ACCA - F8 Audit and Assurance (INT) - Study Text (PDFDrive)

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AUDIT AND ASSURANCE X
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In this edition approved by ACCA

x We discuss the best strategies for studying for ACCA exams
x We highlight the most important elements in the syllabus and the key skills you will need
x We signpost how each chapter links to the syllabus and the study guide
x We provide lots of exam focus points demonstrating what the examiner will want you to do
x We emphasise key points in regular fast forward summaries
x We test your knowledge of what you've studied in quick quizzes
x We examine your understanding in our exam question bank
x We reference all the important topics in our full index
BPP's i-Learn and i-Pass products also support this paper.
FOR EXAMS IN 2010

First edition 2007
Fourth edition September 2009
ISBN 9780 7517 7609 6

(Previous ISBN 9870 7517 6372 0)
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is available from the British Library
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ii
Contents Page
Sir Jamshaid Bhatti is best for F8, P7 , P1
Introduction
How the BPP ACCA-approved Study Text can help you pass v
Studying F8 vii
The exam paper x
Part A Audit framework and regulation

1 Audit and other assurance engagements 3
2 Statutory audit and regulation 17
3 Corporate governance 35
4 Professional ethics 49
Part B Internal audit

5 Internal audit 75
Part C Planning and risk assessment

6 Risk assessment 93
7 Audit planning and documentation 117
8 Introduction to audit evidence 129
Part D Internal control

9 Internal control 141
10 Tests of controls 159
Part E Audit evidence

11 Audit procedures and sampling 191
12 Non-current assets 215
13 Inventory 225
14 Receivables 243
15 Cash and bank 257
16 Liabilities and capital 267
17 Not-for-profit organisations 281
Part F Review
18 Audit review and finalisation 295
Part G Reporting
19 Reports 313
Exam question bank 335
Exam answer bank 355
Index 393
Review form and free prize draw
Contents iii
A note about copyright
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iv
How the BPP ACCA-approved Study Text can help you
pass your exams – AND help you with your Practical
Experience Requirement!
NEW FEATURE – the PER alert!

Before you can qualify as an ACCA member, you do not only have to pass all your exams but also fulfil a
three year practical experience requirement (PER). To help you to recognise areas of the syllabus that
you might be able to apply in the workplace to achieve different performance objectives, we have
introduced the ‘PER alert’ feature. You will find this feature throughout the Study Text to remind you that
what you are learning to pass your ACCA exams is equally useful to the fulfilment of the PER
requirement.
Tackling studying
Studying can be a daunting prospect, particularly when you have lots of other commitments. The
different features of the text, the purposes of which are explained fully on the Chapter features page, will
help you whilst studying and improve your chances of exam success.
Developing exam awareness

Our Texts are completely focused on helping you pass your exam.
Our advice on Studying F8 outlines the content of the paper, the necessary skills the examiner expects
you to demonstrate and any brought forward knowledge you are expected to have.
Exam focus points are included within the chapters to highlight when and how specific topics were
examined, or how they might be examined in the future.
Using the Syllabus and Study Guide

You can find the syllabus, Study Guide and other useful resources for F8 on the ACCA website:
www.accaglobal.com/students/study_exams/qualifications/acca_choose/acca/fundamental/aa/
At the time of publication the Syllabus and Study Guide for the 2010 exams were not available and so
references to and extracts from these documents in this Study Text are to the Syllabus and Study Guide
for the 2009 exams. This Study Text has been fully updated to reflect the 2010 versions, however, and
these will be available on the ACCA website in due course.
The Study Text covers all aspects of the syllabus to ensure you are as fully prepared for the exam as
possible.
Testing what you can do

Testing yourself helps you develop the skills you need to pass the exam and also confirms that you can
recall what you have learnt.
We include Questions – lots of them - both within chapters and in the Exam Question Bank, as well as
Quick Quizzes at the end of each chapter to test your knowledge of the chapter content.
Introduction v
Chapter features
Each chapter contains a number of helpful features to guide you through each topic.
Topic list
Topic list Syllabus reference
Tells you what you will be studying in this chapter and the
relevant section numbers, together the ACCA syllabus
references.
Puts the chapter content in the context of the syllabus as

Introduction a whole.
Study Guide Links the chapter content with ACCA guidance.
Highlights how examinable the chapter content is likely to

Exam Guide be and the ways in which it could be examined.
Knowledge brought forward from earlier studies What you are assumed to know from previous
studies/exams.
Summarises the content of main chapter headings,
FAST FORWARD
allowing you to preview and review each section easily.
Demonstrate how to apply key knowledge and
Examples techniques.
Definitions of important concepts that can often earn you
Key terms
easy marks in exams.
Tell you when and how specific topics were examined, or
Exam focus points
how they may be examined in the future.
Formulae that are not given in the exam but which have to
Formula to learn
be learnt.
This is a new feature that gives you a useful indication of
syllabus areas that closely relate to performance
objectives in your Practical Experience Requirement
(PER).
Give you essential practice of techniques covered in the

Question chapter.
Case Study Provide real world examples of theories and techniques.
A full list of the Fast Forwards included in the chapter,

Chapter Roundup
providing an easy source of review.
A quick test of your knowledge of the main topics in the

