INTRODUCTION

Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. It helps educators in

formulating beliefs, arguments, and assumptions and in making value
judgments. Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also helps in
answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students
should learn, and what materials and methods should be used. Philosophy
provides the starting point . . . in decision making about education in its
totality (Ogwara, et. al, 2013).

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS 

 How is philosophy a “crucial determinant” in curriculum trends and

development?
 What are the broad categories of philosophy, and what beliefs are
espoused in each?
 What do you perceive as the pros and cons of each philosophy?
 What is your philosophy of teaching and learning as it relates to
curriculum?
 How does your philosophy of teaching and learning drive your future
personal and professional choices?

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

From Curriculum Studies—pp. 50-62

Welcome to the philosophical foundations of curriculum. In this section, we

will explore the philosophical foundations which include idealism, realism,
pragmatism, existentialism, and educational philosophies which are
perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism.

Let us start by addressing the question: “What is philosophy?” Many sources

consider philosophy to be the “search for truth;” pursuit of wisdom or
knowledge, especially ultimate reality (Oxford Dictionary). Locke defines
philosophy as a “process of liberation from ignorance and prejudice.”

According to Doll (1992: 28), philosophy has the multifaceted effect of helping
us to:
  indicate in general what we mean,
 make what we mean more specific and definite, and
 develop what we mean into a useful construct.

Thus, philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the

curriculum development process by helping clarify our thought process. And,
because philosophy is a process of the mind, there are a variety of
philosophical thoughts that need consideration.

To start with, there are two broad categories of philosophy: the traditional and
modern philosophies. In each of those categories, there are major
philosophies such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism, as
well as educational philosophies arising from those major philosophies. These
include perennialism and essentialism in the traditional category, while
progressivism and reconstructionism fall under the modern philosophies.

IDEALISM

Idealism is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems, whose main

proponent was the Greek philosopher, Plato. Idealism advocates that ideas
constitute what is real and permanent, i.e. ideas are the only true reality.
Idealism also emphasizes the spiritual component of man, i.e., man is a
spiritual being.

According to this philosophy, education is the process of development of a

person, his/her conscious and spiritual self. The ultimate responsibility for
learning rests with learners. The school exists to develop character, increase
knowledge, and cultivate aesthetic taste. The teacher is expected to be a
model, friend, and guide to the learners.

REALISM

The realist’s school of thought is traced back to Aristotle, another main, Greek
philosopher. According to this philosophy, matter or objects that we see exist
by themselves, i.e., they exist absolutely with or without man. In other words,
matter is not a construct of the human mind.

The following principles are therefore upheld:

 the principle of independence of matter,

  the principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization, this
means that law and order prevail in the universe,
 the principle of the world as real as discovered by the scientist.

Thus, it is possible to have objective knowledge of the world. Our senses are
also a source of knowledge. The philosophy also advocates that values exist
objectively; they are absolute and eternal.

What then are the educational implication of realism? Following are a few:

 The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature

and inner workings of the universe.
 Education is essentially transmission of inherited culture from one
generation to another.
 Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain elements of culture.
 Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to
discover important principles and theoretical insights.

Based on this philosophy, there should be a core curriculum for every learner.

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism is an educational philosophy that says that education should be about life and growth.
That is, teachers should be teaching students things that are practical for life and encourage them to
grow into better people. Many famous educators, including John Dewey, were pragmatists.

The main proponent of pragmatism was John Dewey (1859 -1952). The
proponents of pragmatism were reacting against what they considered as
failures or shortcomings of the traditional school system, supported by
idealism and realism. Some of the criticisms included:

 Traditional curriculum content included a lot of meaningless and

needless content.
 Traditional curriculum did not give a “utility education.”
 The curriculum was rigid and did not cater to individual needs of
particular learners.

Pragmatists, therefore, advocated for reality being considered as instrumental,

i.e., used as an instrument to solve problems. Philosophy is therefore built on
practical usefulness, i.e., “cash value of ideas.” Hence, truth is what works,
what turns out all night. Truth also should be the idea that has been tested,
verified, and found effective in solving problems.

What are the educational implications of pragmatism?

Learning from Experience

If experience is the source of knowledge, it is also a source of education. We

learn by doing. However, not every experience is educative; experience must
be productive, i.e., produce growth.

Educational Aim: Develop Learners’ Ability to Deal with Future

Problems

That is, to develop intelligence to solve problems. According to Dewey, the

process involves:

 identifying the problem,

 formatting a hypothesis(es),
 gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the problem,
 testing each hypothesis, and
 storing the unity of knowledge for use in some similar situations.

