G. M. Koenig - Composition Processes
G. M. Koenig - Composition Processes
G. M. Koenig - Composition Processes
To begin with the last one: can we call a single sound, especially in electronic music, a “composition”
or at least the result of composing? In the early days of electronic music the Cologne studio stressed the
fact that not just a work but each of its individual sounds had to be “composed”; by this they meant a way
of working in which the form of a piece and the form of its sounds should be connected: the proportions
of the piece should be reflected as it were in the proportions of the individual sounds. It is better to call
a list of sound data having no direct connection with the structure of a piece a description of the sounds.
In terms of Cologne aesthetics it is then perfectly possible to talk about the composition of single sounds,
but this brings us to the next question as to what a single sound is. The term comes from instrumental
music, where it is most closely involved with questions of performance and notation technique. To give a
tentative and rough description of the single sound, it is characterized by an unmistakable start (“entry”)
and an unmistakable end and consequently by an unmistakable duration, furthermore by uniform pitch,
loudness and timbre. We can specify this rough description in more details by the following remarks:
• timbre changes in the single sound play such a slight part as to be negligible here,
• changes of loudness in the single sound (crescendo, decrescendo, tremolo) generally belong to per-
formance or expressive characteristics, the above definition (start, end, duration and pitch) being
unaffected; sounds starting “inaudibly” pp or “dying away” to pp are exceptions which are justified
by the general redundance of the context,
• pitch-changes in the single sound (glissando) restrict the above definition more closely; we might
however take into account the fact that glissandi frequently occur as mere transitions between sta-
tionary sounds (especially for singers and string-players), and that independent glissandi contradict-
ing harmonic unambiguity, form, like pitchless percussion sounds or clusters, a category of their
own in which the conditions of beginning, end and duration are still valid.
1
Original republished in Gottfried Michael Koening, Aesthetische Praxis/Texte zur Musik, Band 3, 1968-1991, PFAU Verlag,
1993, pp. 191-210, as Kompositionsprozesse
1. to solve parts of problems or to compose shorter formal sections instead of complete pieces,
2. to try out models greatly simplifying compositional reality and supplying the composer with a basic
scheme which he can elaborate as he feels best,
3. to compose an individual piece for which the composer writes a special program more resembling a
score than a solution for a number of problems.
In the chapter on computer-aided composition, Buxton refers to the SCORE program, MUSICOMP, the
GROOVE system and the POD programs, among others. This list demonstrates how difficult it is to
separate the actual composition of a piece of music from auxiliary actions which are partly predominant
or subordinate in the composition, or which partly overlap. Here we are faced by the issue of whether we
are going to understand composing as the entire process from planning via writing the score (or producing
a tape) right up to performance, or merely as the intellectual act of invention. If we limit ourselves to
the intellectual act of invention, we speak of “composing programs”, of musical grammar, of a score as a
document of intellectual activity, inspiration, creative powers. If on the other hand we envisage the entire
process, it can be divided into a number of single activities which can be performed by different agents:
composers, musicians, generators, computers, not to forget the listeners. These auxiliary services include,
as far as we are dealing with computers:
The computer performs various services in these examples: in the sonic realization of score data it replaces
an electronic studio or an orchestra, whilst not being responsible for the score; dealing with parts of
problems with the help of a subprogram library can be expanded to become a complete description of
the act of composing; the production of graphic scores replaces the copyist, a musical graphic leaves
2
Buxton, W., “A Composer’s Introduction to Computer Music”, Interface 6,2, Amsterdam and Lisse, 1977.
We have been occupied with programmed music at the Institute of Sonology at Utrecht University since
1965; by programmed music we mean the establishment and implementation of systems of rules or gram-
mars, briefly: of programs, independent of the agent setting up or using the programs, independent too of
sound sources. This means that programmed music covers:
1. instrumental scores which a composer writes at his desk on the basis of binding compositional rules,
which do not fundamentall differ from computer programs,
2. electronic compositions which like the said instrumental scores are systematically composed, then
to be “mechanically”, i.e. without additions and cuts, realized on studio apparatus,
3. electronic works produced automatically by the use of studio patches,
4. instrumental scores based on computer programs,
5. tapes based on sound data which were calculated and converted by a computer program.
In this field of programmed music, instrumental and electronic pieces have been realized with and without
the computer, and for some years our lecture schedule has included a series of lectures with this title
alongside the subject of computer sound synthesis which does of course occasionally overlap the first one.