Quick Quiz chapter.
Found at the back of the Study Text with more

Exam Question Bank comprehensive chapter questions. Cross referenced for
easy navigation.
vi Introduction
Studying F8
The F8 Audit and Assurance exam tests students’ knowledge of auditing and assurance theory but also,
very importantly, their ability to apply that knowledge to scenarios that they might well come across in
their auditing careers.
There will be a new examiner for F8 from June 2010, Pami Bahl, who will be issuing her examiner's
approach article to F8 later in 2009. You should look out for this article on the ACCA’s website as it will
provide useful information about the F8 exam from her perspective.
All questions on this paper are compulsory so any topic from across the syllabus could be examined. As
stated above, it is essential that students possess both the knowledge of auditing and the ability to apply
that knowledge to situations that could arise in real life.
1 What F8 is about
The purpose of the F8 syllabus is to develop knowledge and understanding of the process of carrying out
the assurance engagement and its application in the context of the professional regulatory framework.
The syllabus is divided into seven main sections:
(a) Audit framework and regulation
The syllabus introduces the concept of assurance engagements such as the external audit and the
different levels of assurance that can be provided. You need to understand the purpose of an
external audit and the respective roles of auditors and management. This part of the syllabus also
explains the importance of good corporate governance within an entity. The regulatory framework
is also explained, as well as the key area of professional ethics.
(b) Internal audit
In this part of the syllabus we explain the nature of internal audit and describe its role as part of
overall performance management and good corporate governance within an entity. It is essential
that you understand the differences between internal and external audit at this stage.
(c) Planning and risk assessment
Planning and risk assessment are key stages of the external audit because it is the information
and knowledge gained at this time that determine the audit approach to take. We also develop
further the concept of materiality which was introduced briefly in the first part of the syllabus.
(d) Internal control
In this part of the syllabus you need to be able to describe and evaluate information systems and
internal controls to identify and communicate control risks and their potential consequences to the
entity's management, making appropriate recommendations to mitigate those risks. We cover key
areas of purchases, sales, payroll, inventory, cash and non-current assets.
(e) Audit evidence
Audit conclusions need to be supported by sufficient and appropriate audit evidence. This area of
the syllabus assesses the reliability of various types and sources of audit evidence and also
examines in detail the audit of specific items (non-current assets, inventory, receivables, bank and
cash and payables). We also look at the special considerations for the audit of not-for-profit
organisations such as charities, which could come up in a scenario-based question.
(f) Review
Towards the end of an external audit, the auditor needs to consider the concept of going concern
and subsequent events which could impact on the financial statements. We also look at the audit
evidence provided by written representations from management and consider the impact of any
unadjusted errors on the accounts.
Introduction vii
(g) Reporting
The outcome of the external audit is the audit report which sets out the auditor's opinion on the
financial statements. This section of the syllabus looks at the various types of audit report that can
be issued and what each of them means. It also looks at reports to management, which are a by-
product of the audit but nevertheless very important for high-lighting areas of weakness to
management.
2 What skills are required?

F8 builds on the knowledge and understanding gained from Paper F3 Financial Accounting.
You must possess good technical knowledge of audit and financial reporting but one of the key skills you
will need to is to be able to apply your knowledge to the question.
Another important skill you will need is to be able to explain key ideas, techniques or approaches.
Explaining means providing simple definitions and including the reasons why these approaches have been
developed. Your explanations need to be clearly focused on the particular scenario in the question.
Question 1 of the paper will be scenario-based for 30 marks, broken down into several parts. It is
important to read the question requirements carefully and make sure that you answer the question set.
This applies equally to all the other questions in the paper too. Question 2 is a knowledge-based question
for 10 marks but here again, make sure you answer the question set, bearing in mind also the number of
marks available for each part of the question – it's far too easy to be tempted to write down everything you
know about a particular aspect of the syllabus but this is counter-productive if the question is only worth
three marks and you have spent 15 minutes on it.
3 How to improve your chances of passing

