensor system. Most of the previous sensing systems discussed focus
on the quality of the fruits or fruit products, but there is still significant data that can be
collected from the fruit container itself. Intelligent packaging can also make use of radio
frequency identification device (RFID) technology to track and identify the product quality
during storage and transport in containers. RFID tags are electronic barcodes used to
identify individually packaged units whose data can be stored on a network and accessed
later as needed. These systems require an RFID tag with an antenna, an RFID scanner,
and utilize radio waves to communicate data to a network. The tag itself is an IC with
an antenna, held together by a protective covering. When scanned, the RFID tag relays
information about the package through the antenna to the reader, which has a receiver that
transforms the radio waves emitted by the tag into the appropriate data format [79]. These
scanners can either be isolated units or can be connected to a central network that can store,
processes, and further propagate the received data as designed.
RFID tags themselves are categorized into either passive or active tags. The main
difference between these two types of tags is their power source, as RFID tags require power
to function. Passive tags have no internal power source and thus rely on the electromagnetic
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 17 of 30

energy emitted by the reader, whereas active tags have their own on chip batteries for
power. By being self-powered, active tags allow for real time traceability as they can
constantly send out information. While active tags do provide this additional functionality,
their high cost may make them less favorable in some situations, in comparison to the
passive variety [80].
Temperature and humidity of refrigerated fruit storage was developed by two wire-
less sensing technologies, RFID and wireless sensor network (WSN), as illustrated in
Figure 9A [81]. In this study, a combination of RFID and WSN devices were used in three
commercial wholesale chambers with different set points and products. A set of 90 semi-
passive RFID temperature loggers were used to record a 3D temperature mapping and
psychrometric data modelling that calculated the changes in enthalpy and the absolute
water content in air. The combination of the RFID and WSN sensor network enabled the
estimation of energy consumption in the cold storage, water loss from the products as well
as detection water condensation over the stored commodities.
RFID technology provides many benefits in packaging applications. Inventory can
be easily monitored using RFID readers placed at the entrances of the storage location.
Although RFID sensors have a limited reading range, they do not require a direct line of
vision or physical contact with the scanners. Therefore, detection of these tags is very simple
when the fruits are within a carrier container or storage shelf. Moreover, the RFID reading
range can be adjusted based on the operation frequency and power supply circuit unit.
This is a great advantage over traditional and less durable barcode technology that requires
unobstructed line of sight with proper orientation to be read. Additionally, RFID scanners
can read multiple tags at the same time and allow for both single item and bulk scanning.
While RFID tags have many advantages over conventional barcode labels, they have several
disadvantages. For example, RFID tags can be prone to interference, particularly when the
package is surrounded by materials such as metal that can interfere with the radio waves.
The cost of installing a RFID based system is also much higher than conventional barcode
technology, which is an important factor for mass production. Using RFID tags for reusable
containers or packages can be a cost-effective way of being able to reap the benefits of the
technology without substantial financial strain [82]. Freshness sensors are being employed
commercially with RFID tags to monitor relative humidity, temperature, light exposure,
pressure, and pH of foods. RFID-based sensors can identify any possible interruptions of
the cold chain that may undermine food safety and quality [83]. For example, a pH sensor
embedded in a passive RFID tag was developed for in situ monitoring of the deterioration
processes of packaged food [83]. Therefore, RFID-based sensors have tremendous potential
in wireless food quality monitoring at low cost.
In another study, real-time temperature and humidity monitoring of a small cold
storage of fruit and vegetable were demonstrated using an Arduino microcontroller-based
temperature and humidity monitoring system [84]. The system hardware components in-
cluded microcontroller unit, wireless communication protocols, temperature and humidity
sensor, and organic light emitting diode (OLED) display. The system software components
included Arduino IDE, UartAssist serial debugging assistant, and Lighting Blinker. The
system test results showed that it can perform remote monitoring with high measurement
accuracy and ease-of use. In a case study of remote quality monitoring in the banana chain,
the transport of bananas from Costa Rica to Europe were modelled and validated, as shown
in Figure 9B [85]. It was also showed that this model can be applied to generate automated
warning messages for containers with temperature and humidity variation that would
allow for remote monitoring of the ripening process inside the container.
Carbon dioxide non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) sensor. Consumer packaging with
modified atmospheric environment helps to ensure higher levels of carbon dioxide and
low levels of oxygen within the package. Compromising the integrity of the package can
lead to early decay in the fruit and the possibility of microbial infection. A high oxygen
level accelerates the ripening of fruits as well as the growth of microbial organisms [9].
In contrast, a low oxygen atmosphere slows down respiration and prevents the early
 ularly when the package is surrounded by materials such as metal that can interfere with
the radio waves. The cost of installing a RFID based system is also much higher than con-
ventional barcode technology, which is an important factor for mass production. Using
RFID tags for reusable containers or packages can be a cost-effective way of being able to
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 reap the benefits of the technology without substantial financial strain [82]. Freshness 18 of 30
sen-
sors are being employed commercially with RFID tags to monitor relative humidity, tem-
perature, light exposure, pressure, and pH of foods. RFID-based sensors can identify any
possible interruptions
ripening or fruit death.ofHowever,the cold chain
too lowthatlevels
may undermine
of oxygen can food safety
cause and
cell quality
death [83].
leading
For example, a pH sensor embedded in a passive RFID tag was
to premature decay. Thus, the monitoring of atmospheric gases with a technique such asdeveloped for in situ mon-
itoring of the deterioration
non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) processes
sensors of can
packaged
help tofood [83].
ensure Therefore,
proper RFID-based
packaging sen-
conditions.
sors have tremendous potential in wireless food quality monitoring
A NDIR sensor uses infrared light absorption to determine the concentration of specific at low cost.
gases.InTypically,
another study, real-time
light with temperature
wavelengths fromand 700 humidity
nm to 1 µm monitoring of a small
is shone through thecold
air
storage of fruit and vegetable were demonstrated using an Arduino
that contains the target gas to an optical detector. The atmospheric gases absorb certain microcontroller-based
temperature of
wavelengths and humidity
light, monitoringothers
while permitting system [84]. through.
to pass The system hardware components
Consequently, the amount in- of
cluded microcontroller unit, wireless communication protocols,
target gas particles that are present are measured by the amount of light absorbed, temperature andwhich
humid- is
ity sensor,
sensed by theand organic
optical light emitting
detector diodeit (OLED)
that converts display. The
into a measurable systemoutput
electrical software
[72].compo-
NDIR
nents included
sensors make use Arduino IDE, technology
of infrared UartAssist serial debugging
to determine the assistant,
concentrationand Lighting
of specificBlinker.
gases
The
in thesystem test results
atmosphere showed that
by measuring theitlight
can perform
absorption remote monitoringThis
characteristics. withishigh measure-
illustrated in
ment accuracy
Figure and ease-of
10. Different gases can use. In a case
absorb studywavelengths
different of remote quality
of lightmonitoring in the banana
while permitting others
chain,
to pass the transport
through. Using of this
bananas fromthe
property, Costa Rica of
amount to target
Europe gaswere modelled
particles andpresent
that are validated,can
be related to the amount of light absorbed or, conversely, the amount of light stillgenerate
as shown in Figure 9B [85]. It was also showed that this model can be applied to able to
automated
be warning
passed through andmessages
sensed by forthe containers with temperature
optical detector. The amount and of humidity
light sensed variation
at the
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 30
that would
optical allow
detector is for
then remote
convertedmonitoring of the ripening
into a measurable process
electrical inside
output the container.
[9,83,84].

