inductor/capacitor ratio broadens the entire curve.

The impedance magnitude at the

dip does not change, and thus the current at f0 does not change. In practical terms,
the Q for a series circuit, Qseries, may also be defined by the ratio of circuit reactance
to the total series resistance at resonance.

X0
Qseries = (8.12)
RT

Where
Qseries is the Q of the series resonant circuit (i.e., Qcircuit for series),
RT is the total series resistance (Rseries + Rcoil),
X0 is the reactance (either XL or XC) at f0.

Series Resonance Impedance Variation with Q: L/C Ratio

0.1 1 10
100 10
Figure 8.7
Magnitude and phase of
impedance for a variation of
8 inductor/capacitor ratio.
Impedance Phase (degrees)

50

Relative Impedance Magnitude

6
Dashed: Lower Q
via lower L/C ratio
0

-50
2

-100 0
0.1 1.0 10.0
Normalized Frequency

From Equation 8.12 we can derive an expression for Qseries in terms of R, L and C as
follows:

X0
Q series =
RT

Qseries =
√ X 02
RT

301
At resonance XL and XC have the same magnitude, thus we can also say:

Q series =
√X L XC
RT

1
Q series =
RT
√X L XC

Q series =
1
RT √ 2π f L
2π f C

Which simplifies to:

Qseries =
1
RT √ L
C
(8.13)

Effect of Q on Component Voltages

Q will create a multiplying effect on the inductor and capacitor voltages at

resonance. At f0, the current through the circuit will equal the source voltage divided
by R because XC and XL cancel. This current is also flowing through the capacitor
and inductor. Equation 8.12 shows that their reactances are Q times higher than R,
and therefore their voltages will be Q times higher than the source voltage. KVL is
not violated because the voltages across L and C are 180 degrees out of phase and
cancel each other. As the circuit Q is increased, the voltage multiplying effect
becomes more pronounced. In extreme cases it is possible to produce inductor and
capacitor voltages that are more than 100 times larger than the source voltage. As we
move away from the resonant frequency, the multiplying effect decreases. At
frequencies much lower than f0, almost all of the source voltage will appear across
the capacitor with little for the resistor and inductor. At much higher frequencies,
nearly all of the source potential appears across the inductor with nothing seen
across the capacitor or resistor. This can be seen in Figure 8.8, where the source
voltage is unity.

As Q decreases, not only do the capacitor and inductor voltages decrease, but
another effect comes into play. At relatively high Q values, say 10 or more, the
capacitor and inductor maximum voltages occur at approximately f0. At lower Q
values the peaks tend to spread apart, with the capacitor's peak below f0 and that of
the inductor above f0. This is illustrated in Figure 8.9 (again, the source is unity).

302
 Series Resonance Voltage Plot: High Q
0.1 1 10
12

10 Figure 8.8
Series resonance: component
voltages for high Q.
Normalized Voltage

VR
2
VC VL

0
0.1 1.0 10.0
Normalized Frequency

Series Resonance Voltage Plot: Low Q

0.01 0.1 1 10 100
1.5

Figure 8.9
Series resonance: component
VC VL voltages for low Q
Normalized Voltage

VR

0.5

0
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
Normalized Frequency

303
Example 8.1

Figure 8.10
Consider the series circuit of Figure 8.10 with the following parameters: Circuit for Example 8.1.
the source is 10 volts peak, L = 1 mH, C = 1 nF and R = 50 Ω. Find the
resonant frequency, the system Q and bandwidth, and the half-power
frequencies f1 and f2.

We begin by finding the resonant frequency.

1
f 0=
2π√ LC
1
f 0=
2 π √ 1e-3⋅1e-9
f 0 = 159 kHz

We now find the magnitude of the inductive reactance, and from that, the
system Qseries via Equation 8.12.

X L = 2π f 0 L
X L = 2 π 159 kHz 1 mH
X L = 1000 Ω

XL
Q series =
RT
1000Ω
Qseries =
50Ω
Qseries = 20

Knowing the Q, the bandwidth and corner frequencies can be found via
Equations 8.4, 8.10 and 8.11.

f0
BW =
Q
159 kHz
BW =
20
BW = 7.95 kHz

BW
f 1= f 0−
2
7.95kHz
f 1 = 159 kHz −
2
f 1 ≈155 kHz

304
 BW
f 2= f0 +
2
7.95kHz
f 2 = 159 kHz +
2
f 2 ≈163 kHz

Given the 10 volt peak source, the voltages across the capacitor and inductor
at the resonance frequency of 159 kHz would be Q times greater, or 200
volts. At higher or lower frequencies, the increased impedance lowers the
current and also lowers the voltages across the components. At low
frequencies, most of the source will appear across the capacitor while at high
frequencies the inductor voltage will approach the source voltage.

Refining Series Q

As noted in Chapter 2, all inductors have some series resistance associated with
them, usually called Rcoil. This resistance needs to be included as part of the overall
circuit resistance, adding to whatever other series resistance exists. While it is
possible to measure the DC resistance of a coil using a DMM, this will not
necessarily give an accurate value at high frequencies. Thus, a preferred method is to
determine Qcoil at the desired frequency from the inductor's spec sheet, and using the
calculated reactance at that frequency, determine the value of Rcoil. An example of
such a curve is shown in Figure 8.11.

120
Q coil B

100
Figure 8.11
A Inductor Q graph.
80

60

40

1k 10 k 100 k 1M
Frequency (Hz)

305
For instance, using curve A, Qcoil at 100 kHz is approximately 90. If XL is 450 Ω at
this frequency, then Rcoil would be 450 Ω/90, or 5 Ω.

Effectively, Qcoil sets the ceiling for the Q of the series resonant circuit, Qseries. That
is, the system Q can never be higher than the coil Q. To do so would require less
resistance in the loop than Rcoil, which is a practical impossibility. It is also worth
noting that Rcoil will create a deviation in the inductor voltage compared to the ideal
case. This is because vL covers the combination of the inductive reactance in series
with Rcoil, thus the magnitude will be somewhat larger than expected and the angle
will be less than 90 degrees. These deviations tend to be quite small unless the
inductor's Q is fairly low and the remaining circuit resistance is not very much larger
than Rcoil.

Example 8.2

For the circuit of Figure 8.11, determine the resonant frequency, the system
Q, the bandwidth, and the ideal maximum voltage across each of the three
components. Use curve A from Figure 8.11 for the inductor.

Figure 8.12
Circuit for Example 8.2.

The first item of importance is finding the resonant frequency.

1
f0=
2 π √L C
1
f 0=
2 π √ 22e-3 H 50e-9 F
f 0 = 4.8 kHz

The inductive reactance is:

X L = 2π f 0 L
X L = 2 π 4.8 kHz 22 mH
X L = 663.3Ω

From the graph, Qcoil is approximately 95, meaning Rcoil is:

306
 XL
Rcoil =
Qcoil
663.3 Ω
Rcoil =
95
Rcoil = 7 Ω

Combined with the 140 Ω resistor, we are left with 147 Ω, some 5% higher
than if we had ignored it. The system Q is:

XL
Q series =
RT
663.3Ω
Qseries =
147Ω
Qseries = 4.51

The Q is on the low side but not extremely so. Now for the bandwidth:

f0
BW =
Q
4.8 kHz
BW =
4.51
BW = 1.06 kHz

Ideally, at f0 we expect vR will be equal to the source of 1 volt peak while the
inductor and capacitor voltages will be Q times larger, or approximately 4.5
volts peak. In reality Rcoil will create a voltage divider, reducing the drop
across the 140 Ω resistor to about 0.95 volts. The change in vL will be
negligible due to ZL being 663.3489.4° Ω versus the ideal 663.390° Ω.
The system Q is relatively low (<10), so the vC and vL peaks will shift a little
from f0, with vC peaking at a slightly lower frequency and vL slightly higher.

Computer Simulation

Of particular interest in the prior example is the precise shape of the component
responses versus frequency. This can be produced via an AC or frequency domain
simulation. The circuit of Figure 8.12 is captured in a simulator as shown in Figure
8.13, and is modified by adding the inductor's coil resistance below the inductor.

The items of interest are the net resistor voltage which appears between nodes 1 and
2, the capacitor voltage between nodes 2 and 3, and the inductor voltage which
appears from node 3 to ground. The analysis is run from 500 Hz to 50 kHz giving us
a factor of 10 in frequency on either side of f0, as seen in Figure 8.14. First, the peaks
are just below 5 kHz, as expected. The resistor voltage (blue) is about 0.95 volts, and
the inductor (red) and capacitor (green) voltages are about 4.5 volts, as calculated.

307
 Figure 8.13
The circuit of Example 8.2 in a
simulator.

Also, note that there is a slight spread between the peaks of the capacitor and
inductor voltages, with vC slightly below f0 and vL slightly above, again just as
expected. At the lowest frequencies, all of the source appears across the capacitor
while at the highest frequencies all of the source appears across the inductor. Note
the similarity between these curves and those of Figures 8.8 and 8.9

Figure 8.14
Voltage versus frequency for
each of the three components of
the circuit of Figure 8.13.

And now for a change of pace; a design problem.

308
Example 8.3

Design a series resonant circuit with a resonant frequency of 100 kHz and a
bandwidth of 2 kHz using a 10 mH inductor. Assumes the inductor follows
curve B in Figure 8.14.

We can find the value for the capacitance by rearranging the resonance
frequency equation:

1
f0=
2π√ LC
1
√ LC = 2π f
0
1
C= 2
(2 π f 0 ) L
1
C=
(2 π 100 kHz )2 10 mH
C = 253.3 pF

Knowing the bandwidth and resonant frequency, we can find the system Q:

f0
Q series =
BW
100 kHz
Q series =
2 kHz
Q series = 50

At resonance, the inductive reactance will be:

X L = 2π f 0 L
X L = 2 π 100 kHz 10 mH
X L = 6283Ω

The preceding tells us that the total series resistance must be:

XL
Rseries =
Q series
6283 Ω
R series =
50
R series = 125.7Ω

Curve B indicates that Qcoil is approximately 115 at 100 kHz. Thus, Rcoil is:

309
 XL
Rcoil =
Q coil
6283 Ω
Rcoil =
115
Rcoil = 54.6Ω

Consequently, we must add 125.7 Ω − 54.6 Ω, or 71.1 Ω, to the series

network to achieve the desired system Q. Failure to do so will yield a much
higher Q than specified, resulting in a much reduced bandwidth. The
completed design is shown in Figure 8.15.

Figure 8.15
Completed circuit design for
Example 8.3.

8.3 Parallel Resonance

If the three RLC components are placed in parallel, as in Figure 8.16, a parallel
resonant circuit can result. Typically, it would be driven by a current source as Figure 8.16
shown, although this is not a requirement for resonance. Parallel resonance is Ideal parallel resonant circuit.
slightly more complicated than series resonance due to the fact that the series coil
resistance cannot be lumped in with the remaining circuit resistance as it can with
the series case. In other words, the practical reality is that we have a series-parallel
circuit where the inductor is, in fact, a series combination of the inductance and
the coil resistance. It turns out that usually this resistance cannot be ignored, even
if it is very small. To alleviate this problem, it is possible to find a parallel
equivalent for the series inductive reactance and associated coil resistance. That is,
we need a series to parallel transform.