Cover the whole syllabus
All the questions in paper F8 are compulsory. It is therefore very important that you cover the whole
syllabus in your studies – question spotting is unwise and not recommended. Question 2 on the paper is a
knowledge-based question for 10 marks which could be drawn from across the syllabus and is an
opportunity for you to score the more straightforward marks on this paper.
Question practice
Question practice is a key part of your revision and will allow you to develop your application skills. Use
the questions in the question bank in this Study Text and later in the BPP Practice and Revision Kit for F8.
Analysis and answering of questions
You need to consider the question requirements carefully so that you answer the question set. For
example, if the requirements ask you to 'explain', make sure that you do so, rather than just produce a list
of bullet points.
When answering questions, you need to ensure that your answers are relevant to the scenario in the
question – do not just produce a general answer covering everything you know about a particular area.
This is an inefficient use of your time and will not score you many marks.
Employ good exam technique
The following aspects of exam technique are particularly relevant in this paper.
• Sub-headings and leaving spaces between paragraphs help to demonstrate that your answer is
clearly structured and emphasise the points you are making.
• Short paragraphs (2-3 sentences) help you keep to the point, but avoid 2-3 word bullet points.
• Time management is key in this paper but less likely to be a problem if you do the longest
question (Question 1) first.
• Reading the question carefully first is important in ensuring that you answer the question set.
viii Introduction
4 Brought forward knowledge
The F8 syllabus assumes knowledge brought forward form F3 Financial Accounting. It's important to be
comfortable with your financial reporting studies because such aspects are likely to come up in scenario-
based questions such as subsequent events. ACCA therefore recommends that you sit papers in order so
you have the knowledge from Paper F7 Financial Reporting which will also be an advantage when taking
Paper F8. However, please note that you do not have to have passed F7 in order to sit F8.
Introduction ix
The exam paper
Format of the paper
The exam is a three-hour paper consisting of five compulsory questions. You also have 15 minutes for
reading and planning.
The majority of the questions will be discursive but some questions involving computational elements
could be set from time to time. The questions will cover all areas of the syllabus.
Question 1 will be a scenario-based question worth 30 marks. Question 2 will be a knowledge-based
question worth 10 marks. The remaining three questions will be worth 20 marks each.
Guidance
Question 1 is very likely to test areas from the statement of comprehensive income and the statement of
financial position. Internal audit/review could be examined in questions 1 or 4. Audit completion and audit
reports will possibly be tested in question 5 in a scenario context. Question 2 is a knowledge-based
question worth 10 marks and split into parts. This question can test topics from across the F8 syllabus.
Other key areas are:
• Application of professional ethics
• Audit planning
• Risk identification in systems and reporting weaknesses to management
• Engagement risk
x Introduction
Analysis of past papers – F8 Audit and Assurance
The table below provides details of when each element of the syllabus has been examined and the
question number and section in which each element appeared. Further details can be found in the Exam
Guide sections and Exam Focus Points in the relevant chapters.
Covered
in Text June Dec June Dec Pilot
chapter 2009 2008 2008 2007 Paper
AUDIT FRAMEWORK AND REGULATION

1 Audit and other assurance engagements 5d
2 Statutory audit and regulation 2b
3 Corporate governance 4b 3b, c
4 Professional ethics 5b 3a 2a 2a, 3a
INTERNAL AUDIT
5 Internal audit 4a 3b 4 3a 4b, c
PLANNING AND RISK ASSESSMENT
6 Risk assessment 3, 5b 4 4c
7 Audit planning and documentation 1a
8 Introduction to audit evidence 2b 1d 2a, c
INTERNAL CONTROL
9 Internal control 1a 1c, d 1c, 4a
10 Tests of controls 1b 1a, b 1b 1c 1c, 4a
AUDIT EVIDENCE
11 Audit procedures and sampling 1c, 2a, 3 1c, 2a 3a, b 1d, 4 1d, 2b
12 Non-current assets 2c
13 Inventory 1b
14 Receivables 1d 1c, d 4a
15 Cash and bank 3c 3b
16 Liabilities and capital 1a 1a, b
17 Not-for-profit organisations 4b, c
REVIEW
18 Audit review and finalisation 5a 5 2b, 5 2b, 5a 5
REPORTING
19 Reports 2c 5 2c, 5
Introduction xi
xii Introduction
P
A
R
T
Audit framework and

regulation
1
2
Audit and other
assurance
engagements

1 The purpose of external audit engagements A1
2 Accountability, stewardship and agency A1
3 Types of assurance services A1
4 Assurance and reports A1, A2
Introduction
In the first section of this chapter we consider why there is a need for
assurance in relation to financial and non-financial information. The main
reason an assurance service such as external audit is required is the fact that
the ownership and management of a company are not necessarily one and the
same.
In Section 2 we introduce the concepts of agency, accountability and
stewardship and consider reporting as a means of communication to the
different stakeholders who are interested in the financial statements of the
company.
It is important to understand what other assurance services exist in addition to
the external audit. The key assurance services which the F8 syllabus
concentrates on are the external audit (statutory and non-statutory), review
engagements and internal audit assignments.
The effect of audits and reviews is that the stakeholders of an entity are given a
level of assurance as to the quality of the information in the accounts. The
degrees of assurance provided by external audits and other engagements are
discussed in Section 4.
The remainder of the Study Text builds on the themes introduced in this
chapter.
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3
Study guide
Intellectual level
A1 The concept of audit and other assurance engagements
(a) Identify and describe the objective and general principles of external audit 2
engagements
(b) Explain the nature and development of audit and other assurance 1
engagements
(c) Discuss the concepts of accountability, stewardship and agency 2
(d) Discuss the concepts of materiality, true and fair presentation and 2
reasonable assurance
(e) Explain reporting as a means of communication to different stakeholders 1
(f) Explain the level of assurance provided by audit and other review 1
assignments
A2 Statutory audits
(f) Describe the limitations of statutory audits 1
Exam guide
This chapter explains the basis of auditing and the distinction between audit and other review
assignments. The mechanics of these issues are expanded in more detail throughout the text. Questions in
the exam could draw on matters in this chapter, in conjunction with the knowledge you will obtain later in
the Study Text. The June 2007 paper had a four mark question for explaining what negative assurance is
and how it differs from the assurance provided by a statutory audit.
1 The purpose of external audit engagements

FAST FORWARD
An external audit is a type of assurance engagement that is carried out by an auditor to give an
independent opinion on a set of financial statements.
1.1 Objective of external audit