ing or fruit death. However, too low levels of oxygen can cause cell death leading to prem-
ature decay. Thus, the monitoring of atmospheric gases with a technique such as non-
dispersive infrared (NDIR) sensors can help to ensure proper packaging conditions. A
NDIR sensor uses infrared light absorption to determine the concentration of specific
gases. Typically, light with wavelengths from 700 nm to 1 µm is shone through the air that
contains the target gas to an optical detector. The atmospheric gases absorb certain wave-
lengths of light, while permitting others to pass through. Consequently, the amount of
target gas particles that are present are measured by the amount of light absorbed, which
is sensed by the optical detector that converts it into a measurable electrical output [72].
NDIR sensors make use of infrared technology to determine the concentration of specific
gases in the atmosphere by measuring the light absorption characteristics. This is illus-
trated in Figure 10. Different gases can absorb different wavelengths of light while per-
mitting others to pass through. Using this property, the amount of target gas particles that
are present can be related to the amount of light absorbed or, conversely, the amount of
light still able to be passed through and sensed by the optical detector. The amount of
Figure9.9. (A)
(A) Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram ofof the
the cold
coldrooms
roomsand
andsensor
sensordistribution
distribution [81]. (B)
(B) Simplified
Simplified structure
structureof
ofthe
thecold
coldchain
chain
Figure light sensed at the optical detector is then[81].
converted into a measurable electrical output
for bananas, from harvest to ripening
for bananas, from harvest to [9,83,84]. by ethylene treatment, with regular duration of steps, reproduced from
ripening by ethylene treatment, with regular duration of steps, reproduced from [85]. [85].