Series to Parallel Inductor Transform Figure 8.17

Realistic parallel resonant
circuit.
First, let's take a look at what we have in practical terms. A realistic parallel
resonant circuit is illustrated in Figure 8.17. This circuit adds the internal coil
resistance of the inductor to the ideal circuit shown in Figure 8.16. What we
would like to do is derive a means of finding the parallel equivalent of the
inductor with its coil resistance. Certainly, this should be possible to do. After all,
it is a trivial exercise to do the reverse; namely, taking a parallel combination of

310
an inductor and resistor and finding its series equivalent (i.e., expressing the
resulting impedance in rectangular form). After completing the process we should
have an equivalent circuit like that shown in Figure 8.18. In this equivalent circuit, R
and C are the values from the original circuit while L(p) and Rcoil(p) are the parallel
equivalent transformed values derived from the original inductor. In this version, it
is easy to combine R in parallel with Rcoil(p) to create a single resistor and thus wind
up back at our ideal circuit of Figure 8.16.

Figure 8.18
Transformed (equivalent)
version of a realistic parallel
resonant circuit.

For the equivalent transform, refer to Figure 8.19. We start with a practical coil
consisting of a series combination of resistance and inductive reactance, Rs + jXs.
We will find the parallel equivalent, Rp || jXp.

Figure 8.19
Series and equivalent parallel
RL combinations.

We begin with the reciprocal conductance/resistance rule:

1
R s +jX s =
1 1
+
R p jX p
1 1 1
= + (8.14)
R s +jX s R p jX p

The next step is to isolate the real and imaginary parts of the series version. We can
do this by multiplying the left term of Equation 8.10 by the complex conjugate to
arrive at an equivalent:

1 R s − jX s R − jX
= 2 s 2 + 2 s2
R s +jX s R s − jX s R s +X s Rs +X s

311
Substituting this equivalent back into Equation 8.14 yields,

Rs − jX s 1 1
2 2 + 2 2 = +
R +X
s s R +X
s s
R p jX p

Therefore,

1 R
= 2 s 2
Rp Rs +X s
1 − jX
= 2 s2
jX p R s +X s

Taking the reciprocal results in:

R 2s +X 2s
Rp = (8.15)
Rs

R2s +X 2s
jX p = j (8.16)
Xs

For high Q coils (Qcoil ≥ 10), Xs >> Rs, so we can approximate these as:

X 2s 2
Rp ≈ = Q coil X s = Q coil R s (8.17)
Rs

X 2s
jX p ≈ j = jX s (8.18)
Xs

Thus, for a high Qcoil, the parallel equivalent reactance is unchanged from the series
value and the parallel equivalent resistance is the series resistance times the Q of the
coil squared. Interestingly, Equation 8.17 shows that a smaller RS (which yields a
proportionally larger Qcoil) results in a larger RP . Thus, the ideal inductor which
would have no coil resistance results in an Rp of infinity. Due to this resistive
“inversion” of the series-parallel transform, parallel circuit Q is defined as:

RT
Q parallel = (8.19)
XL

Where
Qparallel is the Q of the parallel resonant circuit (i.e., Qcircuit for parallel),
RT is the total parallel resistance (Rp || R),
XL is the reactance at f0.

312
Based on Equation 8.19 and the development of Equation 8.13, it can be shown that:

Q parallel = RT
√ C
L
(8.20)

For higher Q circuits (Qparallel ≥ 10), f0 is found as in the series case (repeating):

1
f 0= (8.2)
2 π √ LC

For lower Q circuits, f0 will be reduced slightly due to the fact that the transformed
resistance is frequency dependent. More on this in an upcoming section.

Parallel Resonance Impedance

A parallel impedance plot is shown in Figure 8.20. The effect is the inverse of the
series case. At low frequencies the small inductive reactance results in a low
impedance magnitude with a positive (inductive) phase angle. At high frequencies
the small capacitive reactance results in a low impedance magnitude with a negative
(capacitive) phase angle. At resonance the reactive values cancel. This leaves just the
parallel resistive value which produces the characteristic peak in impedance. The
phase angle is zero, corresponding to a power factor of unity.

Parallel Resonance Impedance Plot

0.01 0.1 1 10 100
100 1
Figure 8.20
Impedance plot for parallel
resonant circuit.
0.8
Impedance Phase (degrees)

Normalized Impedance Magnitude

50

0.6

0.4

-50
0.2

Dashed: Lower Q
-100 0
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
Normalized Frequency

313
If the parallel resonant circuit is driven by a current source, then the voltage
produced across the resonant circuit (sometimes referred to as a tank circuit) will
echo the shape of the impedance magnitude. In other words, it will effectively
discriminate against high and low frequencies and keep only those signals in the
vicinity of the resonant frequency. This is one method of making a bandpass filter.
The lower and upper half-power frequencies, f1 and f2, are found in the same manner
as in series resonance.

Repeating for convenience:

BW = f 2 − f 1 (8.3)
f
Qcircuit = 0 (8.4)
BW

f 0=√ f 1 f 2 (8.5)

f0 f
= 2 (8.6)
f1 f0

k0 =
1
2Q circuit √
+
1
4 Qcircuit 2
+1 (8.7)

f0
f 1= (8.8)
k0

f 2 = f 0 ×k 0 (8.9)

For higher Q circuits (Qcircuit ≥ 10), we can approximate symmetry, and thus

BW
f 1≈ f 0− (8.10)
2
BW
f 2 ≈ f 0+ (8.11)
2

Finally, it is worth repeating that for relatively low Q values there will be some
shifting of the resonant and half-power frequencies from the equations presented
above.

There are some similarities between parallel and series resonance. Like series, as the
parallel Q increases, the impedance curve becomes sharper and the phase change is
more abrupt. Further, we also see an apparent “Q amplification” effect in parallel
resonant circuits, however, here it will be the reactive currents that will be increased
relative to the source current instead of the series component voltages.

314
Note that the parallel resistor can be used to lower the system Q and thus broaden
the bandwidth, however, the system Q can never be higher than the Q of the inductor
itself. The inductor sets the upper limit on system Q and therefore, how tight the
bandwidth can be. In other words, Qcircuit ≤ Qcoil. This is the same situation we saw for
series resonance.

Example 8.4

Figure 8.21
For the circuit of Figure 8.21, determine the resonant frequency, the corner Circuit for Example 8.4.
frequencies of f1 and f2, the bandwidth and the system Q. Also find the
circuit voltage at the resonant frequency. Rcoil = 100 Ω.

First, we'll assume this is a high Q (≥ 10) circuit.

1
f 0=
2π√ LC
1
f 0=
2 π √50 mH 910 pF
f 0 =23.6 kHz

X L = 2π f L
X L = 2 π 23.6 kHz 50 mH
X L = 7.41 k Ω

XL
Qcoil =
Rcoil
7.41 k Ω
Qcoil =
100 Ω
Qcoil = 74.1

The parallel equivalent of the coil resistance is:

R p = Rcoil Q 2coil
R p = 100Ω74.1 2
R p = 549.5 k Ω

There is no other resistor in parallel with the inductor and capacitor,

therefore the equivalent parallel resistance, Rp, is the total resistance of the
circuit, RT. Consequently, the Q of the circuit must be the same as Qcoil. We
can verify this as follows:

315
 RT
Q parallel =
XL
549.5 k Ω
Q parallel =
7.41 k Ω
Q parallel = 74.1

Our initial assumption of high circuit Q is met.

f0
BW =
Q parallel
23.6 kHz
BW =
74.1
BW = 318 Hz

BW
f 1≈ f 0−
2
318Hz
f 1 ≈23.6 kHz −
2
f 1 ≈23.44 kHz

BW
f 2≈f 0 +
2
318 Hz
f 2 ≈23.6 kHz +
2
f 2 ≈23.76 kHz

To find the circuit voltage at f0, simply multiply the resonant impedance of
549.5 kΩ times the source of 2 mA. This yields approximately 1100 volts.

Computer Simulation

The circuit of Example 8.4 is captured in a simulator as shown in Figure 8.22.

Figure 8.22
The circuit of Figure 8.21 in a
simulator.

316
A frequency domain or AC analysis is run on the circuit, plotting the magnitude of
the source voltage (node 1) from 2 kHz to 200 kHz. This will give us roughly a
factor of ten on either side of the resonant frequency. The result is shown in Figure
8.23. The plot shows a clear and sharp peak in the low 20 kHz region. Note that the
peak voltage is just over 1000 volts, as predicted. Figure 8.24 shows a magnified
version of this plot so that we can accurately verify the peak voltage along with f1
and f2.

Figure 8.23
Source voltage of the circuit of
Figure 8.22.

Figure 8.24 shows that the peak is indeed approximately 1100volts. The f1 and f2
frequencies are found at 0.707 times this peak, or some 778 volts. Two measurement
cursors are employed for this task. The Y values are the voltages at the cursor's
intersection with the curve and the X values are the corresponding frequencies. We
can see that the results are in tight agreement with the calculations. At levels of
about 777 to 780 volts we obtain f1 and f2 values of approximately 23.44 kHz and
23.75 kHz, respectively.

317
 Figure 8.24
Magnified peak of the plot of
Figure 8.23.

Example 8.5

For the circuit of Figure 8.25, determine the resonant frequency, the corner
frequencies of f1 and f2, the bandwidth and the system Q. Also find the
circuit voltage at the resonant frequency. Rcoil = 100 Ω.

Figure 8.25
Circuit for Example 8.5.

This circuit is identical to the one in the previous example with the
exception of an added 100 k Ω load resistor. This should lower the system Q
and thus widen the bandwidth. The peak impedance will also be reduced
which will cause a decrease in the system voltage at resonance. Some
parameters will not change. They include:

f0 = 23.6 kHz
XL = 7.41 k Ω

318
 Qcoil = 74.1
Rp = 549.5 k Ω

We'll assume this is a high Q (≥ 10) circuit.

Rp is in parallel with the load resistance of R yielding an effective parallel

resistance of 549.5 kΩ || 100 kΩ, or 84.6 kΩ.

RT
Qparallel =
XL
84.6 k Ω
Qparallel =
7.41k Ω
Qparallel = 11.4

The circuit Q is much reduced but our initial assumption of high circuit Q is
still met. Now we can find the bandwidth and corner frequencies.

f0
BW =
Q parallel
23.6 kHz
BW =
11.4
BW = 2.07kHz

BW
f 1≈f 0−
2
2.07 kHz
f 1 ≈23.6 kHz −
2
f 1 ≈22.56 kHz

BW
f 2≈f 0 +
2
2.07 kHz
f 2 ≈23.6 kHz +
2
f 2 ≈24.64 kHz

The circuit voltage at f0 is reduced to 84.6 kΩ times 2 mA, or 169.2 volts.

Computer Simulation

The simulation results follow those of Example 8.4 and are shown in Figure 8.26.
The results agree with the computed values. The peak voltage has been reduced to
about 170 volts, and f1 and f2 (found at 0.707 times the peak, or approximately 120
volts) are about 22.5 kHz and 24.6 kHz, respectively.

319
 Figure 8.26
Simulation results for the
circuit of Example 8.5.

Example 8.6

Figure 8.27
Consider the circuit of Figure 8.27 with the following parameters: Circuit for Example 8.6.
L=2 mH, C=10 nF, and Qcoil = 25. Determine the resonant frequency
and a value for R such that the system bandwidth is 3 kHz.

As usual, we'll assume this is a high Q (≥ 10) circuit. This is certainly

true of the coil, although we have to determine the resonant frequency
in order to determine the Q of the circuit.