Key term The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an opinion on whether
the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial
reporting framework. An audit of financial statements is an example of an assurance engagement.
The purpose of an external audit is to enable auditors to give an opinion on the financial statements.
Whilst an audit might produce by-products such as advice to the directors on how to run the business, its
objective is solely to report to shareholders.
1.1.1 Statutory and non-statutory audits

In most countries, audits are required under national statute for many undertakings, including limited
liability companies. Other organisations and entities requiring a statutory audit may include charities,
investment businesses and trade unions. In the UK for example, under registered companies’ legislation
(currently the Companies Act 2006), most companies are required to have an audit.
The statutory audit can bring various advantages to the company and shareholders. The key benefit to
shareholders is the impartial view provided by the auditors. However, the company also benefits from
professional accountants reviewing the accounts and system as part of the audit. Advantages might
include recommendations being made in relation to accounting and control systems and the possibility
that auditors might detect fraud and error.
4 1: Audit and other assurance engagements ~ Part A Audit framework and regulation
Non-statutory audits are performed by independent auditors because the company’s owners, proprietors,
members, trustees, professional and governing bodies or other interested parties want them, rather than
because the law requires them. In consequence, auditing may extend to every type of undertaking which
produces accounts, including clubs, charities (some of these will require statutory audits as well), sole
traders and partnerships. Some of these organisations do not operate for profit, and this has a specific
impact on the nature of their audit. The audit of not-for-profit organisations will be considered in more
detail in Chapter 17.
1.1.2 Advantages of the non-statutory audit

In addition to the advantages common to all forms of audit, a non-statutory audit can bring other advantages.
For example, the audit of the accounts of a partnership may be seen to have the following advantages.
(a) It can provide a means of settling accounts between the partners.
(b) Where audited accounts are available this may make the accounts more acceptable to the taxation
authorities when it comes to agreeing an individual partner's liability to tax.
(c) The sale of the business or the negotiation of loan or overdraft facilities may be facilitated if the
firm is able to produce audited accounts.
(d) An audit on behalf of a 'sleeping partner' is useful since generally such a person will have little
other means of checking the accounts of the business or confirming the share of profits due to him
or her.
2 Accountability, stewardship and agency

FAST FORWARD
An audit provides assurance to the shareholders and other stakeholders of a company on the financial
statements because it is independent and impartial.
2.1 The nature and development of audit and other assurance

engagements
The accounting and auditing professions have come under the public spotlight for many years now and as
a result of certain events, many changes have occurred in relation to audit and assurance engagements.
As a result of the stock market bubble of the late 1990s and speculation over the future of ‘dotcom’
companies, many countries experienced huge corporate financial scandals and frauds. The bubble burst
in 2000 and was followed by the revelation that senior management at Enron, a US energy company, had
been deceiving investors by fraudulently overstating profitability. Its auditor, Arthur Andersen, was shown
to have lacked objectivity in evaluating its accounting methods. This led to the demise of Arthur Andersen
in 2002.
Other companies that were also involved in corporate frauds included WorldCom, Parmalat, Cable &
Wireless and Xerox, to name but a few. The subsequent fallout of these frauds was a lack of confidence in
the way companies were run and audited. In the USA, this resulted in the Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002 which
has radically changed the regulation of the accounting profession in the USA and influenced such issues
worldwide.
The above events illustrate the importance of auditing and other assurance engagements to companies.
We will go on to demonstrate this below.
Part A Audit framework and regulation ~ 1: Audit and other assurance engagements 5
2.2 Accountability and stewardship
The key reason for having an audit or review can be seen by working through the following case study.
Case Study
Vera decides to set up a business selling flowers. She gets up early in the morning, visits the market, and
then sets up a stall by the side of the road. For the first year, all goes well. She sells all the flowers she is
able to buy and she derives some income from the business.
However, Vera feels that she could sell more flowers if she was able to transport more to the place where
she sells them, and she also knows that there are several other roads nearby where she could sell flowers,
if she could be in two places at once. She could achieve these two things by buying a van and by
employing other people to sell flowers in other locations.
Vera needs more money to achieve this expansion of her business. She decides to ask her rich friend
Peter to invest in the business.
Peter can see the potential of Vera's business and wants to invest, but he doesn't want to be involved in
the management of the business. He also does not want to have ultimate liability for the debts of the
business if it fails. He therefore suggests that they set up a limited company. He will own the majority of
the shares and be entitled to dividends. Vera will be managing director and be paid a salary for her work.
At the end of the first year of trading as a limited company, Peter receives a copy of the financial
statements. Profits are lower than expected, so his dividend will not be a large as he had hoped. He knows
that Vera is paid a salary so does not care as much as him that profits are low.
Peter is concerned by the level of profits and feels that he wants further assurance on the accounts. He
doesn't know whether they give a true reflection on the last year's trading, particularly as the profits do not
seem as high as those Vera had predicted when he agreed to invest.
The solution is that the assurance Peter is seeking can be given by an independent audit or review of the
financial statements. An auditor can provide the two things that Peter requires:
x A knowledgeable review of the company's business and of the accounts
x An impartial view, since Vera's view might be biased
Other people will also view the company's accounts with interest, for example:
x Creditors of the company
x Taxation authorities
The various parties interested in the accounts of a company are sometimes referred to as stakeholders.
Although they will each judge the accounts by different criteria, they will all gain assurance from learning
that the accounts they are reading have been subject to an independent report.
Directors Shareholders Employees
STAKEHOLDERS
Creditors The public Taxation authorities
The example above is a simple one. In practice companies may have thousands of shareholders and may
not know the management personally. It is therefore important that directors are accountable to
shareholders. Directors act as stewards of the shareholders' investments. They are agents of the
shareholders.
Vera: Manager Agent Steward Directors: Management
Accountable Accountable
to to
Peter (owner)
Shareholders (owners)
Key terms Accountability is the quality or state of being accountable, that is, being required or expected to justify
actions and decisions. It suggests an obligation or willingness to accept responsibility for one's actions.
Stewardship refers to the duties and obligations of a person who manages another person's property.
Agents are people employed or used to provide a particular service. In the case of a company, the people
being used to provide the service of managing the business also have the second role of being people in
their own right trying to maximise their personal wealth.
You may ask, 'what are the directors accountable for?' It is important to understand the answer to this
question. The directors are accountable for the shareholders' investment. The shareholders have bought
shares in that company (they have invested). They expect a return from their investment. As the directors
manage the company, they are in a position to affect that return.
Capital
growth
Shareholder
buys shares expects
Dividends
The exact nature of the return expected by the shareholder will depend on the type of company he or she
has chosen to invest in: that is part of his or her investment risk analysis. Certain issues are true of any
such investment, however. For example, if the directors mismanage the company, and it goes bankrupt, it
will neither provide a source of future dividends, nor will it create capital growth in the investment –
indeed, the opposite is true and the original investment may even be lost.
Accountability therefore covers a range of issues:
Financial Profits Going concern
statements warnings disclosure
Communication
Directors'
accountability
Investment protection
Internal controls Risk policies
These issues are often discussed under the umbrella title 'corporate governance', where 'governance'
indicates the management (governing) role of the directors, and 'corporate' indicates that the issue relates
to companies (bodies corporate). This is illustrated by our scenario, where we saw Vera taking up a
corporate governance position in relation to Peter. We shall consider corporate governance further in
Chapter 3.
2.3 Assurance provision