Carbon dioxide non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) sensor. Consumer packaging with

modified atmospheric environment helps to ensure higher levels of carbon dioxide and
low levels of oxygen within the package. Compromising the integrity of the package can
lead to early decay in the fruit and the possibility of microbial infection. A high oxygen
level accelerates the ripening of fruits as well as the growth of microbial organisms [9]. In
contrast, a low oxygen atmosphere slows down respiration and prevents the early ripen-
current

Figure 10. Setup of the non-dispersive infrared

Figure 10. Setup of (NDIR) sensor. The infrared
the non-dispersive infrared (IR) lightsensor.
(NDIR) with a wavelength of(IR)
The infrared 700 nm
lighttowith
1 a
µm is partially absorbed by carbon dioxide and partially transmitted through to the detector.
wavelength of 700 nm to 1 µm is partially absorbed by carbon dioxide and partially transmitted
through to the detector.
Smart packaging systems for fruits can use carbon dioxide as the target gas for
transport containers of large volumes of produce with a controlled atmospheric composi-
tion. In case of any broken packaging seal, carbon dioxide and oxygen levels are disturbed,
triggering seeping of external oxygen and dissipation of carbon dioxide, accelerating the
respiration rate of fruit ripening. Carbon dioxide can be easily detected with NDIR sensors
at an infrared wavelength of about 4300 nm, as this is not absorbed by oxygen. Important
parameters of NDIR sensors in fruit packaging include measuring range, sensitivity, and
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 19 of 30

Smart packaging systems for fruits can use carbon dioxide as the target gas for trans-
port containers of large volumes of produce with a controlled atmospheric composition.
In case of any broken packaging seal, carbon dioxide and oxygen levels are disturbed,
triggering seeping of external oxygen and dissipation of carbon dioxide, accelerating the
respiration rate of fruit ripening. Carbon dioxide can be easily detected with NDIR sensors
at an infrared wavelength of about 4300 nm, as this is not absorbed by oxygen. Impor-
tant parameters of NDIR sensors in fruit packaging include measuring range, sensitivity,
and accuracy. The measuring range refers to the percentage of air that is carbon dioxide.
Standard NDIR sensors can support a range of 0%–20% Carbon dioxide detection and
can be measured with an accuracy of +/− 0.5% and a sensitivity of about 0.05% [86].
Other advantages include long lifetimes, as the same sensor can be reused in multiple fruit
shipments, and minimal maintenance required. However, the optical detector can be prone
to external spectral interference, leading to inaccurate light detection, which can be avoided
by using optical filters [87]. A major drawback of NDIR sensing for smart packaging is
that it is more suitable for system level smart packaging where the NDIR sensor is located
outside the food package and provides feedback to system actuators to improve storage
conditions.
Ethylene. Phytohormones are naturally occurring plant chemicals that help to facilitate
and regulate development and maturation in plants. Ethylene is a prime example of
such a chemical. Ethylene is a plant hormone that can accelerate the ripening process in
climacteric fruits, like tomatoes, bananas, and apples, through the degradation of starch
and the formation of sugars [88]. Usually, ethylene is emitted in higher concentration from
climacteric fruits compared to that of non-climacteric fruits [89]. Found in plant tissues,
ethylene is a key component that helps regulate the ripening progression of fruits and is
correlated with the respiration of fruit [90]. Fruits continue to live and respire even after
harvest, consuming stored carbohydrates (in the form of glucose) and oxygen to produce
water, carbon dioxide and energy to carry on life processes, as represented by the following
equation [90]:
C6 H12 O2 + 6 O2 → energy + 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O (5)
Ethylene is released by fruits to trigger respiration so that energy can be produced for
internal biochemical processes. As this continues, the flavor, texture, and nutrition of the
plant also changes; thus, a continually high pace of respiration can cause the fruit to ripen
quickly and eventually start decaying. Not all fruits ripen after harvest; some fruits go
directly to the senescence stage. Fruits such as bananas are extremely sensitive to external
ethylene as well because of its climacteric property. Hence, it can be noticed that when
one banana in a bunch begins to ripen, the others in close proximity will start to ripen as
well [91]. It is evident that the amount of ethylene present must be supervised in order to
prevent the fast degradation of fruit [92].
Therefore, ethylene is commercially used to artificially control fruit ripening in storage
facilities. Fruits with different stages of ripening that are stored close to each other may
also cause a decreased lifespan due to the excretion of ethylene from ripe fruits [93]. Thus,
scavenging and monitoring of ethylene is highly recommended to maintain fruit freshness.
As explained in Figure 11, ethylene scavenging helps to lower the loss of fruit products
due to overproduced ethylene. Typically, potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is used as an
ethylene scavenger, which oxidizes ethylene to ethylene glycol. Moreover, ethylene glycol
can also be further oxidized to CO2 and H2 O, which results in dark brown MnO2 [40].
Commercial ethylene scavengers include KMnO4 granules over clays or activated car-
bon [94] and low temperature oxidation over a platinum catalyst on mesoporous silica that
can remove 50 ppm ethylene at 0 ◦ C [95].
The use of ethylene sensors is an alternative way to control fruit freshness by de-
tecting quick ripening before fruit degradation. Ethylene sensors were developed using
chemoresistance and electrochemical methods. A chemoresistive sensor was fabricated
using single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) mixed with a Cu (I) complex, which was
positioned between gold electrodes [73]. The resistance of the sensor would change upon
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 20 of 30