1
f 0=
2π√LC
1
f 0=
2 π √ 2 mH 10 nF
f 0 =35.59 kHz

f0
Qparallel =
BW
35.59 kHz
Qparallel =
3 kHz
Qparallel = 11.86

320
 We have high Q and can continue18. Ultimately, we need to determine the
total parallel resistance required to achieve this Q. Before we can do that we
need to determine XL.

X L = 2π f L
X L = 2 π 35.59 kHz 2 mH
X L = 447 Ω

RT = Q parallel ×X L
RT = 11.86×447Ω
RT = 5.3 k Ω

RT is the parallel combination of R and Rp (the parallel equivalent of Rcoil), so

first we need to find Rcoil.

XL
Rcoil =
Q coil
447Ω
Rcoil =
25
Rcoil = 17.9Ω

The parallel equivalent resistance of Rcoil is:

R p = Rcoil Q2coil
R p = 17.9Ω 252
R p = 11.18 k Ω

Using the conductance rule, we can find the requisite value of R.

1
R=
1 1
−
RT R p
1
R=
1 1
−
5.3 k Ω 11.18 k Ω

R = 10.08 k Ω

Thus, we need to use a 10.08 kΩ resistor in order to lower the circuit Q

enough to achieve a 3 kHz bandwidth. Without this resistor, the bandwidth
will be less than half of what is required.

18 Note that if this value had been greater than 25 we'd be stuck for a different reason;
namely that we'd need to obtain a higher quality inductor because Qcircuit can't be any
higher than Qcoil.

321
Computer Simulation

Figure 8.28 shows the completed design of the previous example captured in a
simulator. A 1 mA current source is used for convenience of calculation.

Figure 8.28
Circuit design of Example 8.6
in a simulator.

Given that RT is 5.3 k Ω, the 1 mA current source should produce 5.3 volts at the
resonance frequency of 35.59 kHz. The results of an AC analysis are shown in
Figure 8.29.

Figure 8.29
Frequency response of the
design from Example 8.6.

322
First off, the f0 of approximately 35.6 kHz is verified by both the peak in voltage and
the phase angle reaching 0° at this frequency, the latter indicating perfect
cancellation between the inductor and capacitor (i.e., the circuit impedance is purely
resistive and achieving unity power factor). The cursors are used to obtain accurate
values for f1 and f2. These frequencies are reached at 0.707 of the peak of 5.3 volts,
or about 3.75 volts. The frequencies are approximately 34.15 kHz and 37.15 kHz,
achieving the desired bandwidth of 3 kHz.

Low Q Parallel Resonance

There are some changes in the computations when Qparallel is low. Generally, this
means values below 10, although we might think of values between 5 and 10 to be a
transition region where deviations of two percentage points or less come into play.
Once the circuit Q falls below 5, the deviations from the high Q equations grow
rapidly and quickly rise into double digit percentages. The main item of interest here
is the shift in f0.

These deviations are caused by the fact that the approximations used for Equations
8.17 and 8.18 are no longer true. That is, with low Qcoil values, we can no longer Figure 8.30
assume that the transformed XL is the same as the original XL (i.e., Xp and Xs in Parallel RLC network with
exact series transform
Figure 8.19). Given this fact, we can revisit the basic parallel RLC circuit, but this
equivalent.
time using the exact value from the series-to-parallel inductor transform. This is
shown in Figure 8.30. RLoad is the combined resistance of the parallel network while
Xp is the equivalent value obtained from Equation 8.16 (slightly modified and
repeated for convenience):

X 2 +R 2
Xp=
X

X and R in this equation are the original series values for the inductor. At f0, the
magnitudes of the reactances are equal, or XC = Xp, therefore,

X 2 +R2
XC =
X

Expanding yields:

1 (2 π f 0 L)2 +R 2
=
2π f 0C 2π f 0 L

Now rearrange and simplify.

2π f0 L 2 2
= (2 π f 0 L) +R
2π f 0C

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 L 2 2
= (2 π f 0 L) +R
C
L
(2 π f 0 L)2 = −R2
C
2π f 0 L =
L
C
−R2
√
√
2
1 R
2π f 0 = − 2
LC L

2π f 0 =
1
√ LC
1−
C R2
L √
And finally we come to:

f 0=
1
2 π √ LC √ 1−
C R2
L
(8.21)

If desired, we can treat the first term as the ordinary series resonant frequency and
the second term as a fractional coefficient, as in:

f 0= f series kp (8.22)

Where

k p= 1−
√ C R2
L
(8.23)

Using Equation 8.20, kp may also be expressed as:

k p= 1−
√ 1
Q
2 (8.24)

Examining Equation 8.23 might lead to some concern, namely, what happens if the
second term is greater than or equal to 1? Remember, the definition we're using for
resonance is the frequency at which the reactances cancel, which means the phase
angle is 0° (unity power factor). If the second term is greater than or equal to 1, the
phase shift will never reach 0°, and by that definition, we don't really have a
resonant circuit anymore.

We will explore the reality of this situation by starting with a simple high Q parallel
circuit and then investigate the changes in the magnitude and phase response as the
Q is decreased. We begin with the circuit of Figure 8.31.

324
Assuming we have high circuit Q, the resonant frequency is:
Figure 8.31
1 A basic parallel network.
f 0=
2π√ LC
1
f 0=
2 π √1 mH 100 nF
f 0 =15.92 kHz

X L = 2π f L
X L = 2 π 15.92 kHz 1 mH
X L = 100Ω

XL
Q coil =
Rcoil
100 Ω
Q coil =
5Ω
Q coil = 20

There are no other resistances in the circuit, therefore Qcircuit = Qcoil and our initial
assumption is correct. The circuit is captured in a simulator and an AC analysis is
performed. The resulting plots are shown in Figure 8.32.

Figure 8.32
Simulation results using a coil
resistance of 5 Ω (Q of 20).

325
The resonant frequency appears to be just under 16 kHz, as predicted. Cursor-based
measurement of the frequency at which the phase crosses 0° yields 15.89 kHz. This
turns out to be even closer than it seems. In spite of the high circuit Q, kp was
calculated and as expected is very close to unity, namely 0.99875. When multiplied
by the ideal f0 (i.e., using Equation 8.22), we arrive at 15.90 kHz. Splitting hairs
perhaps, but it's good to know the deviation is shrinking.

Next, the coil resistance is raised to 50 Ω, yielding a Q of only 2. The simulation is

run a second time. kp drops to 0.866 with this lowered Q and should produce an f0 of
approximately 13.77 kHz. The plots are shown in Figure 8.33, and zoomed in for a
better view. From the lower graph it is obvious that the frequency where the curve
reaches 0° is just below 14 kHz. Accurate measurement yields 13.78 kHz, right in
line with the theoretical computation.

Figure 8.33
Simulation results using a coil
resistance of 50 Ω (Q of 2).

Finally, the coil resistance is increased to 100 Ω. This drops the circuit Q to 1 and
more importantly, brings kp down to 0. The resulting simulation plots are shown in
Figure 8.34. At first glance the phase plot looks similar to that of Figure 8.32,
however, notice that the phase scale has changed with 0° as the maximum. In fact,
the phase shift never quite reaches 0°. In this regard we can still say that the kp
equation remains an accurate predictor.

326
 Figure 8.34
Simulation results using a coil
resistance of 100 Ω (Q of 1).

Alternate Definition for Parallel Resonant Frequency

Instead of defining the parallel resonant frequency as the point where the power
factor is unity, i.e., where XL and XC have the same magnitude, it can be defined in
terms of the frequency where the magnitude of the impedance is maximum. For high
Q circuits the two definitions produce essentially the same frequency, however, as
the circuit Q decreases into the single digits, the frequency of maximum impedance
begins to deviate from both the high Q idealization and the general unity power
factor definition. In fact, the frequency of maximum magnitude is situated between
the two. We shall refer to this frequency as fZ-max to avoid confusion. The formula is:19

f Z-max = f 0
√√ 2
Qcircuit
2
+1 −
1
Q circuit
2
(8.25)

19 For a non-calculus proof, see K. Cartwright, E. Joseph, E. Kaminsky, “Finding the Exact
Maximum Impedance Resonant Frequency of a Practical Parallel Resonant Circuit Without
Calculus”, Technology Interface International Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, Fall/Winter 2010.
[Online Serial]. Available: http://tiij.org/issues/issues/winter2010/fall_winter_2010.htm
[Accessed February 15, 2020 ].

327
This equation will yield a value between the ideal high Q case and the unity power
factor case. This can be seen in Figure 8.34 where there is still an impedance peak
(as evidenced by the voltage peak) in spite of the fact that a phase angle of 0° is not
reached. Furthermore, the frequency of the peak is below that of the high Q case.
Equation 8.25 predicts a peak at 13.6 kHz which agrees with the value obtained
from the simulation.

Combination Series and Parallel Resonance

In closing our discussion on resonance we might ask whether or not there are
practical, everyday examples of systems exhibiting series and parallel resonance in
series-parallel circuits. The answer is yes. A good example is that of a basic dynamic
moving coil loudspeaker of the type seen in Chapter 2. This is an electro-mechanical
system and thus a proper model has to include the effects of such items as the
mechanical losses in the system, the mass of the cone, and the like. One possibility
is shown in Figure 8.35. Lvc and Rvc are the inductance and resistance of the voice
coil. The remaining components model other aspects of the electro-mechanical
system. An impedance plot of a typical loudspeaker is shown in Figure 8.36.

Figure 8.35
Equivalent electrical network
of a single dynamic
loudspeaker.
Adapted from R.H.Small, “Direct-
Radiator Loudspeaker System
Analysis”, Journal of the Audio
Engineering Society, June 1972

Figure 8.36
Impedance magnitude and
phase of a typical dynamic
loudspeaker.
Courtesy Dayton Audio

328
The loudspeaker of Figure 8.36 is a medium-size woofer with a nominal impedance
of 8 Ω. First, note the large variation on both the phase and magnitude of the
impedance. The parallel items from the model produce an obvious peak in
impedance just below 30 Hz. This is referred to as the free air resonance and is
denoted by fs. For this device, the magnitude is over three times the nominal value.
Also note that the phase angle is 0° at fs, and that the phase is positive (inductive)
below the resonant frequency and negative (capacitive) above it. This behavior is
expected from a parallel resonant system. The series elements of the model create
the rising impedance that is seen following the dip. Note that the phase angle
continues to increase as frequency rises, indicating the growing dominance of the
series inductive element.

8.4 Summary
Resonance can be described as a preferred mode of vibration, or a frequency at
which a system operates particularly well. Resonant systems can be used to filter out
or select specific frequencies across the spectrum. Obvious uses include tuning
circuits, oscillators, filters and the like. In electrical systems there are two basic
forms; series RLC resonance and parallel RLC resonance. Series resonance tends to
be the less complicated of the two.

For series resonance, the resonant frequency, f0, is defined as the frequency at which
the magnitude of XL equals the magnitude of XC. In this instance, the reactances
cancel, leaving the series impedance as R. This creates a U-shaped curve for the
impedance as it varies across the frequency spectrum. At low frequencies, the
capacitive reactance dominates and the series impedance is high in magnitude and
capacitive. At frequencies above the resonant frequency, the inductive reactance
dominates and the series impedance is again high in magnitude but it is inductive. If
this circuit is driven with a constant voltage source, the current will be maximum at
resonance and tail off at lower and higher frequencies. The sharpness of the current
curve across frequency is a function of the system Q, or quality factor. A high Q
circuit is one with a very sharp and narrow curve. The “shoulders” of the curve are
defined as the frequencies at which the power has dropped to one half of the value at
resonance. This corresponds to 0.707 times the current at resonance. The lower
frequency is f1 and the upper frequency is f2. The difference between the two is
called the bandwidth, BW. The ratio of resonant frequency to the bandwidth yields
the circuit Q. Circuit Q can also be found by dividing the magnitude of reactance at
resonance to the total circuit resistance. In high Q circuits it is possible for the
voltage across the inductor or capacitor to be many times higher than the source
voltage, higher in fact, by a factor of Q.