Many of the requirements in relation to corporate governance necessitate communication between the
directors and the shareholders.
As discussed in Section 1, directors of all companies are usually required to produce financial
statements annually which give a true and fair view of the affairs of the company and its profit or loss for
the period. They are also encouraged to communicate with shareholders on matters relating to directors'
pay and benefits (this is required by law in the case of public limited companies), going concern and
management of risks.
But how will the shareholders know whether the directors' communications are accurate, or present a fair
picture? We are back to the problem that Peter had in the scenario we presented at the beginning of this
section. He knew that Vera's view might be biased in a different way to his own, and he sought assurance
on the information he was presented with.
Key terms An assurance engagement is one in which a practitioner expresses a conclusion designed to enhance the
degree of confidence of the intended users other than the responsible party about the outcome of the
evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria. The outcome of the evaluation or
measurement of a subject matter is the information that results from applying the criteria.
Intended users are the person, persons or class of persons for whom the practitioner prepares the
assurance report.
The responsible party can be one of the intended users, but not the only one.
In the above definition, the term ‘practitioner’ relates to an individual who provides professional services
in an audit firm (i.e. the term ‘practitioner’ is used because assurance services other than external audits
are also provided by audit firms).
The ‘responsible party’ is the person (or persons) who is responsible for the subject matter (in a direct
reporting engagement) or subject matter information of the assurance engagement. Subject matter can
take many forms which include financial performance (e.g. historical financial information), non-financial
performance (e.g. key performance indicators), processes (e.g. internal control) and behaviour (e.g.
compliance with laws and regulations).
We will look at different types of assurance engagements in the following section.
3 Types of assurance services

FAST FORWARD
Assurance services include a range of assignments, from external audits to review engagements.
3.1 Review engagements

As discussed earlier in this chapter, an audit can be used to give assurance to a variety of stakeholders on
many issues. However, an audit is an exercise designed to give a high level of assurance and involves a
high degree of testing and therefore cost. In some cases, stakeholders may find that they receive
sufficient assurance about an issue from a less detailed engagement, for example, a review. A review can
provide a cost-efficient alternative to an audit where an audit is not required by law.
Key term The objective of a review engagement is to enable an auditor to state whether, on the basis of procedures
which do not provide all the evidence that would be required in an audit, anything has come to the
auditor's attention that causes the auditor to believe that the financial statements are not prepared, in all
material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework.
The major outcome for recipients of a review engagement is that the level of assurance they gain from it
is not as high as from an audit, although the procedures carried out in a review engagement are similar to
an audit.
3.2 Internal audit reviews

FAST FORWARD
Internal auditors are employed as part of an organisation's system of controls. Their responsibilities are
determined by management and may be wide-ranging.
Key term Internal auditing is an appraisal or monitoring activity established or provided as a service to the entity.
Its functions include examining, evaluating and monitoring the adequacy and effectiveness of internal
control.
Up to now we have discussed assurance services where an independent outsider provides an opinion on
financial information. Assurance can also be provided to management (and by implication, to other
parties) by internal auditors.
As we shall see in Chapter 3, as part of good corporate governance all directors are advised to review the
effectiveness of the company's risk management and internal control systems. They should also consider
the need for an internal audit function to help them carry out their duties.
Larger organisations may therefore appoint full-time staff whose function is to monitor and report on the
running of the company's operations. Internal audit staff members are one type of control. Although
some of the work carried out by internal auditors is similar to that performed by external auditors, there
are important distinctions between the two functions in terms of their responsibilities, scope and
relationship with the company, and we will examine these in more detail in Chapter 5.
4 Assurance and reports