binding to ethylene (Figure 12A). The sensor had high performance in the presence of inter-
fering species such as acetonitrile and tetrahydrofuran. In another study, an electrochemical
ethylene sensor was developed with a thin layer of ionic liquid as electrolyte, as shown
in Figure 12B [74]. A gold working electrode was used to oxidize ethylene in a potential
window starting at ∼600 mV. The amplitude of the sensor’s output current response time
was dependent on the thickness of the ionic-liquid film, relative humidity, and applied
potential, which were theoretically modelled based on diffusion processes. In another elec-
trochemical ethylene sensing system, a micropump and a signal conditioning circuit were
implemented, which resulted in a rapid detection of ethylene down to 0.1 ppm in air within
50 s [75], as depicted in Figure 12C. Three types of fruits—apples, pears, and kiwis—were
used in this study to detect trace ethylene in air exhaled by fruits at low concentrations
of under 0.8 ppm. The use of electrochemical methods, therefore, could be a promising
approach for electrochemical gas sensors in fruit packaging applications. A comparison of
different intelligent systems in fruit packaging container is given in Table 4.

Table 4. Comparison summary of intelligent systems in fruit packaging container.

Technology Purpose Advantages Disadvantages

Electrochemical Ethylene • Detect quality of fruit • Fairly sensitive to • Can be subjected to
Sensor produce ethylene chemical interference
• Detect concentrations of • Can be used in (can be internally
ethylene released from fruit individual and bulk mitigated)
• Determine rate of respiration packaging • More expensive than
and ripening in fruits • Less expensive indicators
than NDIR
NDIR • Detect quality of package • Very accurate • Expensive
environment • Can be used in bulk • Not practical in
• Determine concentrations of packaging individual packaging
gas in atmosphere
• Detect leakage or
disruptions in atmospheric
conditions
Capacitive Humidity • Detect quality of package • Very accurate • Expensive compared to
Sensor environment • Can be used in other humidity sensors
• Detect relative humidity individual and • Low long-term stability
of package bulk packaging
Indicators (TTI, Freshness, • Detect quality of package • Easy to read • No quantitative data
Integrity) environment and • Easy to incorporate into • Not as specific as sensors
fruit produce packaging
• Detect the passing of • Inexpensive
threshold limits of different
factors (temperature, gas
composition disruption)
RFID • Identify and relay package • Scalable • Active tags can be
information • Real-time monitoring expensive
• Relay package information • Easy to read • Requires external
to external processing unit infrastructure

3.4. Active Systems in Fruit Packaging

Active packaging takes the technology of intelligent packaging a step further. The idea
is to provide a continuous method of quality management to each individually wrapped
package. Through regulatory components embedded into the packaging material, the
package itself can release or absorb substances and adjust internal atmospheric conditions
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 21 of 30

in order to respond to the needs of the packaged product. Sensors will detect unfavorable
elements in the package environment and can react accordingly to mitigate it. This is ideal
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 30
for extending the shelf life of perishable items even when they cannot be in ideal storage
situations [96].