329
Parallel resonance is similar to series resonance but in some ways is like its mirror
image. In a parallel resonant circuit the inductor will dominate at low frequencies
and produce a small net impedance. At high frequencies, the capacitor will dominate
and also produce a small net impedance. At resonance, the two effectively will
cancel and yield a large impedance. In other words, the impedance versus frequency
curve will appear like an upside down U, producing maximum impedance at
resonance, and the opposite of the series impedance curve. If this system is driven
by a constant current source, the resulting voltage will echo the shape of the
impedance curve, producing maximum voltage at resonance. The upper and lower
frequencies, along with the bandwidth and system Q, are defined in the same manner
as they are in the series case (with one exception regarding finding Q via resistance
and reactance).

There is one important caveat regarding parallel resonant circuits. Practical inductors
contain a non-trivial series coil resistance. This can play a dominant role in the
system response. Analysis is generally handled by performing a series to parallel
transform which creates a parallel resistance out of the inductor's series resistance.
As a result, system Q can be found as the ratio of effective parallel resistance to
maximum reactive magnitude, the opposite of the series case. For high Q systems,
generally taken as 10 or higher, the resonant frequency can use the same equation as
the series case. For low Q systems, the series to parallel transform creates a shift in
resonant frequency, making it somewhat lower than the value obtained from the
basic series equation. Also, the inductor and capacitor currents will be approximately
Q times higher than the source current, made possible because they are 180 degrees
out of phase with each other and effectively cancel.

In both series and parallel systems, for high Q, f1 and f2 are assumed to lie
equidistant from f0, splitting BW in half on either side. This is just an approximation
and errors will grow as the Q decreases. More accurately, the two frequencies lie
where the ratio of f1/f0 is the same as the ratio of f0/f2.

Review Questions

1. Describe the concept of resonance. How is resonance defined in a series

RLC network?
2. Sketch the impedance versus frequency plot for series resonance.
3. Sketch the impedance versus frequency plot for parallel resonance.
4. Define the terms resonant frequency, bandwidth and Q.
5. How does inductor Q impact system Q in resonant circuits?

330
8.5 Exercises

Q
50

A
40

30 C

D
20

10

Frequency (Hz)

1k 10 k 100 k 1M 10 M

Inductor Q curves to be used with the exercises below

Analysis

1. A circuit has a resonant frequency of 440 kHz and a system Q of 30.

Determine the bandwidth and the approximate values for f1 and f2.
2. A circuit has a resonant frequency of 19 kHz and a bandwidth of 500 Hz.
Determine the system Q and the approximate values for f1 and f2.
3. Find the Qcoil and coil resistance of a 150 μH inductor at 100 kHz using
device curve A.
4. Find the Qcoil and coil resistance of a 2.2 mH inductor at 50 kHz using
device curve D.
5. At a certain frequency, an inductor's impedance is 24 + j600 Ω. Determine
the parallel resistance and reactance that produces the same value.

331
 6. At a certain frequency, an inductor's impedance is 3 + j150 Ω. Determine the
parallel resistance and reactance that produces the same value.
7. A certain 75 μH inductor is described by curve B. Determine the equivalent
parallel inductor/resistor combination at 1 MHz.
8. A certain 3.3 mH inductor is described by curve C. Determine the equivalent
parallel inductor/resistor combination at 20 kHz.
9. Consider a series circuit consisting of a 2 nF capacitor, an ideal 33 μH
inductor and a 5 Ω resistor. Determine the resonant frequency, system Q,
and bandwidth.
10. Consider a series circuit consisting of a 20 nF capacitor, an ideal 100 μH
inductor and a 2.7 Ω resistor. Determine the resonant frequency, system Q,
and bandwidth.
11. Consider a series circuit consisting of a 50 nF capacitor, a 20 mH inductor
with Qcoil of 50 and a 63 Ω resistor. Determine the resonant frequency,
system Q, and bandwidth.
12. Consider a series circuit consisting of a 200 nF capacitor, a 1 mH inductor
with Qcoil of 65 and a 72 Ω resistor. Determine the resonant frequency,
system Q, and bandwidth.
13. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.37, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. Assume Rcoil = 0 Ω. If the source is 1 volt peak,
determine the capacitor voltage at resonance.

Figure 8.37

14. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.38, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. Assume Rcoil = 0 Ω. If the source is 10 volts,
determine the capacitor voltage at resonance.

Figure 8.38

332
 15. Repeat problem 13 but assume instead that the inductor's Rcoil = 15 Ω.
16. Repeat problem 12 but assume instead that the inductor follows curve D.
17. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.39, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 20 mA peak, determine the resistor
and capacitor voltages at resonance.

Figure 8.39

18. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.40, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 100 mA, determine the resistor and
capacitor voltages at resonance.

Figure 8.40

19. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.41, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 15 volts, determine the inductor
and capacitor currents at resonance. Assume the inductor's coil resistance is
3.2 Ω.

Figure 8.41

333
 20. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.42, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 3 volts, determine the inductor and
capacitor currents at resonance. Assume the inductor's Q is 30.

Figure 8.42

21. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.43, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 15 volts, determine the resistor,
inductor and capacitor currents at resonance.

Figure 8.43

22. Given the circuit shown in Figure 8.44, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 2 volts, determine the resistor,
inductor and capacitor currents at resonance. Assume the inductor's coil
resistance is 2.5 Ω.

Figure 8.44

23. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.45, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 5 volts, determine the resistor,
inductor and capacitor currents at resonance. Assume the inductor's Q is 40.

Figure 8.45

334
 24. Given the circuit shown in Figure 8.46, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 2.5 mA, determine the resistor
voltage and the three branch currents at resonance.

Figure 8.46

25. For the circuit shown in Figure 8.47, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 500 μA, determine the resistor
voltage and the three branch currents at resonance. Assume the inductor's Q
is given by curve C.

Figure 8.47

26. Given the circuit shown in Figure 8.48, determine the resonant frequency,
system Q and bandwidth. If the source is 10 mA, determine the resistor
voltage and the three branch currents at resonance. Assume the inductor's Q
is given by curve B.

Figure 8.48

Design

27. A series resonant circuit has a required f0 of 50 kHz. If a 75 nF capacitor is

used, determine the required inductance.
28. A series resonant circuit has a required f0 of 210 kHz. If a 22 μH inductor is
used, determine the required capacitance.

335
 29. A parallel resonant circuit consists of a 12 nF capacitor and a 27 μH inductor
with a Qcoil of 55. Determine the required additional parallel resistance to
achieve a system Q of 40.
30. A series resonant circuit has a design target of f0=200 kHz with a bandwidth
of 5 kHz. Which of the inductor curves above (A, B, C, D) represent
possible candidates, if any, and why/why not?
31. A parallel resonant circuit has a design target of f0=1 MHz with a bandwidth
of 20 kHz. Which of the inductor curves above (A, B, C, D) represent
possible candidates, if any, and why/why not?

Challenge

32. A parallel resonant circuit has a required f0 of 50 kHz and a bandwidth of

4 kHz. If a 75 nF capacitor is used and the load impedance is 100 kΩ,
determine the required inductance and minimum acceptable Qcoil.
33. A parallel resonant circuit consists of a 150 nF capacitor and a 200 μH
inductor that has a coil resistance of 1 Ω. The desired bandwidth for the
network is 2 kHz. Determine the value of resistance to be placed in parallel
with the network in order to achieve this goal.
34. A resonant circuit consists of a 4 nF capacitor in parallel with a 100 μH coil
that has a coil resistance of 5 Ω. Determine the resonant frequency and
bandwidth. Further, assume that this circuit is now loaded by an amplifier
that has an input impedance equivalent to 10 kΩ resistive in parallel with
500 pF of input capacitance. Also, the amplifier is connected via 25 feet of
coaxial cable that exhibits a capacitance of 33 pF per foot. Determine the
changes in resonant frequency and bandwidth, if any, with this load.

Simulation

35. Use an AC frequency domain analysis to verify the results of problem 13.
Plot the resistor voltage from 0.1 f0 to 10 f0.
36. Use an AC frequency domain analysis to verify the results of problem 19.
Do this by overlapping plots of the resistor, capacitor and inductor voltages
across a range of 0.1 f0 to 10 f0.

336
 37. Investigate the effects of inductor Q on the system bandwidth of problem
21. Plot the system voltage from 0.01 f0 to 100 f0 three times, the first using
the specified coil resistance and then using values ten times larger and ten
times smaller.
38. Investigate the effects of component tolerance on the system frequency
response of problem 21. Plot the system voltage from 0.1 f0 to 10 f0 using a
Monte Carlo variation on the AC frequency domain response. Set a 10%
tolerance on the capacitor, inductor and resistor but do not alter the coil
resistance.
39. Use an AC frequency domain analysis to verify the design of problem 27.
Plot the resistor voltage from 0.1 f0 to 10 f0.
40. Use an AC frequency domain analysis to verify the design of problem 29.
Plot the system voltage from 0.1 f0 to 10 f0.
41. At high Q values (>10) the capacitor and inductor voltages of series
resonant circuits will tend to reach maximum very close to the resonant
frequency. At lower Qs, these peaks tend to diverge. A similar situation
occurs with the currents in parallel resonant circuits. Investigate this effect
by performing an AC frequency domain analysis on problem 14. Overlay
plots of vab, vbc and vc for successively larger values of resistance.
42. Investigate the “Q increase” in reactive currents compared to source and
resistive currents in a parallel resonant circuit. A simple way to verify this is
by placing AC ammeters in each of the branches of the circuit shown in
Figure 8.49. Use R = 630 Ω, C = 40 nF, L = 10 μH and i = 1 mA. It is
worthwhile to compare sets of simulations for different resistor values to see
the current changes relative to the system Q. Slight variations of the source
frequency may be required to reach the peak.

Figure 8.49

337
9 Polyphase Power
9.0 Chapter Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Define the differences between polyphase and single phase systems and detail their advantages.
• Determine line voltage, line current, phase voltage and phase current in three-phase systems.
• Analyze three-phase systems in both delta (Δ) and Y (wye) configurations.

9.1 Introduction
In this chapter we shall introduce the concept of polyphase systems. Polyphase systems can be visualized as a
group of individual sources of the same magnitude that are separated by a certain phase angle such that they are
evenly divided across a single period. The polyphase load is similarly divided into individual sections or legs.
By dividing the sources, the application of power can be much more smooth. Further, for the same total load
power, the current delivered by each of the segments is reduced compared to a single phase system. For an
analogy we could look at a bicycle. A single phase system is like pedaling with only one leg. That is, power is
applied in a single burst per revolution of the pedal. Having two pedals is like a two-phase system; power is
delivered twice per revolution, once for the right leg and once for the left. Because there are two pedals, it
makes sense to separate them physically by 180 degrees or one half of a revolution, otherwise the power
delivery will not be smooth. It should obvious to anyone who has pedaled a bike that you must pump a single
pedal much harder using only one leg to achieve the same speed obtained when pumping with both legs.