FAST FORWARD
The auditors' report on company financial statements is expressed in terms of truth and fairness. This is
generally taken to mean that financial statements:
x Are factual
x Are free from bias
x Reflect the commercial substance of the business's transactions
4.1 Truth and fairness
Below is an example of an auditor's report on an entity's financial statements. This is an unmodified
report (which means the financial statements are true and fair and properly prepared).
INDEPENDENT AUDITOR’S REPORT

[Appropriate addressee]
Report on the financial statements
We have audited the financial statements of ABC company, which comprise the balance sheet* as at 31
December, 20X1, and the income statement*, statement of changes in equity and cash flow statement*
for the year then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory
information.
Management's responsibility for the financial statements
Management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these financial statements in
accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards, and for such internal control as management
determines is necessary to enable the preparation of financial statements that are free from material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.
Auditor's responsibility
Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit. We
conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. Those standards require that
we comply with ethical requirements and plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about
whether the financial statements are free from material misstatement.
An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in
the financial statements. The procedures selected depend on the auditor's judgement, including the
assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to fraud or
error. In making those risk assessments, the auditor considers internal control relevant to the entity's
preparation and fair presentation of the financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are
appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of
the entity's internal control. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies
used and the reasonableness of accounting estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the
overall presentation of the financial statements.
We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our
audit opinion.
Opinion
In our opinion the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, (or give a true and fair view
of) the financial position of ABC Company as at December 31, 20X1, and (of) its financial performance and
its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards.
Report on other legal and regulatory requirements
[Form and content of this section of the auditor's report will vary depending on the nature of the auditor's
other reporting responsibilities.]
[Auditor’s signature]
[Date of the auditor’s report]
[Auditor’s address]
*Note: This example of an auditor’s report is in accordance with the relevant auditing standard. However,
you may also come across the term ‘statement of financial position’ (for ‘balance sheet’), ‘statement of
comprehensive income’ (for ‘income statement’) and ‘statement of cash flows’ (for ‘cash flow statement’)
in accordance with IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements.
Modified audit reports may arise because of a number of different reasons and are discussed in greater
depth in Chapter 19.
External auditors give an opinion on the truth and fairness of financial statements. This is not an opinion
of absolute correctness. 'True' and 'fair' are not defined in law or audit guidance, but the following
definitions are generally accepted.
Key terms True: Information is factual and conforms with reality. In addition the information conforms with required
standards and law. The financial statements have been correctly extracted from the books and records.
Fair: Information is free from discrimination and bias and in compliance with expected standards and
rules. The accounts should reflect the commercial substance of the company's underlying transactions.
The auditor's report refers to the fact that the audit is planned and performed to obtain ‘reasonable
assurance’ whether the financial statements are free from material misstatement. This is because the
auditor cannot check everything and therefore can only provide 'reasonable' not 'absolute' assurance.
Key term An audit gives the reader reasonable assurance on the truth and fairness of the financial statements,
which is a high, but not absolute, level of assurance. The auditor’s report does not guarantee that the
financial statements are correct, but that they are true and fair within a reasonable margin of error.
One of the reasons that an auditor does not give absolute assurance is because of the inherent limitations
of audit. We discuss these limitations below.
4.2 Limitations of audit and materiality

FAST FORWARD
External audits give reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from material
misstatement.
The assurance given by auditors is governed by the fact that auditors use judgement in deciding what
audit procedures to use and what conclusions to draw, and also by the limitations of every audit. These
are illustrated in the following diagram.
Risk Audit opinion Standard format

assessment Ch 7 can be limiting
Ch 19
What to Auditing is not Audit report

test objective. Judgements has inherent
have to be limitations Layman may not
Ch 6
made LIMITATIONS OF understand ‘audit
How much
AUDITING Ch 19 jargon’.
to test Ch 18
Whether errors
are representative Up-to-date position
T and historic position
Audit report is
What to H may be different
Not all items issued a long time
sample E
in the FS are after the year-end
R
Sampling tested E
risk Ch 6 F
O
R
Non-routine E Estimates
Limitations in Audit evidence
transactions sometimes indicates
accounting and
control systems what is probable,
not certain
Human Ch 9 Ch 12 Judgements
error
Possibility
Possibility of of controls Intentions
collusion in override Auditors can never certify
fraud Cost/benefit that the accounts are
trade off correct. They can only
ever express an
opinion
Misstatements which are significant to readers may exist in financial statements and auditors will plan their
work on this basis, that is, with professional scepticism. The concept of 'significance to readers' is the
concept of materiality (which will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 6).
Key term Materiality is an expression of the relative significance or importance of a particular matter in the context
of the financial statements as a whole. A matter is material if its omission or misstatement would
reasonably influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements.
Materiality depends on the size of the item or error judged in the particular circumstances of its omission
or misstatement.
The auditors' task is to decide whether the financial statements show a true and fair view. The auditors
are not responsible for establishing whether the financial statements are correct in every particular. This is
because it can take a great deal of time and trouble to check the accuracy of even a very small transaction
and the resulting benefit may not justify the effort. Also financial accounting inevitably involves a degree of
estimation which means that financial statements can never be completely precise.
Although the definition of materiality refers to the decisions of the addressees of the audit report (the
company's members), their decisions may well be influenced by other entities who use the financial
statements, for example, the bank.
4.3 Levels of assurance