The experience we have gained during the years and which I assume is fairly similar to experience gained
elsewhere can be summarized as follows:
Opinions differ as to what a composing process is, there being all gradations between constructive and
intuitive composers. Investigations in the field of programmed music can only be expected from composers
who already have highly constructive inclinations or previous knowledge or, although keener on free
expression, want to discover a new realm of experience. Among composers with constructive inclinations
one often observes a tendency towards processes which to a fair extent exclude compositional decisions
made in advance, i.e. the input of structure-conditioning data. They prefer to choose what corresponds
to their personal taste from among the automatically produced results. If, for instance, there is a choice
Compositional rules
In the search for compositional rules for making composing programs, there are three main avenues:
The first one leads to the analysis of existing music of the past and present. The premise here is that the
rules, or at least the regularities in a composer’s output or in a stylistic period can be discovered if one
examines the scores closely enough. Regardless of the use of such analyses for musicological research,
say for purposes of comparing styles or classifying anonymous scores, the question remains as to whether
it supplies the required indications for the synthesis of music. Analysis and synthesis do not cover each
other perfectly enough for the results of analysis, if used productively, to lead back to significant music;
analysis proceeds from questions which are not necessarily those of the composer; after all, in order to
arrive at statements of sufficient generality, not only must very complex questions be formulated, but a
vast number of scores be subjected to such an analysis. The historical line of sight would at the same
time be unhistorical, because it would ignore historical development and measure works from different
periods by the same standards. One might also ask whether a composer who wants to create something
new can benefit from frozen models from the past. In all this we must of course not overlook the fact that
knowledge of compositional means as developed during the past centuries and exerting influence right up
to the most advanced composing, is an absolute prerequisite.
Compositional results
Another issue closely linked with that of rules is the compositional result achieved with composing pro-
grams. Rules abstracted from music by means of analysis, introspection or model construction result
primarily in the acoustic (or graphic) equivalent of this abstraction; the relation to music has to be created
again. This, too, can be done in different ways. I expressly mention this retranslation because it should be
already kept in mind when a composing program is being designed. There are various ways of doing this
too; I shall deal with three of them here.
One possible evaluation is the comparison with precedents which are to be imitated by means of the pro-
gram or suitable input data. This particularly applies to programs written on the basis of extensive analysis
of existing music. Apart from the trivial question as to whether the program is carrying out the given rules
correctly so that the composed result contains the desired quantities in the desired combinations, it would
be good to examine whether, when listening to the results, there is an aesthetic experience comparable to
the precedent. I use this vague term, aesthetic experience, to designate the quality which distinguishes,
say, a written score from its performance, or a composer’s material from the constellations in which it
eventually appears in his music.3
Another evaluation refers to the expectations of the writer or user of the program. Especially in the case
of the already mentioned introspection, this does not involve reviewing existing aesthetic products, but
in a way looking forwards for ideals to inspire a composer in his work. The result of such an evaluation
depends on goals which do not refer to precedents with which they can be compared. This evaluation is
consequently less communicable than the first one involving the formalizable comparison of original and
3
see remark 2e
Compositional methods
I shall now turn to some compositional methods which are due to introspection or which might be useful in
constructing models, but which in any case represent generalizations of the concrete process of composing.
Note, though, that they remain within the range of experience of the composer writing, or just using, a
computer program.
Interpolation might be a good name for a method which so to speak pushes forwards from the outer limits
of the total form into the inner areas; applied to the dimension of time this would mean: dividing the total
duration into sections, the sections into groups, the groups into sub-groups and so on, until the durations
of the individual sounds can be established. We could apply this method accordingly to other dimensions
too, by speaking of aspects, partial aspects, variants and modifications.
By contrast, extrapolation would proceed from the interior towards the outside: from the individual sound
to the group of sounds, thence to the super-groups, via sections to the total form. Both methods are
concentric; the formal shells which so to speak enclose the nucleus of the form exist in ideal simultaneity;
the form is not unfolded teleologically but rather pedagogically, the details being presented in such a way
that the relation of the detail to the whole is always quite clear to the listener.
As opposed to these two methods of interpolation and extrapolation there is a third which I should like
to call chronological-associative. The composing process unfolds along the time-axis, thus being put in
the position of the ideal listener. Note that in this way every event is given its irremovable place in time,
whereas in the previous examples of interpolation and extrapolation the events were interchangeable.
A combination of methods more oriented towards time or space can be found in the composition of blocks;
by a block I mean a part of a structure which requires complementing by other blocks but which is still
complete in itself. It is easier to state rules for blocks than for entire pieces, because they are of shorter
duration and do not have to meet the demands made on pieces. Individual blocks can be produced by
means of interpolation, extrapolation or the chronological-associative method; their order is determined
by the composer, i.e. outside the scope of the formalization in the program.
The chronological-associative method can finally be extended to the teleological or goal-oriented method
by means of feedback. Here the composer supplements individual data and syntactic rules describing only
local strategy by objectives with which local events are continually compared. This type of method seems
to approach most closely the real process of composition, but it also involves the greatest difficulties of
representation in program structures.
To close this section, I shall talk about a few practical aspects of writing composing programs, their
accessibility and the forms of data output.
The writer of a composing program must first of all clearly define the points of departure and goals.
Points of departure are chiefly in the relation between computer and composer, i.e. between the musical
knowledge stored in the program and the input data the composer uses to manipulate this knowledge.
Goals are related to the extent and kind of the expected results. The definition of the compositional
method is also important; for instance, rules, probability matrices, weighting factors, chance etc. have to
be taken into account.