Polyphase loads can be balanced or unbalanced. A balanced load means that all legs or sections of the load
exhibit the same impedance. Consequently, the currents supplied by the sources will be the same except for the
phase shifts between them. It is possible to create a polyphase system using any number of phases, however, the
more phases we add, the more complex the construction of the polyphase source and load. Also, the number of
required conductors between the source and load increases (one per phase). These all increase construction,
installation and maintenance costs. Polyphase systems using three sections (hereafter simply referred to as
three-phase systems) are popular because they deliver the benefits of polyphase while limiting the complexity
and minimizing the costs. Therefore, we shall our limit our discussion to three-phase systems utilizing balanced
loads.

Three-phase systems can be wired in either delta or Y configurations, or a combination. These are reminiscent of
the delta and Y constructs seen in earlier chapters. We shall investigate all of the combinations to determine
system parameters such as line voltage, line current and load power. We will also investigate power factor
correction for balanced loads that have a non-negligible phase angle.

338
9.2 Polyphase Definition
A polyphase system uses multiple current-carrying wires with multiple sub-
generators, each with their own unique phase. This allows for considerable delivery
of power to the load. The most popular scheme is the three-phase configuration. This
can be visualized as three individual sine generators that are interconnected as
shown in Figure 9.1. To the left is a Y (also known as wye or T) connected generator.
To the right is a delta (i.e. Δ, and also known as π when drawn upside down)
connected generator.

A B A
Figure 9.1
Three-phase generators:Y-
connected (left) and delta-
connected (right).
B C
C

There are multiple ways of reproducing these generators on schematics. Some

alternate forms for Y-connected generators are shown in Figure 9.2. The lone “tail”
shown on the version to the right is a connection back to the common center of the
three sub-generators. This is called the neutral line. It is not always used.

Figure 9.2
Alternate schematic symbols
for Y-connected generators.

In Figure 9.3 we have some alternate forms for delta-connected generators. Delta
generators do not have the optional fourth connection as there is no common center
point. Also, note that the version on the left is drawn upside down (i.e., in the π
configuration).

Figure 9.3
Alternate schematic symbols
for delta-connected generators.

339
Of particular importance is the relative phase of each source. As the load will also
have three segments or legs (a three-phase load), a consistent delivery of power
demands that the three sources be spread equally over time. This means that each
source is one-third of a cycle, or 120 degrees, out of phase with the other legs (i.e.,
leading one and lagging the other). This is shown in Figure 9.4. We shall only
consider the case of balanced loads, that is, where each leg of the load is identical to
the other legs.

Three Phase
1.0

0.8 Figure 9.4

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Relative phases of the three
0.6
sub-generators.
0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time

Notice the effectiveness of using the 120 degree stagger. At any time there is always
either a peak or the shoulders of two adjacent peaks. These peaks can be either
positive or negative polarity. This makes for a total of six peaks across the
waveform's period. Therefore, a null is never more than 30 degrees away from the
nearest peak. Indeed, when it is 30 degrees away, then it's precisely in between two
peaks, and the value from each is the sine of 60 degrees (i.e., 30 degrees off of the
peak at 90 degrees) or 86.6% of the peak value. Thus, it should be obvious that
consistent power can be applied by this system. The inevitable car analogy is that we
have gone from a two cylinder engine to a six cylinder engine when moving from
single phase to three-phase.

There are several ways to connect three-phase generators to three-phase loads, as we

shall see in the next section.

340
9.2 Three-Phase Connections
It is possible to configure systems using delta- or Y-connected sources with either
delta- or Y-connected loads. One item to note is that delta-connected systems are
always three wire systems while Y-connected systems can make use of a fourth
neutral wire (the common point to which all three sources connect).

Homogeneous Systems

The most straightforward systems are delta-to-delta and Y-to-Y. We shall refer to
these as homogeneous systems as the structures of the generator and load are similar.
Examples are shown in Figures 9.5 and 9.6, respectively.

A A'
Figure 9.5
+ -
A delta-connected generator
Z Z with a delta-connected load
- +
(delta-delta).
B C B' Z C'
+ -

A B A' B'
+ + Figure 9.6
- - Z Z A Y-connected generator with
a Y-connected load (Y-Y).
-
Z Optional fourth neutral wire
+ from center to center shown.
C C'

In these configurations, each leg of the load matches up with a corresponding leg of
the generator. In the delta-delta configuration of Figure 9.5, it should be obvious just
by inspection that the voltage across any load leg must equal the voltage of the
corresponding generator leg. For example, the load impedance connected between A'
and B' must see the voltage presented by the generator situated between A and B
because A is directly connected to A' as is B to B'. Similarly, for the Y-Y
configuration of Figure 9.6, the current through any load leg must equal the current
flowing through the associated generator leg as there are no other paths for current
between A and A', B and B', and C and C'.

As the load is balanced and the legs of the generator are identical except for their
phase, it must be the case that the voltages and currents (and hence the powers) for

341
each leg of the load must be the same, with the exception of the phase. This is true
for both the Y-Y configuration as well as the delta-delta configuration. The tricky bit
here is the difference between a source (or load) current or voltage, and the line
current or voltage.

Line voltage is the voltage magnitude between any two conductors

connecting the source to the load, excluding ground or common.

Line current is the current magnitude flowing in any conductor connecting

the source to the load, excluding ground or common.

Consider the delta-delta system of Figure 9.5. We have already established that the
voltage developed by generator A,B must be the same as the voltage across the load
A',B'. Thus, the voltage measured from the A, A' conductor to the B,B' conductor
must be the same as source and and load voltages. In other words, in the delta-delta
configuration, the source, load, and line voltages are all the same.

We also found that the source and load currents must be the same for the delta-delta
configuration, however, this does not imply that the current flowing through the
wire connecting A to A' must be the same as the current flowing through either the
generator or the load. After all, two load wires connect to A', not just one. By
definition, the current flowing through that wire is the line current, and therefore in a
delta-delta configuration, the line current is not the same as the source or load
currents. To avoid confusion, the voltage or current associated with a single leg is
referred to as the phase voltage or current versus the line voltage or current.

Turning to the Y-Y configuration of Figure 9.6, we see an opposite situation. The
source, load, and line currents will all be the same. On the other hand, the line
voltage comprises two generators, not one (e.g., from A to B or from B to C). Thus,
for a Y-Y configuration the source and load voltages are the same, but they are not
equal to the line voltage (nor is twice, thanks to the phase shift).

Determining Line Voltage and Current

In order to determine the line voltage for a Y-connected generator (and similarly, the
line current for a delta connected generator), it is useful to examine a phasor plot of
the individual generator voltages. This is shown in Figure 9.7. We have three
voltages of identical amplitude, the only difference between them being their phase.
Each vector is separated from the others by 120 degrees. Further, each individual
generator is connected from the common point to one of the external points of A, B
and C. Line voltage is defined as the potential existing between any two if these
three points. While it's possible to simply subtract one generator voltage from
another to arrive at the difference, there is a nice graphical solution from which we
can derive a precise formula for the line voltage given the generator voltage.

342
 B

Figure 9.7
Phasor diagram of Y-connected
generator.
120° 120° A

120°

We begin by focusing on quadrants two and three of the phasor plot. This section is
redrawn in Figure 9.8. In reality, any two vectors can be used for the following
proof, but this pair turns out to be particularly convenient in its orientation.

30°
Figure 9.8
1
X Solving for the line voltage of
a Y-connected generator.

60°

0.5

For ease of use we shall normalize the magnitude of the generator voltage to unity.
What we see is that the B and C vectors are split perfectly by the horizontal axis; that
which is above the axis is perfectly mirrored below it. In the upper portion we find a
right triangle with a hypotenuse of unity (dark red). The angle it makes with the
horizontal must be half of the angle between it and the C vector. That's half of 120

343
degrees, or 60 degrees. As the sum of the interior angles of a triangle must be 180
degrees, this means that the third angle must be 30 degrees. The horizontal leg of the
triangle (dark yellow or maybe “spicy mustard”) can be determined because we
know both the hypotenuse and the opposite angle.

opposite = hypotenuse×sin θ

The sine of 30 degrees is exactly 0.5, therefore, the horizontal leg of the triangle
must be 0.5 times the magnitude of unity, or 0.5. We can use the Pythagorean
theorem to find the remaining vertical leg (purple).

2 2
vertical = √ hypotenuse −horizontal
vertical = √1 2−0.5 2
vertical =
√
1
3
4
vertical = √ 3
2

The vertical leg is perfectly mirrored below the horizontal axis. Therefore, the span
from B to C must be twice this value, or √3. As the voltage developed across each
leg of the generator is referred to as the generator's phase voltage, we can state:

The line voltage for a Y-connected generator is √3 times its phase voltage. (9.1)

For example, if the phase voltage of a Y-connected generator is 120 volts, the line
voltage would be √3 times larger, or approximately 208 volts.

For a delta-connected generator, the same holds true for the phase and line currents,
with the proof left as an exercise. That is,

The line current for a delta-connected generator is √3 times its phase current. (9.2)

These same relationships hold for the loads as well as the sources, e.g., the current in
a leg of a Y-connected load will be the same as the line current and its phase voltage
will be √3 times smaller than the line voltage.

In summation: For delta configurations (generator or load), the phase

voltage is equal to the line voltage while the line current is larger than the
phase current by √3. For Y configurations, the phase current is equal to the
line current while the line voltage is √3 larger than the phase voltage.

For homogenous systems, as the generator and load share the same configuration,
the phase voltages and currents of the load must be identical to those of the
generator. A useful memory aid is that the power dissipated in the system must equal
the power generated.

344
Example 9.1

A three-phase delta-connected generator feeds a three-phase delta-connected

load like the system shown in Figure 9.5. Assume the generator phase
voltage is 120 VAC RMS. The load consists of three identical legs of 50 Ω
each. Determine the line voltage, load phase voltage, generator phase
current, line current, load phase current and the total power delivered to the
load.

As this is a homogenous (delta-delta) system, the load phase voltage and

current are the same as those of the generator. Therefore, the load phase
voltage must also be 120 volts. Second, in a delta configuration, the line
voltage equals the phase voltage, again 120 volts. The load phase current is
found via Ohm's law and will be an RMS value because the voltage is RMS:

v phase
i phase =
Z load
120 V
i phase =
50Ω
i phase = 2.4 A

The generator's phase current must be the same because the generator and
load have the same configuration. For delta configurations, the line current
is √3 times larger than the phase current, thus,

i line = √ 3×i phase

i line = √ 3×2.4 A
i line ≈ 4.157 A

Finally, total power can be found with a straight application of power law as
the load is purely resistive and we have RMS values. Remember, this is three
times the power dissipated in one leg.

P total = 3×i phase 2 ×R

P total = 3×(2.4 A)2 ×50Ω
P total = 864 W

This is equivalent to about 1.2 HP. We could have also computed the load
phase power by using the squared phase voltage divided by the load
resistance, or by multiplying the phase voltage by the phase current. As this
is a purely resistive load, there is no phase angle, and thus no power factor
with which to concern ourselves.

345
Example 9.2

A three-phase Y-connected generator feeds a three-phase Y-connected load

similar to the system shown in Figure 9.6. Assume the generator phase
voltage is 220 VAC RMS. The load consists of three identical legs of 100 Ω
each. Determine the line voltage, load phase voltage, generator phase
current, line current, load phase current and the total power delivered to the
load.