FAST FORWARD
The degree of assurance given by the impartial professional will depend on the nature of the exercise
being carried out.
'Assurance' here means the auditors' satisfaction as to the reliability of the assertion made by one
party for use by another party.
Key term Negative assurance is when an auditor gives an assurance that nothing has come to his attention which
indicates that the financial statements have not been prepared according to the framework. In other words,
he gives his assurance in the absence of any evidence to the contrary.
Directors prepare financial statements for the benefit of members. They assert that the financial statements give
a true and fair view. The auditors provide assurance on that assertion. To provide such assurance, the
auditors must:
x Assess risk
x Plan audit procedures
x Conduct audit procedures
x Assess results
x Express an opinion
The degree of satisfaction achieved and, therefore, the level of assurance which may be provided, is
determined by the nature of procedures performed and their results.
An external audit can be distinguished from other engagements in the following ways.
(a) External audit engagement: the auditor provides a high, but not absolute, level of assurance that
the information audited is free of material misstatement. This is expressed positively in the audit
report as reasonable assurance.
(b) Review engagement: the auditor provides a limited level of assurance that the information subject
to review is free of material misstatement. This is expressed in the form of negative assurance.
(c) Agreed-upon procedures: the auditor simply provides a report of the factual findings of the
engagement agreed by the auditor, entity and any appropriate third parties, so no assurance is
expressed. Users of the report must instead judge for themselves the auditor's procedures and
findings and draw their own conclusions.
(d) Compilation engagement: the practitioner is engaged to use his accounting expertise (as opposed
to auditing expertise) to collect, classify and summarise financial information. No assurance is
expressed.
The following table summarises the different types of engagement that can be carried out by practitioners.
Engagement Type of assurance provided Examples
External audit Reasonable – Statutory external audit
Review Negative – Review of interim financial statements
Agreed-upon procedures None – Examination of statement of financial
position
– Examination of segmental sales and
profit
Compilation None – Preparation of financial statements
– Preparation of tax returns
Exam focus
point You must understand the levels of assurance provided by different types of engagement as you could be
asked to explain this in the exam.
Chapter Roundup
x An external audit is a type of assurance engagement that is carried out by an auditor to give an
independent opinion on a set of financial statements.
x An audit provides assurance to the shareholders and other stakeholders of a company on the financial
statements because it is independent and impartial.
x Assurance services include a range of assignments, from external audits to review engagements.
x Internal auditors are employed as part of an organisation’s system of controls. Their responsibilities are
determined by management and may be wide-ranging.
x The auditors' report on company financial statements is expressed in terms of truth and fairness. This is
generally taken to mean that financial statements:
– Are factual
– Are free from bias
– Reflect the commercial substance of the business's transactions
x External audits give reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from material
misstatement.
x The degree of assurance given by the impartial professional will depend on the nature of the exercise
being carried out.
Quick Quiz
1 Complete the IFAC definition of an audit:
The objective of an ……………… of …………….. …………… is to enable the auditor to ………… an
………….. on whether the financial statements are prepared, in all ……………. respects, in accordance
with an identified financial reporting framework.
2 Link the correct definition to each term.
(i) Accountable (iv) True
(ii) Steward (v) Fair
(iii) Agent (vi) Materiality
(a) An expression of the relative significance or importance of a particular matter in the context of the
financial statements as a whole.
(b) A person employed to provide a particular service.
(c) Factual and conforming with reality. In conformity with relevant standards and law and correctly
extracted from accounting records.
(d) A person employed to manage other people's property.
(e) Free from discrimination and bias and in compliance with expected standards and rules. Reflecting
the commercial substance of underlying transactions.
(f) Being required or expected to justify actions and decisions.
3 What level of assurance is provided by a review engagement?
4 Which of the following is not an assurance engagement?
x External audit
x Compilation engagement
x Review engagement
x Agreed-upon procedures
Answers to Quick Quiz
1 Audit, financial statements, express, opinion, material
2 (i) (f) (iv) (c)
(ii) (d) (v) (e)
(iii) (b) (vi) (a)
3 Negative assurance
4 Compilation engagements and agreed-upon procedures are not assurance engagements.
Now try the question below from the Exam Question Bank
Number Level Marks Time