Figure 11. (A) Schematic andFigure

simplified biosynthesis
11. (A) Schematicofand
ethylene and VOCs
simplified in fruit development.
biosynthesis VOCs
of ethylene and biosynthesis
VOCs orig-
in fruit development.
inate from different pathways, for example phenylpropanoids, fatty acid, and carotenoids degradation. (B) The main en-
VOCs biosynthesis originate from different pathways, for example phenylpropanoids, fatty acid, and
zymes participating in cell wall degradation during fruit ripening and senescence, reproduced from [92].
carotenoids degradation. (B) The main enzymes participating in cell wall degradation during
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21fruit
of 30
ripening and senescence, reproduced from [92].
The use of ethylene sensors is an alternative way to control fruit freshness by detect-
ing quick ripening before fruit degradation. Ethylene sensors were developed using
chemoresistance and electrochemical methods. A chemoresistive sensor was fabricated
using single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) mixed with a Cu (I) complex, which was
positioned between gold electrodes [73]. The resistance of the sensor would change upon
binding to ethylene (Figure 12A). The sensor had high performance in the presence of
interfering species such as acetonitrile and tetrahydrofuran. In another study, an electro-
chemical ethylene sensor was developed with a thin layer of ionic liquid as electrolyte, as
shown in Figure 12B [74]. A gold working electrode was used to oxidize ethylene in a
potential window starting at ∼600 mV. The amplitude of the sensor’s output current re-
sponse time was dependent on the thickness of the ionic-liquid film, relative humidity,
and applied potential, which were theoretically modelled based on diffusion processes. In
another electrochemical ethylene sensing system, a micropump and a signal conditioning
circuit were implemented, which resulted in a rapid detection of ethylene down to 0.1
ppm in air within 50 s [75], as depicted in Figure 12C. Three types of fruits—apples, pears,
and kiwis—were used in this study to detect trace ethylene in air exhaled by fruits at low
Figure 12. (A) Schematic concentrations
diagram
Figure 12. (A) Schematic diagram ofof
anan of under
ethylene
ethylene 0.8 ppm.sensor,
chemoresistive
chemoresistive The use
sensor, of electrochemical
reproduced
reproduced withwith methods,
permission
permission fromfromtherefore,
[73]. (B) could
Sche- be
[73].Schematic
(B)
matic diagram of the ethylene
a sensing mechanism,
promising approach reproduced
for with permission
electrochemical gas from ref.
sensors in [74]. (C)
fruit Schematic
packaging diagram of A
applications.
diagram of the ethylene sensing mechanism, reproduced with permission from ref. [74]. (C) Schematic diagram of a smart
a smart electrochemical ethylene sensor,of
comparison reproduced
different from [75].
electrochemical ethylene sensor, reproduced from [75].intelligent systems in fruit packaging container is given in Table
4.
Table 4. Comparison summary of intelligent systems in fruit packaging container.

Technology Purpose Advantages Disadvantages

Electrochemi- • Detect quality of fruit produce • Fairly sensitive to eth- • Can be subjected to
cal Ethylene • Detect concentrations of ethylene re- ylene chemical interference
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 22 of 30

Ethylene scavengers for active packaging. While the fruit is still in transport or stor-
age, it is advisable to keep the amount of ethylene as low as possible. Once higher than
acceptable amounts are detected by the sensors, ethylene scavengers can be released to
mitigate the effects that ethylene would normally have. Scavengers are compounds that
react with the target compound in order to absorb or mutate it into a harmless compound.
In the case of ethylene, potassium permanganate is an ideal choice, as it oxides ethylene
through stages, with a net result of carbon dioxide, water, and manganese dioxide [40].
Carbon dioxide emitter for active packaging. Opposite to the ethylene scavengers
used in the active packaging technology to lower the amount of ethylene gas that fruits
are exposed to, carbon dioxide emitters increase the amount of compound, specifically
carbon dioxide, present in the package. An example of how this technology is implemented
is by utilizing the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and water, which results in the
production of carbon dioxide to slow down fruit respiration.
Moisture absorbers for humidity control. Moisture absorbers are compounds that
are generally packaged with the product and are used to control humidity levels. These
compounds absorb the excess moisture in the packaging atmosphere, resulting in a more
controlled environment. Silica gels, which have been shown to absorb water equaling
35% of their own weight, and calcium oxide are examples of such compounds used in
packaging dry foods like fresh fruit [97].
Hydrogen sulfide fumigation for active packaging. There is compelling evidence re-
garding the use of hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) on physiological processes in plants, including
seed germination, root organogenesis, abiotic stress tolerance, and senescence of cut flow-
ers. However, the use of H2 S in regulating ripening and senescence of postharvest fruits is
becoming an emerging technique. For example, in one study, the effect of H2 S on posthar-
vest shelf life and antioxidant metabolism in strawberry fruits was investigated [42]. It was
found that a dose-dependent fumigation with H2 S prolonged the postharvest shelf life of
strawberry fruits. Different concentrations of H2 S were used to fumigate strawberries, and
the results showed significantly lower rot index, higher fruit firmness, lower respiration
intensity, and polygalacturonase activities than the controls. The study also revealed that
higher activities of catalase, guaiacol peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione re-
ductase and lower activities of lipoxygenase was achieved with H2 S treatment as compared
to untreated controls. Moreover, H2 S helped in reducing malondialdehyde, hydrogen per-
oxide, and superoxide anion to lower levels as compared to control fruits during storage.
These results indicate that H2 S can play an antioxidative role in prolonging postharvest
shelf life of strawberry fruits, and potentially other similar fruits. A comprehensive list
of commercially available intelligent packaging and active packaging systems and their
comparison are given in Table 5 [98].
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 23 of 30