This is a homogenous (Y-Y) system, therefore the load phase voltage and
current are the same as those of the generator. Consequently, the load phase
voltage must be 220 volts. In a Y configuration, the line voltage equals the
phase voltage times √3.

v line = √ 3×v phase

v line = √ 3×220 V
v line ≈ 381 V

The load phase current is found via Ohm's law and will be an RMS value
because the voltage is RMS. This is the same as the generator phase current
and also the line current.

v phase
i phase =
Z load
220 V
i phase =
100 Ω
i phase = 2.2 A

Total power can be found using basic power law as the load is purely
resistive and we have RMS values. In this case we'll use current times
voltage for a change of pace.

P total = 3×i phase ×v phase

P total = 3×2.2 A× 220 V
P total = 1452 W

This is just shy of 2 HP. Once again, this is a purely resistive load and there
is no phase angle. Thus, the power factor is unity with the real and apparent
powers being the same.

346
Example 9.3

For the the system shown in Figure 9.9, determine the total apparent and real
power delivered to the load. Also find the line voltage. The phase voltage of
the source is 240 volts RMS at 60 Hz.

Figure 9.9
Circuit for Example 9.3.

Given the fact that the three load legs are all together at one common point
(ground), this must be a Y-Y system. Consequently, we know that the line
voltage must be √3 times the phase voltage of the generator.

v line = √ 3×v phase

v line = √ 3×240 V
v line ≈ 416 V RMS

This is a homogenous system (Y-Y) so we also know that the load voltage is
equal to the generator voltage, or 240 volts RMS. From that we can find the
load current (the line current must be the same value because this is a Y-
connected load).

v phase
i phase =
Z load
240 V
i phase =
40+j 30Ω
i phase = 4.8  −36.87 ° A

The phase angle is appropriate for the 0° reference generator. The other two
angles will be off of this by ±120°. The apparent power is simply the
product of the load current and voltage magnitudes.

S = 3×iload ×v load
S = 3×4.8 A×240 V
S = 3456 VA

347
 The real power can be found a few different ways:

P = S ×cos θ
P = 3456 VA×cos (−36.87 °)
P = 2765 W

P = 3×i load 2 ×Rload

P = 3×4.8 A 2 ×40Ω
P = 2765 W

Computer Simulation

The circuit of Example 9.3 is worthy of a simulation. The first thing to do is to

determine an appropriate value of inductance to achieve a reactance of j40 Ω. Given
the 60 Hz source frequency, this turns out to be approximately 80 mH. The circuit is
constructed as shown in Figure 9.10. The 240 volt RMS source phase voltage is
equivalent to approximately 340 volts peak. The positions of the inductor and
resistor in each leg have been swapped for a reason that will be apparent shortly.

Figure 9.10
The equivalent system of
Figure 9.9 in a simulator.

The immediate item of interest is to verify the time shifts and amplitudes of the
phase voltages. These correspond to nodes 1, 2 and 3. In this configuration, the load
phase voltage equals the generator phase voltage, thus they should be 340 volts peak
and separated by 120 degrees or 1/3rd of a cycle.

A transient analysis is performed, plotting the node voltages of interest. The result is
shown in Figure 9.11. The voltages are precisely as expected and the plot compares
perfectly to the theoretical plot of Figure 9.4.

348
 Figure 9.11
The three load voltages
simulated from Figure 9.10.

Now we check the line voltage. This was calculated to be 416 volts RMS, or
approximately 588 volts peak. The post processor is used to display the result of
node voltage 1 minus node voltage 2. This is shown in Figure 9.12. Again, the
results are as expected with a peak just under 600 volts.

Finally, we will investigate the true load power. Perhaps the easiest way to do this is
to determine the voltage across the resistive portion of the load. From prior work we
know that true power is only associated with resistance, not reactance. Thus, all we
need to do is measure the peak voltage across the resistor. From there, we find its
RMS equivalent, square it, and divide by the resistor value. This gives us the true
load power in one leg. For the total power we simply triple the result. Obtaining the
voltage across the resistor is easy if the resistor is attached to ground. In that case,
it's just the voltage at the node to which the resistor is connected. This is why the
inductor and resistor positions were swapped in the simulation. As they are in series,
it makes no difference to the overall load impedance, however, the new arrangement
allows us to obtain the resistor voltage directly instead of having to rely on a
differential voltage obtained through the post processor.

Another transient analysis is performed, this time plotting the voltage across one of
the load resistors; namely node 4. The result is shown in Figure 9.13. The peak of
this waveform is measured to be 271.5 volts, or about 192 volts RMS. Squaring this
and dividing by 40 Ω yields a little over 921 watts per leg, for a total of about 2765
watts, as expected.

349
 Figure 9.12
One of the line voltages
simulated from Figure 9.10.

Figure 9.13
Simulated voltage across one
of the load resistors in
Figure 9.10.

350
Heterogeneous Systems

Systems configured as delta-to-Y and Y-to-delta appear to be a bit more complex

than homogeneous systems. We shall refer to these as heterogeneous systems as the
structures of the generator and load are of opposite kind. Examples are shown in
Figures 9.14 and 9.15, respectively.

A
A' B'

+ - Z Z
Figure 9.14
- +
Z A delta-connected generator
B C with a Y-connected load
+ - C' (delta-Y).

A B A'
+ + Figure 9.15
- - A Y-connected generator with
Z Z a delta-connected load (Y-
-
delta).
+ B' C'
Z
C

These systems are not nearly so difficult as some people think; all you have to do is
remember statements 9.1 and 9.2. Indeed, the summation is worth repeating here:

For delta configurations (generator or load), the phase voltage is equal to the
line voltage while the line current is larger than the phase current by √3. For
Y configurations, the phase current is equal to the line current while the line
voltage is √3 larger than the phase voltage.

You can think of analyzing these systems as a two-step process. First, determine the
line voltage and current from either the generator or load; and second, transition
from the line to the other side (load or generator). If confusion sets in, remember that
power generated must equal power dissipated or delivered.

In Figure 9.14, the line voltage equals the generator phase voltage. The load is Y-
connected, so each leg sees the line voltage divided by √3. Based on this, each leg of
the load current can be computed. Note that the line current equals the load current.
The generator phase current will be the line current divided by √3.

351
In Figure 9.15, the line voltage equals √3 times the generator phase voltage. The
load is delta-connected, so each leg sees the line voltage. Knowing this, each leg of
the load current can be computed. Also, the line current equals the generator phase
current, and the load phase current will equal the line current divided by √3.

Example 9.4

A delta-Y system like the one shown in Figure 9.14 has a generator phase
voltage of 230 volts RMS at 50 Hz. If the load is 2000° Ω, determine the
generator phase current, the line voltage, the load phase voltage, the load
phase current and the total power delivered to the load.

The generator is delta connected so the line voltage equals the generator
phase voltage, or 230 volts. The load, being Y-connected, will see a phase
voltage that is reduced by a factor of √3.

v line
vload =
√3
230 V
vload =
√3
vload ≈ 132.8V RMS

We can use Ohm's law to determine the load phase current.

v phase
i load =
Z load
132.8 V
i load =
200  0 ° Ω
i load ≈0.664 A RMS

Being Y-connected, the line current must be the same as the load phase
current, or 0.664 amps. For delta connections, the line current is √3 times
larger than the phase current, therefore the generator phase current must be
√3 times smaller.

i line
i gen =
√3
0.664 A
i gen =
√3
i gen ≈ 0.383A RMS

The load is purely resistive and we have RMS values so the total power can
be found via power law (apparent power equals true power in this case).

352
 P total = 3×i load 2 ×R
P total = 3×(0.664 A)2 ×200Ω
P total = 264 W

As a crosscheck, the power generated is:

P total = 3×i gen × v gen

P total = 3×0.383 A ×230 V
P total = 264 W

Power generated equals power dissipated.

Example 9.5

A Y-delta system like the one shown in Figure 9.15 has a generator phase
voltage of 100 volts RMS at 60 Hz. If the load has a magnitude of 50 Ω with
a lagging power factor of 0.8, determine the generator phase current, the line
voltage, the load phase voltage, the load phase current and the total true
power delivered to the load.

The Y-connected generator creates a line voltage equal to the generator

phase voltage times √3. This is also the load phase voltage as it is delta-
connected.

vline = √ 3×v phase

vline = √ 3×100 V
vline ≈ 173.2 V RMS

The delta-connected load will see a phase voltage that is the same as the line
voltage, or 173.2 volts. From this we can determine the load current.

v phase
i load =
Z load
173.2 V
i load =
50 Ω
i load ≈3.464 A RMS

As the load is delta-connected, the line current is the load current times √3.
The generator phase current will be the same as the line current.

i line = √ 3×i phase

i line = √ 3×3.464 A
i line = 6 A RMS

353
 The true load power can be found several ways. First, we can use the i2 R
form. To do this we need to find the resistive portion of the load. Recall that
the power factor is equal to cosine θ. Therefore the impedance angle is:

θ = cos−1 PF
θ = cos−1 0.8
θ ≈ 36.9°

The real part is:

R = Z cos θ
R = 50Ωcos 36.9°
R = 40 Ω

Alternately, we could've just multiplied Z by PF to obtain this. Continuing:

P total = 3×i load 2 ×R

P total = 3×(3.464 A)2 ×40Ω
P total = 1440 W

We could also find the apparent power and use the power factor.

P total = 3×v load ×iload PF

P total = 3×173.2 V×3.464 A×0.8
P total = 1440 W

As a crosscheck, compare the power dissipated to the power generated.

P total = 3×v gen×i gen×PF

P total = 3×100 V×6 A×0.8
P total = 1440 W

9.3 Power Factor Correction

As we saw in earlier work, reactive loads demand higher currents than purely
resistive loads for a given true load power. The ratio between apparent power, S, and
true power, P, is the power factor, PF. Power factor may also be computed as the
cosine of the load impedance angle. This situation remains for three-phase systems.
If a balanced three-phase load has a large reactive component, the line current and
generator phase current will be higher than necessary. The solution to this is power
factor correction; the introduction of reactive elements that will counterbalance the
reactive power of the load, essentially providing an opposing current such that the
reactive currents cancel.

354
In three-phase systems the situation is potentially complicated by the fact that the
load is split into three parts and can be either Y-connected or delta-connected.

The process for three phase is essentially the same as it is for single phase, but with
a couple slight twists. The first course of action is to determine the reactive power,
Q, of the load. As we are dealing with balanced loads, it is usually easiest to just
concentrate on a single leg. There are two basic possibilities. First, if the load
reactance is known, it is a simple matter to determine the reactive power by finding
the load phase current, squaring it, and then multiplying by the load reactance. In
contrast, if the load is described in terms of a power factor, the apparent power can
be computed from the generator phase voltage and current, and then the power
factor can be used to find the reactive power (e.g., finding true power and then using
the Pythagorean theorem). Once the reactive power is known, the required reactance
can be found using power law and either the phase voltage or current. Finally, the
reactance value is used to determine the component value. As many loads are
inductive, the compensating component usually will be capacitive. There will three
units, one for each leg of the load.

For practical purposes, the compensating device is placed across the load terminals
rather than in series with it. This is true whether the load is Y-connected or delta-
connected. In other words, the compensating devices always will be placed in a delta
configuration. This is true even if the load is Y-connected. We shall look at both
situations in the next two examples.

Example 9.6

The Y-delta system shown in Figure 9.16 has a generator phase voltage of
120 volts RMS at 60 Hz. Determine the power factor, the generator phase
current, and the total real and apparent power delivered to the load. Also
determine components to correct the power factor and the new generator
phase current.

Figure 9.16
Circuit for Example 9.6.