Curriculum

Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on problems that arise out of daily

living. School is therefore an extension of home and community.

Methods of Study

These should include:

 problem-solving,
 activity,
 projects, and
 group involvement.

Teachers should be a resource and guide; thus a motivator. Teaching must be

child-centered.
For pragmatists, all subjects are vital. However, sciences are favored because
the child is able to explore new knowledge.

EXISTENTIALISM

According to Akinpelu (1981), existentialism is defined as “the philosophy of

existence.” Sartre (1957) also states that “man is nothing else but what he
makes of himself.” A person is therefore free to choose the type of life to live
and is in control of his/her destiny. An individual is thus free to make choices
and be responsible for them.

Reality, therefore, is subjective. Values emphasized are those that the

individual chooses freely according to his/her perception.

IMPLICATIONS OF EXISTENTIALISM ON EDUCATION

AND CURRICULUM

The main implication is an emphasis on knowledge and abilities for personal

choice. Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and principles of the human
condition and acts of choice-making.

Curriculum should have a broad range of subject matter from which learners
can choose, i.e., electives, and an inclusion of subjects that involve:

 human emotions,
 aesthetics, and also,
 philosophical subjects.

Most important is that philosophy can free learners to expand their learning
and what they believe. Thus, there should be no standard guides for teachers
to follow, given that learners are unique.

The following video links philosophies to curricular designs and design

considerations:
Adapted from Ornstein’s and Oliva’s Educational Philosophies. From the dissertation of Dr.
David E. Diehl entitled “A Study of
Faculty-Related Variables and Competence in Integrating Instructional Technologies into
Pedagogical Practices.”
©2005-06. Revised 2006. Reprinted by permission

Idealism is a philosophical tradition that emphasizes the belief in human progress. It is an optimistic
philosophy, which holds that there is more good than bad people and that humanity can be improved by
education. Idealism is a philosophical system that emphasizes the role of consciousness in constituting
reality.

Idealist curriculum comprises of physical, intellectual and spiritual activities that will enable a
man to develop fully. It therefore reflects a diverse experiences . 32. IDEALISM & METHOD OF TEACHING
• The teaching method is the weakest point in the idealist philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY OF IDEALISM & EDUCATION

1. PHILOSOPHY OF IDEALISM & EDUCATION DR. MAHESWARI JAIKUMAR

[email protected]

2. PROPONENTS • Plato. • Augustine. • Descartes. • Kant & Hegel. • Tagore. • Gandhi.

3. PLATO

4. TAGORE

5. GANDHI

6. HEGEL

7. DESCARTES

8. WHAT IS IDEALISM

9. • According to idealism a man is born with a spiritual self. He understands its true nature only through
education.

10. •Idealist believe that it is only through the agency of education the ideals of race and its cultural
patterns are preserved, transmitted and modified subsequently in light of the new situation.
11. IDEALISM & AIMS OF EDUCATION • The aims of education are as follows: 1. EXALTATION OF HUMAN
PERSONALITY. 2. UNIVERSAL EDUCATION.

12. 3. DEVELOPMENT OF INITIATIVE & CREATIVE POWER. 4. ACQUISITION AND ENRICHMENT OF

CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT.

13. 5.DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL SENSE. 6. SELF REALIZATION.

14. EXALTATION OF HUMAN PERSONALITY • Idealism believes that human personality is of supreme
value and constitutes the noblest work of God.

15. • Therefore the supreme aim of education is to exalt the self which implies self-realization.
Education should help an individual to become a perfect pattern.

16. • Since man is a spiritual being “ the divine in man” should be unfolded and brought his
consciousness by means of education.

17. UNIVERSAL EDUCATION • Self realization should not be an experience of a chosen few. Since it is
universal all the individuals should realize self, and education should aim at this.

18. DEVELOPMENT OF INITIATIVE • Man should modify his environment according to his own purpose,
needs through his initiative and creative skill.

19. • Education must foster inventive power of a man to ensure his mastery over the material given to
him.

20. • Education should form character, strength of mind, expand intellect by which one stands on his
own feet and manifest divinity.

21. ENRICHMENT OF CULTURE • Idealist believe that man himself is the creator of cultural environment.
Religion, morality, art, literature, mathematics and science are the product of man’s moral & intellectual
and aesthetic activity.

22. • Therefore education should aim at teaching the child the importance of culture and its
components. He should contribute to his culture and make every effort to preserve it.