Table 5. Commercially available intelligent packaging and active packaging systems, reproduced with permission from [98].

Smart Packaging System Sensors Type Trade Name (Manufacturer)

Integrity indicator (leak) O2 Sense TM (Freshpoint Lab)
Novas® (Insignia Technologies Ltd.)
Ageless Eye® ) (Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Inc.)
Timestrip® (Timestrip Ltd.)
Novas® (Insignia Technologies Ltd.)
Freshness Freshtag® (COX Technologies)
Sensorq® (DSM NVAnd Food Quality Sensor International)
Temperature Timestrip® PLUS Duo (Timestrip UK Ltd.)
Intelligent packaging systems Time-temperature Timestrip Complete® (Timestrip UK Ltd.)
Monitormarktm (3MTM , Minnesota)
Fresh-Check® (Temptime Corp)
Onvutm (Ciba Specialty Chemicals and Freshpoint)
Checkpoint® (Vitsab)
Cook-Chex (Pymah Corp)
Colour-Therm (Colour Therm)
Thermax (Thermographic Measurements Ltd.)
RFID Easy2log® (CAEN RFID Srl)
Intelligent Box Mondi Plc
CS8304 (Convergence Systems Ltd.)
Temptrip (Temptrip LLC)
Oxygen scavenger Ageless (Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co. Ltd., Japan)
Freshilizer (Toppan Printing Co. Ltd., Japan)
Freshmax, Freshpax, Fresh Pack (Multisorb Technologies, USA)
Oxyguard (Toyo Seikan Kaisha Ltd., Japan)
Zero2 (Food Science Australia, Australia)
Bioka (Bioka Ltd., Finland)
Active packaging systems
Moisture absorber Dri-Loc® (Sealed Air Corporation, USA)
Tenderpac® (SEALPAC, Germany)
Antimicrobial packaging Biomaster® (Addmaster Limited, USA)
Agion® (Life Materials Technology Limited, USA)
Ethylene scavenger Neupalon (Sekisui Jushi Ltd., Japan)
Peakfresh (Peakfresh Products Ltd., Australia)
Evert-Fresh (Evert-Fresh Corporation, USA)

4. Challenges and Prospects

Current smart packaging technology has really set a solid foundational basis from
which even more food-related processing can take place. While there is great potential for
future applications, there are some challenges that may arise because of further develop-
ment of this technology. The purpose of this section is to discuss some of these challenges
and the prospects for food smart packaging.
Improvement of Sensor Technology. One of the main limiting factors for the further
development of smart packaging is the limitation in sensory technology. While there are
many sensors that could give accurate readings for different freshness parameters observed
in produce and other food products, their usability, specifically size and cost, makes it
difficult to incorporate them in large-scale packaged containers.
The balance between functionality, portability, and size has always been an area of
interest in technology. This problem is even more pronounced in the food industry, as
there is a push toward good quality foods with lower costs and high availability. One
solution to this may be the further development of nanotechnology research in sensors.
These sensors can be used to detect air emissions, temperature, humidity, and a variety of
other environmental parameters. They also can perform more invasive measurements of
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 24 of 30