355
 First, the power factor is the cosine of the impedance angle. At 60 Hz, the
reactance of the 100 mH inductor is −j37.7 Ω. This is in series with the
resistance for a load impedance of 100 −j37.7 Ω or 106.920.66° per leg.
The cosine of this angle is 0.9357.

The voltage across each leg of the load will equal the line voltage.

vline = √ 3×v phase

vline = √ 3×120 V
vline ≈ 207.8 V RMS

This will produce a load phase current magnitude of:

v phase
i load =
Z load
207.8 V
i load =
106.9 Ω
i load ≈1.944 A RMS

Now we can find the load powers.

S = 3×v phase×i phase

S = 3×207.8 V×1.944 A
S ≈ 1212 VA

P = S ×PF
P = 1212 VA×0.9357
P ≈ 1134 W

Q = S sin θ
Q = 1212 VA sin 20.66 °
Q ≈ 427.6 VAR

The load is inductive so the compensation components need to be

capacitors. Each capacitor needs to create 427.6/3 VAR, or 142.5 VAR. The
required reactance is:

v phase 2
X C =− j
Q
2
(207.8V )
X C =− j
142.5 VAR
X C ≈− j 303 Ω

And finally, the capacitance value:

356
 1
C=
2π f X C
1
C=
2 π 60 Hz 303Ω
C ≈8.75 μ F

These capacitors would be placed directly in parallel with each leg of the
load and should result in a reduction of the generator and line currents.

Computer Simulation

To see the effect of power factor correction, the circuit used in Example 9.6 is
captured in a simulator, as illustrated in Figure 9.17. The goal here is to show the
reduction in supplied current. To facilitate this, the normal Y-connected three-phase
source is not used. Instead, three individual sine sources are used, each with a proper
phase shift. A small 1 Ω sensing resistor is inserted in series with one of the sources.
The voltage across this resistor is easily measured (node 7) and serves as a proxy for
the generator phase current. Compared to the sizes of the other components, this
extra resistance will have minimal impact on overall circuit behavior, perhaps
shifting current values around 1% or so. Reducing the resistance to 0.1 Ω will reduce
errors to negligible levels, but 1 Ω is convenient as no scaling is needed and will be
sufficient to show the effect of power factor correction on source current.

Figure 9.17
Circuit of Figure 9.16 in a
simulator.

A transient simulation is run on the circuit, plotting the voltage at node 7. This is
shown in Figure 9.18. Due to the 1 Ω sensing resistance, the voltage value is the
same as the current value in amps. The peak value of the current is approximately
4.7 amps. This agrees with the calculated value of 4.76 amps (1.944 amps RMS
times √2 times √3). Now that a baseline for the current has been established, we turn
our attention to the modified version of the circuit with power factor correction.

357
 Figure 9.18
Generator phase current for the
original circuit of Figure 9.17.

The three power factor correction capacitors are added in parallel with the existing
load legs (i.e., from line to line). This is illustrated in Figure 9.19.

Figure 9.19
Power factor corrected circuit
of Figure 9.16 in a simulator.

The transient simulation is repeated. The results are shown in Figure 9.20. The peak
current in this version of the circuit is approximately 4.4 amps. Theoretically, the
current should be scaled by the power factor, or 0.9357. As previously calculated,
the value of the original generator phase current is 4.76 amps peak. Multiplying that
by the power factor yields approximately 4.45 amps peak. The small deviation
between this result and the simulation is due to the effect of the 1 Ω sensing resistor.

358
 Figure 9.20
Generator phase current for the
power factor corrected circuit
of Figure 9.19.

Example 9.7

The Y-Y system shown in Figure 9.21 has a generator phase voltage of 230
volts RMS at 50 Hz. The load draws 900 VA with a power factor of 0.85
lagging. Determine the generator phase current. Also determine components
to correct the power factor and the new generator phase current once the
system is corrected.

Figure 9.21
Circuit for Example 9.7.

359
 We're looking for the generator phase current so let's break this down to a
single leg, first. The total apparent power, S, is 900 VA. For a single leg that's
300 VA. This is a Y-Y system so the generator phase current and voltage are
the same as the load phase current and voltage. The current can be found via
the apparent power.

S
i=
v
300 VA
i=
230 V RMS
i ≈ 1.304 A RMS

Given a power factor of 0.85, we can determine the real and reactive
powers.

P = S ×PF
P = 300 VA×0.85
P = 255 W

2 2
Q = √ S −P
Q = √(300 VA)2−(255 W)2
Q ≈ 158 VAR inductive

For power factor correction, we need 158 VAR capacitive per leg to
counteract this. These capacitors will be placed across the load terminals in a
delta configuration. As such, they will see the line voltage. For a Y-
connected generator, the line voltage is the phase voltage times √3. The
result here is 230 volts times √3, or 398.4 volts RMS. From this we may
determine the required reactance.

v phase2
X C =− j
Q
2
(398.4 V )
X C =− j
158 VAR
X C ≈− j 1004.6 Ω

The corresponding capacitance value is:

1
C=
2π f XC
1
C=
2 π 50Hz 1004.6 Ω
C ≈3.17μ F

360
Computer Simulation

In Example 9.7 we computed the generator phase current to be 1.304 amps RMS,
which is equivalent to 1.844 amps peak. If the corrected circuit is proper, then the
apparent power should fall to the real power, or 255 watts. The resulting generator
phase current should be this power divided by the generator phase voltage, 255/230,
or 1.109 amps RMS. This is equivalent to 1.568 amps peak. (Alternately, we could
multiply the original current by the power factor because the voltage is constant.)

To verify the effectiveness of the circuit modification, we start by capturing the

circuit in a simulator, as shown in Figure 9.22.

Figure 9.22
Generator phase current for the
original circuit of Figure 9.21.

As in the prior example, the source is built from three discrete sine generators at
appropriate phases. Beneath one of them, a 1 Ω current sensing resistor is added
(node 7). This value should produce no more than about 1% deviation as it is a full
two orders of magnitude smaller than the other circuit resistances.

An interesting question for the sharp-eyed observer is how the load resistor and
inductor values were obtained. This turns out to be not so difficult. We have already
computed the true and reactive powers for each leg. We also know the load phase
voltage (it's the same as the generator, 230 volts, as it's a Y-Y connection).
Therefore, we can find the R and XL values as we have already computed the load
current and can use this to determine the load impedance, Z. The power factor is
known, and from this the real and reactive parts can be deduced.

v phase
Z=
i
230 V
Z=
1.304 A
Z ≈176Ω

This is the magnitude. For the sake of completeness, the angle is the arccosine of the

361
power factor, or cos-1(0.85), which is 31.8 degrees. The fastest way to determine R is
to recognize that the real portion is the impedance magnitude times the power factor:

R = Z ×PF
R = 176Ω×0.85
R ≈150Ω

The reactive portion can be found via the Pythagorean theorem or by using the
power relation. Then we apply the reactance formula to find the inductance.

Q
X L= 2
i
158 VAR
X L=
(1.304 A RMS)2
X L ≈ 92.9Ω

XL
L=
2π f
92.9Ω
L=
2 π 50 Hz
L ≈296 mH

The result of a transient analysis is shown in Figure 9.23. The measured peak phase
current is 1.837 amps. This compares nicely with the expected value of 1.844 amps.

Figure 9.23
Generator phase current for the
original circuit of Figure 9.22.

362
For the comparison, the power factor correction capacitors are added in a delta
configuration (across the lines) as shown in Figure 9.24.

Figure 9.24
Power factor corrected circuit
of Figure 9.21 in a simulator.

Another simulation is run, the result shown in Figure 9.25. The peak current has
decreased to 1.56 amps. This is just slightly lower than the expected value of 1.568
amps peak. Again, this small deviation is due to the effect of the sense resistor.

Figure 9.25
Generator phase current for the
power factor corrected circuit
of Figure 9.24.

363
9.4 Summary
Polyphase systems can be thought of as a group of individual sources of the same
magnitude that are synced together and where the load is similarly divided into
sections or legs. By spreading out the source currents across the waveform's period,
a smooth application of power to the load can be achieved. Also, for the same line
current, more power can be delivered to the load than that of a single phase system.
Loads can be balanced or unbalanced. A balanced load means that all legs of the
load exhibit an identical impedance. Thus, the currents coming out of the source will
be the same except for the phase shifts spreading them across a single period. While
any number of phases is possible, three-phase systems are popular as they deliver
the benefits of polyphase while limiting complexity.

A three-phase source produces currents that are 120 degrees apart. That is, if the first
signal is taken as the reference, or 0°, then the other two are at 120° and 240°. Both
the source and the load can be configured in one of two ways: delta or Y. This makes
four possible combinations for the source-load connection; namely Y-Y, delta-delta,
Y-delta, and delta-Y. In a Y-Y connection the source phase current and load current
will be the same. The voltage from one line to another will be √3 times larger than
the phase voltage. In a delta-delta connection the phase and line voltages will be the
same, but the line current will be √3 times larger than the phase current of the
generator or load. In delta-Y and Y-delta connections, the source and load no longer
match configuration so neither the phase voltages nor currents are the same. For the
portion that is Y-connected, the line current and phase current will be the same. For
the portion that is delta-connected, the line voltage and phase voltage will be the
same. For those configurations, the other parameter (voltage or current) will be
scaled by √3.

In a system with a balanced load, the system power will simply be three times the
power of one leg. If the load has a non-negligible phase angle, power factor
correction can be used to reduce the required line current. The compensating items
are arranged in a delta configuration, even if the load is Y-connected.

Review Questions

1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of polyphase versus single phase

systems.
2. Define the terms delta-connected and Y-connected.
3. How are line and load voltages related for Y-connected loads?
4. How are line and load currents related for Y-connected loads?
5. How are line and load voltages related for delta-connected loads?
6. How are line and load currents related for delta-connected loads?
7. Describe a practical connection for power factor correction of a Y-connected
load.

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9.5 Exercises
Unless specified otherwise, assume generator frequencies are 60 Hz for all
problems.

Analysis

1. As depicted in Figure 9.26, a three-phase delta-connected generator feeds a

delta-connected load. The generator phase voltage is 120 volts and the load
consists of three legs of 10 Ω each. Find the voltage across each load leg,
the line current through the wires connecting the load to to the generator and
the power drawn by the load.

Figure 9.26

2. Referring to the delta-delta system of Figure 9.26, if the generator phase

voltage is 230 volts and the load is balanced with each leg at 2 Ω, determine
the line voltage, line current, generator phase current and load current.
3. The system of Figure 9.27 shows a three-phase Y-connected generator
feeding a Y-connected load. If the generator phase voltage is 120 volts and
the load consists of three legs of 20 Ω each, find the line voltage, the line
current, voltage across each load leg and the total power drawn by the load.

Figure 9.27

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 4. Referring to Figure 9.27, if the generator phase voltage is 230 volts and the
load is balanced with each leg at 12 Ω, determine the line voltage, line
current, generator phase current, load current, load voltage and total load
power.
5. As depicted in Figure 9.28, a three-phase delta-connected generator feeds a
Y-connected load. The generator phase voltage is 120 volts and the load
consists of balanced legs of 5 Ω each. Find the voltage across each load leg,
the line current, the line voltage, the generator phase current and the total
load power.

Figure 9.28

6. Referring to Figure 9.28, if the generator phase voltage is 400 volts and the
load is balanced with each leg at 10 Ω, determine the line voltage, line
current, generator phase current, load current and the voltage across each
load leg.
7. The system of Figure 9.29 shows a three-phase Y-connected generator
feeding a delta-connected load. If the generator phase voltage is 120 volts
and the load consists of three legs of 60 Ω each, find the line voltage, the
line current, voltage across each load leg and the total power drawn by the
load.