23. ENRICHMENT OF CULTURE

24. DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL SENSE • The most important aim of education is to develop moral sense
so that he may be able to distinguish between the right and the wrong.

25. • Education should develop the will power of the child so that he may follow the good and reject the
evil. These virtues can be developed by correct appreciation of truth.

26. SELF-REALIZATION • The function of education is to enable individuals to realize self so as to

establish harmony between his nature and the ultimate nature of this universe.
27. IDEALISM AND EDUCATION

28. IDEALISM & CURRICULUM • The idealist approach the curriculum from the domain of ideas and
ideals.

29. • Preference is given to the whole human race. Idealism aims at developing a true sense of
appreciation of truth, goodness, beauty, (ie) attainment of spiritual perfection.

30. • Idealist philosophy insists on the creation of sound mind in a sound body, neccessitates the
maintenance of bodily health through proper physical activities.

31. • Idealist curriculum comprises of physical, intellectual and spiritual activities that will enable a man
to develop fully. It therefore reflects a diverse experiences .

32. IDEALISM & METHOD OF TEACHING • The teaching method is the weakest point in the idealist
philosophy.

33. • Idealist school of thought advocates in employing traditional methods of teaching.

34. • Self activities are advocated for the learner. Instructions should be given based on the child’s
psychology, according to Pestalozzi.

35. • Frobel developed the methodology of play which is known as “kindergarten”. He regards school as
a garden and teacher as a gardener.

36. • Idealism advocates five teaching techniques : Questioning, Discussion, Lecture method, Single &
group projects & Imitation.

37. IDEALISM & DISCIPLINE • Idealist do not advocate a free discipline as it may lead child astray. This
school of thought advocates strict discipline for self-realization.

38. • Teacher’s guidance is necessary at every step, as he would impress upon the child the importance
of higher values.

39. • The teacher has to provide such an environment to children to realize higher values. A deserved
reward for a child who has learnt to live under self-imposed regulation is advocated.

40. IDEALISM & TEACHER • The position of a teacher in idealism is very high. An idealist teacher is the
one who has attained self- realization.

41. • The teacher is a practical person and leads an ideal and righteous life. His personality is a source of
inspiration foe his pupil.

42. • A teacher is a friend, philosopher & guide. He shows the learner the path to acquire knowledge.
Realism and Method of Teaching: Realism aims to prepare learners for real and practical life. It calls
for teaching-learning methodologies on the basis of subjects and interests of the learners. Inductive
Method: Inductive method of teaching enables the learners to generalize the truth from a particular fact

Aims of the education according to realism are to give the pupil a complete knowledge and
understanding of human society, human nature, motives, and institutions. ... The principle of activity
and play or activity based curriculum

Realism means a belief or theory which looks upon the world as it seems to us to be a mere
phenomenon.”——Swami Ram Tirth.

Introduction: Realism is the doctrine that is associated with the study of the world we live in. It is a
philosophy away from the world of ideas or spiritual things. In Realism the word ‘real’ denotes actual or
the existing. It indicates those things or events which exist in the world in its own right. It opposes the
thing or event which is imaginary or fictitious. It holds the view that knowledge acquired through senses
is true and what we observe and perceive through our own senses is real and the true entity of the
world. It says that physical world is objective and factual whereas personal feelings and desires are
subjective and secondary. That is why this philosophy is also known as objectivism. Aristotle is generally
regarded as the father of Realism. John Locke, Erasmas, Rabelias, Comenius, Bertrand Russell, Francis
Bacon, Milton are the chief protagonists of Realism.

                         According to C.V. Good, “Realism is the doctrine that objective reality or the material
universe exists independently of conscious mind, its nature and properties are being affected by being
known.”

Various aspects of Realistic Education: There are various aspects of education such as curriculum,
teaching methodology, discipline, aims of education and the like which are influenced by realistic
education.

Realism and Aims of Education: Realism explains the aims of education in different perspectives.

Preparation for a Happy and Successful Life: The first and most important aim of realistic education is to
prepare learners for a happy and successful life. The American educationist, Franklin Bobit has given
following activities for achieving happiness in life:

Activities related to language

Activities concerned with hygiene

Citizenship activities

Social activities

Leisure activities

Religious activities

Vocational activities

Activities of mental health

Activities related to vocational behaviour

Activities related to race-preservation

Realism and Curriculum: Realism recommends the designing of curriculum for realistic
education which enables learners to solve different problems of life and to lead a happy and successful
life.