food quality, without considerable damage to the product. While this type of technology is
not yet economically viable for mass produced food packaging, with further research, it
can be commercialized for highly accurate food quality sensing [27].
Temperature Cross-Sensitivity. Another important factor limiting the performance
of freshness sensors is the effect of temperature cross-sensitivity. While some freshness
sensors are intended to be temperature-sensitive and provide temperature-dependent
freshness status of the fruit (e.g., time-temperature, microbial), some other sensors should
not be affected by changes in temperature (e.g., electrochemical pH or ethylene sensors).
Also, the activation energy or Q10 -factor of a chemical process in any fruit should match
with TTIs responses to provide accurate time–temperature profiles. Therefore, proper
design considerations need to be taken when developing TTI and other sensors, which
sometimes may require fruit-specific sensor design.
Improvement to Active Packaging Technology. One of the main motivations in im-
proving food quality sensing is to be able to implement spoilage inhibitors through active
packaging technology. An area of improvement in this research field is antimicrobial pack-
aging. Food sanitization requires the removal of microbial organisms in order to prevent
damage to the product. Current antimicrobial packaging systems generally use readily
available inorganic compounds. The use of artificial chemical components in food pro-
cessing is a possible safety concern, particularly in the case of unknown possible reactions
or long-term effects. Therefore, these systems can be greatly improved by incorporating
naturally derived bio-active agents [41].
Waste Management. Smart packaging consists of different technology embedded
into one system. The monitoring systems and smart packaging systems, while necessary
for food monitoring, pose problems for the disposal stage of the packaging. Most of
the material used is neither biodegradable nor easily recyclable—indeed, some forms of
packaging that utilize specific chemical compounds need to be carefully regulated during
disposal. Research is currently being conducted in biodegradable or compostable materials
for use in such technology, and while not all components can be completely replaced,
those that can be substituted will significantly reduce the environmental impact of such
systems [41].
Real-Time Control and Data Processing. The smart packaging technologies discussed
in this review mainly involve self-contained sensor and active packaging technology that
can perform on-site processing. New and novel smart packaging technology could poten-
tially make use of the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) to communicate with external
processing units. IoT systems use networks to communicate and share data between
multiple components of a system. IoT infrastructure expands on the idea of external com-
munication that RFID systems offer by incorporating two-way data transmission between
the “tag” and “reader” components. In this way, the package circuitry could be controlled
by an external unit.
The analysis of the data collected by the sensing systems is also a prospective area of
growth in the food industry [42]. Upcoming smart packaging systems have the capacity
to make use of powerful external computing units that have much higher performance
capabilities and processing power than conventional RFID readers. Sensing devices in
packaging would collect data and then transmit it to these peripheral computing units
for analysis. The information that can be extracted from this data would aid in forming
predictions about the patterns of food spoilage and the most effective combination of
active packaging technologies for each individual product. Not only can data be sent to
industrialized computers, but with the incorporation of IoT technology, it could be used
in consumer-oriented applications. Apps that run on mobile devices can be used to track
food quality and environmental conditions and recommend storage strategies at home or
relay detailed package and product data for in-store use.
Another possible future direction of smart sensor systems is their integration with
smart computing and consumer and retailer needs. These integrated systems will enable
improved monitoring of fruit quality, thus reducing waste and improving consumer well-
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 25 of 30
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 30

being, as illustrated in Figure 13. For example, an emerging smart sensor system should
being, as illustrated in Figure 13. For example, an emerging smart sensor system should
be easy-to-read and interpret, low-cost, biocompatible, green, compatible with existing
be easy-to-read and interpret, low-cost, biocompatible, green, compatible with existing
packaging systems, and capable of multi-sensor fusion for improved monitoring. One
packaging systems, and capable of multi-sensor fusion for improved monitoring. One out-
outcome can be dynamic pricing of fruits that allows customers to take advantage of, for
come can be dynamic pricing of fruits that allows customers to take advantage of, for ex-
example, quality versus price. Future integrated smart packaging systems will also benefit
ample, quality versus price. Future integrated smart packaging systems will also benefit
our environment, being green and reducing spoilage and waste. For example, such systems
our environment, being green and reducing spoilage and waste. For example, such sys-
will allow for prolonging the life of fruits, help in maintaining better fruit conditions for
tems will allow for prolonging the life of fruits, help in maintaining better fruit conditions
consumers and retailers, and reducing waste during transport and shelf-life.
for consumers and retailers, and reducing waste during transport and shelf-life.

Figure 13.
13. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramillustrating
illustratinghow
how Smart
Smart Sensor
Sensor Systems
Systems cancan be integrated
be integrated withwith smart
smart computing,
computing, and con-
and consumer
sumer and retailer needs for monitoring fruit quality, reducing waste, and improving consumer
and retailer needs for monitoring fruit quality, reducing waste, and improving consumer well-being. well-being.