The accessibility of composing programs is primarily a question of the available computer system: how
much computer time can be given to users, either in the single-user or time-sharing mode; furthermore it
is a question of program construction: whether input data must be read in or whether the composer in the
course of a dialogue with the computer can continually influence the program; accessibility also depends
on turn-around time, i.e. on how long it takes for the composer to receive the output; it is finally a question
of the program language if only a subprogram library is available and the composer has to write his own
main program.
Data is usually output in the form of tables, musical graphics or sounds. Tables sometimes need to be
laboriously transcribed into musical notation, musical graphics are restricted to standard notation; it is
very practical to have a sound output of a composed text giving the composer a first impression in the three
parameters of pitch, loudness and duration, before he decides to have tables printed or musical graphics
executed. Things are different with systems which do not produce a score but only a sound result; the
above-mentioned criteria of accessibility play an important part here.
To round off this paper on composition processes I shall deal in more detail with a few programs devel-
oped or in the process of being developed at the Institute of Sonology. I shall classify them as composing
programs for language structures (instrumental music) sound-generating programs in the standard ap-
proach, sound-generating programs in the non-standard approach, program-generating systems based on
grammars.
The question as to composition processes inevitably leads to that of the construction of the sounds in com-
posed structures, inasfar as the latter did not precede the former. In sound- generating computer programs
we distinguish, as proposed by Holtzman,6 between the “standard” and the “non-standard” approach. To
quote Holtzman: “Standard approaches are characterized by an implementation process where, given a
description of the sound in terms of some acoustic model, machine instructions are ordered in such a way
so as to simulate the sound described; the non-standard approach, given a set of instructions, relates them
one to another in terms of a system which makes no reference to some super-ordinated model, (. . . ) and the
relationships formed are themselves the description of the sound.” Standard systems are seen as more or
less “top-down” systems where the synthesis technique is conceived of as manipulated in terms of a given
acoustic model. In digital synthesis, programs developed by M. Mathews, i.e. Music IV–V, exemplify the
standard approach to sound synthesis and form the basis of other major synthesis programs, e.g., Vercoe’s
Music 360, Howe’s Music 4BF etc.7 The VOSIM sound output to PR1 and PR2 also belong to standard
systems, and so do programs for a digital hardware Fourier generator, two digital hardware frequency
modulation generators (after Chowning’s model8) and Kaegi’s MIDIM system. This list should also in-
clude Truax’s POD5 and POD6—which there is not enough time to examine. more closely here. I am also
skipping the Fourier generator and a program written by William Matthews for using FMS generators. The
said programs are chiefly for pure sound production and will not be able to take part in the composition
of language structures until they are embodied in suitable composing programs. Unfortunately I cannot
say very much about Kaegi’s MIDIM program, since at the time of writing this paper his manual was
not yet available. It is based—as a sound-generating program—on the VOSIM system9 for the minimal
descripti6n of speech sounds, which has since been expanded to apply to instrumental sounds. At the same
time, however, it is a transition to composing systems, only that here one proceeds from the sound to the
composition instead of the other way round—as far as I know, this is a unique case. This transition is
caused by having a library of instrument definitions continuously compared with the structure-generating
grammar.
Among “non-standard” systems, as produced at the Institute of Sonology, Paul Berg’s “Pile” and my own
SSP can be named. (Kees van Prooijen’s CYCLE program is so similar to PILE that it is sufficient to
mention it.) To clarify these I quote another passage from Holtzman’s article: “. . . Samples are related
only one to another, the relationships created determining the timbre, frequency, etc.; related only one to
6
Holtzman, S.R., A Description of an Automated Digital Sound Synthesis Instrument, unpublished manuscript, April 1978.
7
a) Mathews, M., The Technology of Computer Music, Cambridge, M.I.T. Press, 1969.
b) Vercoe, B., The MUSIC 360 Language for Sound Synthesis, American Society of University Composers Proceedings 6
(1971).
c) Vercoe, B., Reference Manual for the !USIC 360 Language for Digital Sound Synthesis, Cambridge, unpublished
manuscript, Studio for Experimental Music, M.I.T., 1975.
8
Chowning, J.M., The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation, J.A.E.S. 21,7 (1973).
9
Kaegi, W., Tempelaars, S., VOSIM—A New Sound Synthesis System, J.A.E.S. 26,6 (1978).
Program-generating systems
I can be brief on the subject of program-generating systems, because their development is in full swing at
present, and there are no tangible results as yet. Still, investigation into com-posing programs and sound
programs have consequences which are beyond the scope of the individual composition or construction of
sounds. Although composing programs do contain fundamental statements about musical language sys-
tems, as well as personal strategies, they have neither been systematized, nor do such composing programs
permit systematic research. It looks as though a super-individual approach must be found.
10
see remark 6
11
a) Berg, P., PILE2—A Description of the Language, Utrecht, unpublished manuscript, Institute of Sonology, January 1978.
b) Berg, P., A User’s Manual for SSP, Utrecht, unpublished manuscript, Institute of Sonology, May 1978.
12
Holtzman, S.R., Music as System, DAI Working Paper 26, Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh,
April 1978.