Figure 9.29

8. Referring to the Y-delta system of Figure 9.28, if the generator phase voltage
is 120 volts and the load is balanced with each leg at 20 Ω, determine the
line voltage, line current, generator phase current, load current, the voltage
across each load leg and the total load power.

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 9. A three-phase delta-connected generator feeds a delta-connected load
consisting of three legs of 10 Ω in series with j4 Ω of inductive reactance, as
shown in Figure 9.30. If the line voltage is 208 volts, find the voltage across
each load leg, the current through the wires connecting the load to to the
generator, and the apparent and real powers drawn by the load.

Figure 9.30

10. Given the delta-delta system of Figure 9.30, if the generator phase voltage is
120 volts and the load is balanced with each leg at 20 + j10 Ω, determine the
line voltage, line current, generator phase current, load current, the voltage
across each load leg, and the total real and apparent load powers.
11. A three-phase Y-connected generator feeds a Y-connected load consisting of
three legs of 10 Ω in series with j4 Ω of inductive reactance, as shown in
Figure 9.31. If the line voltage is 208 volts, find the voltage across each load
leg, the line current, and the apparent and real powers drawn by the load.

Figure 9.31

12. Given the Y-Y system of Figure 9.31, if the line voltage is 400 volts and the
load is balanced with each leg at 100 + j20 Ω, determine the generator phase
voltage, line current, generator phase current, load current, the voltage
across each load leg, and the total real and apparent load powers.

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 13. The three-phase system of Figure 9.7 uses a Y-connected generator feeding a
delta-connected load. The load consists of three legs of 40 Ω in series with
j30 Ω of inductive reactance, as shown in Figure 9.32. If the generator phase
voltage is 230 volts, find the line voltage, the voltage across each load leg,
the line current, the load current, and the apparent and real powers drawn by
the load.

Figure 9.32

14. Given the Y-delta system of Figure 9.32, if the line voltage is 400 volts and
the load is balanced with each leg at 80 + j20 Ω, determine the generator
phase voltage, line current, generator phase current, load current, the voltage
across each load leg, and the total real and apparent load powers.
15. A 208 three-phase delta-connected generator feeds a Y-connected load
consisting of three legs of 10 Ω in series with j4 Ω of inductive reactance as
shown in Figure 9.33. Find the voltage across each load leg, the current
through the wires connecting the load to to the generator, and the apparent
and real powers drawn by the load.

Figure 9.33

16. Given the delta-Y system of Figure 9.33, if the line voltage is 400 volts and
the load is balanced with each leg at 120 + j30 Ω, determine the line current,
generator phase current, load current, the voltage across each load leg, and
the total real and apparent load powers.

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 17. A 120 volt three-phase delta-connected generator feeds a delta-connected
load consisting of three legs of 75 Ω in series with −j10 Ω of capacitive
reactance as shown in Figure 9.34. Find the voltage across each load leg, the
current through the wires connecting the load to to the generator, and the
apparent and real powers drawn by the load.

Figure 9.34

18. A three-phase Y-connected generator feeds a Y-connected load consisting of

three legs of 150 Ω in series with −j20 Ω of capacitive reactance as shown in
Figure 9.35. If the generator phase voltage is 120 volts, find the line voltage,
the voltage across each load leg, the line current, and the apparent and real
powers drawn by the load.

Figure 9.35

Design

19. Using the delta-delta system of problem 9 and assuming the source
frequency is 60 Hz, determine appropriate component values to place in
parallel with each load leg in order to shift the power factor to unity.
20. Using the Y-Y system of problem 11 and assuming the source frequency is
60 Hz, determine appropriate component values to place in parallel with
each load leg in order to shift the power factor to unity.

369
Challenge

21. Using the Y-Y system of problem 11 and assuming the source frequency is
60 Hz, determine appropriate component values to be added to the load in
order to shift the power factor to unity. These new components should be in
a delta configuration.

Simulation

22. Use a transient analysis to verify the phase and line voltage phase
relationships in problem 1.
23. Use a transient analysis to verify the results computed for problem 15.
24. Use a transient analysis to verify the design solution to problem 19. This can
be achieved by ensuring that the voltage and current in each load leg (with
added correction components) are in phase.
25. Use a transient analysis to verify the design solution to problem 20. This can
be achieved by ensuring that the voltage and current in each load leg (with
added correction components) are in phase.

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Notes

♫♫

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10 Decibels and Bode Plots
10.0 Chapter Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Convert between ordinary and decibel based power and voltage gains.
• Utilize decibel-based voltage and power measurements during circuit analysis.
• Define and graph a general Bode plot.
• Detail the differences between lead and lag networks, and graph Bode plots for each.
• Combine the effects of several lead and lag networks together in order to determine a system Bode plot.

10.1 Introduction
This chapter introduced two related items; the decibel and Bode plots. The decibel measurement scheme is in
wide use, particularly in the fields of audio and communications. We will be examining its advantages over the
ordinary system of measurement used up to now and how to convert values of one form into the other. One of
the more important parameters of a circuit is its frequency response, that is, the way in which the circuit
responds to input signals over a range of frequencies. While we have investigated this to some extent in prior
work, in this chapter we shall take it to its logical conclusion, namely the Bode plot. A Bode plot is, in fact, a
pair of plots; one of relative signal magnitude or gain with respect to frequency and a second detailing the phase
response with respect to frequency. Bode plots are of particular importance in the study of circuits such as
amplifiers and filters, as well as in systems that make use of negative feedback. The gain magnitude plot makes
use of a decibel scale and thus it makes sense to begin our study looking at the decibel system: specifically how
it is defined and its practical use.

10.2 The Decibel

Most people are familiar with the term “decibel” in reference to sound pressure. It’s not uncommon to hear
someone say something such as “It was 110 decibels at the concert last night and my ears are still ringing.” This
popular use is somewhat inaccurate, but does show that decibels indicate some sort of quantity or relative level;
in this case, sound pressure level.

Decibel Representation of Power and Voltage Gains

In its simplest form, the decibel is used to measure system gain, such as power or voltage gain, where gain is
simply the ratio of an output signal to an input signal. For an amplifying circuit, the gain would be greater than

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one, but for purely passive systems it will likely be fractional (i.e., the output
quantity is smaller than the input quantity). For example, a simple voltage divider
might be said to have a “gain” of 0.2, or some such, meaning that the output signal is
only 20% of the input signal. Unlike the ordinary gain measurements, the decibel
form is logarithmic. Because of this, it can be very useful for showing ratios of
change, as well as absolute change. The base unit is the Bel, named after Alexander
Graham Bell, the noted American scientist and inventor. To convert an ordinary gain
to its Bel counterpart, just take the common log (base 10) of the gain. In equation
form:

Bel gain = log10( ordinary gain ) (10.1)

Note that on most hand calculators common log is denoted as “log” while the natural
log is given as “ln”. Unfortunately, some programming languages use “log” to
indicate natural log and “log10” for common log. More than one student has been
bitten by this bug, so be forewarned! As an example, if an amplifier circuit produces
an output power of 200 milliwatts for an input of 10 milliwatts, we would normally
say that it has a power gain of:

P out
G=
Pi n
200 mW
G=
10 mW
G=20

For the Bel version, just take the log of this result.

G '=log10 G
G '=log10 20
G '=1.301

The Bel gain is 1.3 Bels. The term “Bels” is not a unit in the strict sense of the word
(as in “watts”), but is simply used to indicate that this is not an ordinary gain. In
contrast, ordinary power and voltage gains are sometimes given units of W/W and
V/V to distinguish them from Bel gains. Also, note that the symbol for Bel power
gain is G' and not G. All Bel gains are denoted with the following prime (’) notation
to avoid confusion. Because Bels tend to be rather large, we typically use one-tenth
of a Bel as the norm. The result is the decibel (one-tenth Bel). To convert to decibels,
simply multiply the number of Bels by 10. Our gain of 1.3 Bels is equivalent to 13
decibels. The units are commonly shortened to dB. Consequently, we may say:

G '=10 log10 G (10.2)

Where the result is in dB.

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At this point, you may be wondering what the big advantage of the decibel system
is. To answer this, recall a few log identities. Normal multiplication becomes
addition in the log system, and division becomes subtraction. Likewise, powers and
roots become multiplication and division. Because of this, two important things
show up. First, ratios of change become constant offsets in the decibel system, and
second, the entire range of values diminishes in size. The result is that a very wide
range of gains may be represented within a fairly small scope of values, and the
corresponding calculations can become quicker.

There are a couple of dB values that are useful to remember, and are illustrated in
Figure 10.1. With the aid of your calculator, it is very easy to show the following:

dB Value using
Factor G’= 10 log10 G
Figure 10.1
1 0 dB Positive dB factors.
2 3.01 dB
4 6.02 dB
8 9.03 dB
10 10 dB

We can also look at fractional factors (i.e., losses instead of gains, Figure 10.2):

Factor dB Value
0.5 −3.01 dB Figure 10.2
0.25 −6.02 dB Negative dB factors.
0.125 −9.03 dB
0.1 −10 dB

If you look carefully, you will notice that a doubling is represented by an increase of
approximately 3 dB. A factor of 4 is in essence, two doublings. Therefore, it is
equivalent to 3 dB + 3 dB, or 6 dB. Remember, because we are using logs,
multiplication turns into simple addition. In a similar manner, a halving is
represented by approximately −3 dB. The negative sign indicates a reduction. To
simplify things a bit, think of factors of 2 as ±3 dB, the sign indicating whether you
are increasing (multiplying), or decreasing (dividing). As you can see, factors of 10
work out to a very convenient 10 dB. By remembering these two factors, you can
often estimate a dB conversion without the use of your calculator. For instance, we
could rework our initial conversion problem as follows:

• The amplifier has a gain of 20.

• 20 can be written as 2 times 10.
• The factor of 2 is 3 dB, the factor of 10 is 10 dB.
• The answer must be 3 dB + 10 dB, or 13 dB.

Time for a few examples.

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Example 10.1

An amplifier has a power gain of 800. What is the decibel power gain?

G '=10 log10 G
G '=10 log10 800
G '=10×2.903
G '=29.03dB

We could also use our estimation technique:

• G = 800 = 8∙102
• 8 is equivalent to 3 factors of 2, or 2∙2∙2, and can be expressed as 3 dB +
3 dB + 3 dB, which is, of course, 9 dB
• 102 is equivalent to 2 factors of 10, or 10 dB + 10 dB = 20 dB.
Alternately, the power of 2 literally represents 2 Bels, and thus 20 dB.
• The result is 9 dB + 20 dB, or 29 dB

Note that if the leading digit is not a power of 2, the estimation will not be
as precise. For example, if the gain is 850, you know that the decibel gain is
just a bit over 29 dB. You also know that it must be less than 30 dB
(1000=103 which is 3 factors of 10, or 30 dB.) As you can see, by using the
dB form, you tend to concentrate on the magnitude of gain, and not so much
on trailing digits.

Example 10.2

An attenuator reduces signal power by a factor of 10,000. What is this loss

expressed in dB?

1
G '=10 log 10
10,000
G '=10×(−4 )
G '=−40 dB

By using the approximation, we can say,

1
=1 0−4
10,000

The negative exponent tells us we have a loss (negative dB value), and 4

factors of 10 (i.e., 4 Bels).

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