While there is great promise in the consolidation

consolidation of intelligent
intelligent sensing systems and
external processing networks, the issue of cybersecurity
cybersecurity isis aa real
real threat
threat today.
today.AnyAnyinfras-
infra-
structure thatrelies
tructure that relieson
oncommunication
communicationbetweenbetweentwo twooror more
more separate
separate peripherals
peripherals has the
potential for
forinfiltration
infiltrationand
anddata
dataleakage.
leakage. Depending
Depending on the sensitivity
on the of the
sensitivity ofcollected data,
the collected
this could
data, pose apose
this could serious problem
a serious to thetoadvancement
problem the advancementof network-based
of network-based food-packaging
food-pack-
systems.
aging Establishments
systems. wouldwould
Establishments have have
to strive to implement
to strive to implementbest security practices
best security and
practices
adhere to strict privacy standards and policies. As an example, Walmart
and adhere to strict privacy standards and policies. As an example, Walmart and IBM and IBM have
partnered
have to implement
partnered blockchain
to implement based solution
blockchain for Walmart
based solution to automate
for Walmart their foodtheir
to automate sup-
ply chain
food supplyprocedures. This is toThis
chain procedures. improve traceability,
is to improve accuracy accuracy
traceability, and achieve
andaachieve
tamper-proof
a tam-
system throughout
per-proof their company
system throughout their processes
company [43].processes [43].

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Current smart
Current smart packaging
packaging systems
systems along
along with
with embedded
embedded sensor
sensor and
and communication
communication
technologies can provide means of monitoring and regulating the quality of
technologies can provide means of monitoring and regulating the quality of packaged
packaged
fruits. Active packaging technologies extend these intelligent sensing systems by providing
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 26 of 30

a mechanism to maintain food quality and mitigate any harmful environmental elements.
Smart packaging technology can be used in a wide variety of food-related industries,
including fresh produce. The nutritional value of fresh fruits and vegetables, along with
its consumer popularity over frozen or canned alternatives, provides incentive for further
development of quality sensing technology in this field. This technology can benefit the
global food market by reducing the amount of preventable food spoilage that contributes
to wasted resources. Specialized sensors can be used to detect observable characteristics
of fruits and vegetables as they ripen and decay. By being able to monitor these features,
actions can be taken to prolong the freshness and life span of perishable items in non-
intrusive ways.
The emergence of smart systems in food processing applications is still recent and
has many more years before it can be considered a routine practice in the industry. While
the concept provides a novel way of ensuring the highest quality of food, there are still
many obstacles that need to be addressed. Waste management during the disposal of
smart packing systems poses environmental and economic complications, along with the
safety concerns associated with using non-biological chemicals and compounds in spoilage
mitigation techniques. The progress of sensor technology itself is also a restriction on
the effectiveness of this application. Despite these challenges, there is huge promise in
the prospects of this technology. Innovations like nanotechnology, natural-derived active
packaging agents, and biodegradable components are examples of solutions currently
under development to address these challenges. The utilization of IoT networks with
embedded sensor technology and mobile processing also has a promising potential. By
ensuring the issues of security and data privacy are properly addressed, these types of
solutions could provide significant gains to the entire food industry. With the pursuit of
continued research in this field, the day may not be far away where we see such technology
in everyday food related applications.
In summary, we reviewed the current state-of-the-art of freshness monitoring and
smart packaging technologies for fruits quality. These technologies provide promising
solutions towards conventional packaging such as loss, damages, and wastes. The biology
of fruits, their classifications, growth and different stages of processing and harvesting were
discussed. This background information was analyzed due to the need for smart packaging
that can help reduce fruits wastes during harvesting, pos-harvesting, and packaging stages.
Important freshness indicators for fruits and packaged fruits were discussed, such as
spoilage, ripeness, leak, microbial pathogens, ethylene response, temperature, humidity,
and time–temperature. Monitoring these parameters was discussed through intelligent
systems such as electrochemical sensors, optical sensors, capacitive indicators (TTI, gas
and humidity), and electronic system (RFID tags). Also, adjustment these parameters
were discussed in terms of active packaging such as using scavenging objects (oxygen or
carbon dioxide scavengers, moisture absorbers), or releasing objects (hydrogen sulfide).
Challenges of the technology faced by the industry was discussed in terms of complexity
of fabrication, cost, regulation, and life cycle sustainability of the sensors and systems.
A cross-discipline collaboration between the industries, academia, and the consumers may
provide more sustainable solutions in the development of smart packaging systems for
fruits quality monitoring.

Author Contributions: The manuscript was written through contributions from all authors. M.J.D.
conceived of the idea, and together with A.U.A., P.R., H.B., and G.K.S., defined the detailed contents
of the paper. A.U.A. and P.R. wrote the first draft of the article which was critiqued by all authors.
The article was then revised by A.U.A., H.B., and M.J.D. All authors have read and agreed to the final
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by NSERC Green Electronics Network (GreEN, Grant No.
508526-7), a Discovery Grant from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
of Canada of Canada and the Canada Research Chair program.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Sensors 2021, 21, 1509 27 of 30

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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