Realism and Teachers: Realism is in favour of training of teachers before they involve in
teaching. Realism believes that teachers should have full knowledge of the subject matter, psychology of
learners and the scientific way of delivering education. The teachers must encourage the learners to
observe and experiment the natural objects and phenomena so that learners will be able to find out
new facts with respect of construction of knowledge. They should inform learners about the scientific
discoveries, inventions and researches in different fields of knowledge

Existentialism
Existentialism is a post-WWII philosophy that has had influence in curriculum. This philosophy's
tenets include people choices define who they are. ... Other tenets of this philosophy is individualism,
freedom of choice, and personal fulfillment. Choice is what often leads to self-fulfillment

Existentialism. This philosophy focuses on human free will. These philosophers

Philosophical Foundations for Curriculum Decision: A Reflective Analysis 11

consider that students as individuals are responsible to outline their own future. Students are

the center of the classroom, and they decide what to study, how to study, when to study, why

to study. They are responsible for their education though school and the teachers provide

support to their learning. Existentialism puts emphasis on the responsibility of people (or

students) to make their choices, and their choices define their existence (who they are).
Teachers and schools play a significant role to layout the curriculum structure very flexibly

for students grade-wise. This philosophy recognizes individual differences among students.

The teacher functions as a facilitator to help each student learn in his or her own pace. Since

this philosophy focuses the individualism, teachers use differentiated curriculum, and

differentiated instruction in order to provide an opportunity for all students to make progress

from where they are, and in their own pace. J.P. Sartre is the proponent of this philosophy.

According to existentialism, students determine curriculum because they are responsible for

making choices of what they learn (Martin & Loomis, 2007). I think, this philosophy

considers curriculum as currere in which students decide their goals making choices from

available educational pathways.

"Childhood is not adulthood; childhood is playing and no child ever gets enough play. The

Summerhill theory is that when a child has played enough he will start to work and face

difficulties, and I claim that this theory has been vindicated in our pupils' ability to do a good job

even when it involves a lot of unpleasant work."

• A. S. Neill

Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism.' '

• Jean Paul Sartre

Existentialism as a Philosophical Term

The existentialist movement in education is based on an intellectual attitude that philosophers

term existentialism. Born in nineteenth-century Europe, existentialism is associated with such

diverse thinkers as

• Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a passionate Christian, and

• Friedrich Nietzsche (1811 1900)

who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist and coined the phrase God is dead. While the famous

existentialists would passionately disagree with one another on many basic philosophical
issues, what they shared was a respect for individualism. In particular, they argued that

traditional approaches to philosophy do not adequately respect the unique concerns of each

individual.

Jean Paul Sartre's classic formulation of existentialism--that "existence precedes essence"--

means that there exists no universal, inborn human nature. We are born and exist, and then we

ourselves freely determine our essence (that is, our innermost nature). Some philosophers

commonly associated with the existentialist tradition never fully adopted the "existence precedes

essence" principle. Nevertheless, that principle is fundamental to the educational existentialist

movement.

Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy

Just as its namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational

existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to

education. Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth

about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for

determining for themselves what is "true" or "false," "right" or "wrong," "beautiful" or "ugly." For

the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to

develop as we see fit.

In the existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students

understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility

for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. The teacher's role is to help students define their own

essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in

which they may freely choose their own preferred way. Since feeling is not divorced from reason

in decision making, the existentialist demands the education of the whole person, not just the

mind.

Although many existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more
than other educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject

matter. In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to

choose.

To the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the humanities

are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing

students with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and selfexpression.

For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon

the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students'

own behavior. In contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences may be deemphasized,

presumably because their subject matter would be considered "cold," "dry,"

"objective," and therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover, vocational education is

regarded more as a means of teaching students about themselves and their potential than of

earning a livelihood. In teaching art, existentialism encourages individual creativity and

imagination more than copying and imitating established models.

Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and includes

a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and

honestly. Although elements of existentialism occasionally appear in public schools, this

philosophy has found wider acceptance in private schools and ill alternative public schools
The main difference between Tyler and Wheeler model of curriculum is that Tyler
model of curriculum is a linear model while Wheeler model of curriculum is a cyclic model. Tyler model
and Wheeler model are two models for curriculum development. ... Wheeler model, on the other hand,
is a cyclic model based on Tyle model.

The objectives model derives content and methodology from objectives, whereas the process model
derives content and methodology from curriculum aim. The evaluation results in the objectives model
improve and influence all stages, including the curriculum idea, objectives, content, material and
methodology.