Q1 Introductory n/a n/a
Statutory audit and
regulation

1 Objective of statutory audits and the audit opinion A2
2 Appointment, removal and resignation of auditors A2
3 Regulation of auditors A2
4 International Standards on Auditing A3
Introduction
This chapter describes the aims and objectives of the statutory audit and the
regulatory environment within which it takes place.
The regulatory framework for auditors discussed in this chapter and the
regulation of auditors by bodies such as the ACCA are very important.
This chapter considers in detail the regulatory aspects of the appointment,
removal and resignation of auditors.
It ends with an examination of International Standards on Auditing which
auditors must comply with when carrying out an external audit.
17
Study guide
Intellectual level
A2 Statutory audits
(a) Describe the regulatory environment within which statutory audits take 1
place
(b) Discuss the reasons and mechanisms for the regulation of auditors 2
(c) Explain the statutory regulations governing the appointment, removal and 1
resignation of auditors
(d) Discuss the types of opinion provided in statutory audits 2
(e) State the objectives and principle activities of statutory audit and assess its 1
value (eg in assisting management to reduce risk and improve performance)
(f) Describe the limitations of statutory audits 1
A3 The regulatory environment and corporate governance
(a) Explain the development and status of International Standards on Auditing 1
(b) Explain the relationship between International Standards on Auditing and 1
national standards
Exam guide
An understanding of the overall regulatory regime is essential to an understanding of external audit and
could be examined as part of a longer question on audit planning or in conjunction with a question on
professional ethics. It could also come up as a short factual part in question 2 as it did in December 2008
as a three mark question on the rights of auditors.
1 Objective of statutory audits and the audit opinion

FAST FORWARD
Most companies are required to have an external audit by law, but some small companies are exempt. The
outcome of the audit is the audit report, which sets out the auditor’s opinion on the financial statements
1.1 The statutory audit opinion

As introduced in Chapter 1, the purpose of an audit is for the auditor to express an opinion on the financial
statements.
The audit opinion may also imply certain things are true, because otherwise the audit report would have
mentioned them. For example, in the UK, such implications include the following:
x Adequate accounting records have been kept.
x Returns adequate for the audit have been received from branches not visited.
x The accounts agree with the accounting records and returns.
x All information and explanations have been received that the auditor believes are necessary for
the purposes of the audit.
x Details of directors' emoluments and other benefits have been correctly disclosed in the financial
statements.
x Particulars of loans and other transactions in favour of directors and others have been correctly in
the financial statements.
18 2: Statutory audit and regulation ~ Part A Audit framework and regulation

1.1.1 The value of the statutory audit
We have discussed already the principal aim of the external audit – to provide an independent opinion on
the truth and fairness of the financial statements. However, an external audit can be invaluable to an entity
because it may enhance the credibility of the financial statements because they will have been examined
independently.
The external audit can also highlight other issues as a result of work relating to the financial statements in
respect of deficiencies in the internal control system of the entity, which can be improved by the entity’s
management. We will look at this aspect later in this Study Text.
For these reasons, even where entities are not obliged to undergo an external audit, they may choose to do
so, regardless of the costs involved (time and money) because the benefits outweigh those costs.
1.2 Small company audit exemption

The majority of companies are required by national law to have an audit. A key exception to this
requirement is that given to small companies. Many EC countries have a small company exemption from
audit that is based on the turnover and total assets at the year-end.
Note that unless otherwise stated, companies in the F8 paper will require an audit.
In most countries, the majority of companies are very small, employing few staff (if any) and are often
owner-managed. This is very different from a large business where the owners (the shareholders) devolve
the day-to-day running of the business to a group of managers or directors.
Key term A small entity is any enterprise in which:

(a) There is concentration of ownership and management in a small number of individuals (often a
single individual), and
(b) One or more of the following are also found:
(i) Few sources of income and uncomplicated activities
(ii) Unsophisticated record-keeping
(iii) Limited internal controls together with the potential for management override of internal
controls
There has long been a debate over the benefits of audit to small entities. Where such entities are owned by
the same people that manage them, there is significantly less value in an independent review of the
stewardship of the managers than where management and ownership are separate.
The case for retaining the small company audit rests on the value of the statutory audit to those who have
an interest in audited financial statements, that is, the users of the financial statements. From the
viewpoint of each type of user, the arguments for and against abolition are summarised in the table below.
User For abolition Against abolition

Shareholders Benefit may not be worth the Provides reassurance to
cost shareholders not involved in
managing.
Assists in fair valuation of share
in unquoted companies
Bank and other institutions or Doubt over whether banks rely Banks may rely on audited
lenders on audited financial statements financial statements for making
more than unaudited ones loans and reviewing value of
security
Other payables Limited reliance in practice as Provides opportunity to assess
financial statements filed too late strength of customers
Part A Audit framework and regulation ~ 2: Statutory audit and regulation 19

User For abolition Against abolition
Taxation authorities Little evidence whether reliance Taxation authorities may rely on
placed on audited financial audited financial statements to
statements calculate corporation tax and
check returns
Employees Little evidence that employees Employees entitled to assess
make assessments of financial financial statements for wage
statements for wage negotiations negotiations and considering
future viability of their employer
Management System review and management Useful independent check on
consultancy review would be of accounting systems and
greater benefit and less or similar recommendations for improving
cost to audit those systems
1.3 Auditor rights and duties

FAST FORWARD
The law gives auditors both rights and duties. This allows auditors to have sufficient power to carry out an
independent and effective audit.
The audit is primarily a statutory concept, and eligibility to conduct an audit is often set down in statute.
Similarly, the rights and duties of auditors can be set down in law, to ensure that the auditors have
sufficient power to carry out an effective audit. In this section we look at the rights and duties of auditors
in the UK as an example (but bear in mind that these may be different in other jurisdictions). The relevant
legislation in the UK is the Companies Act 2006.
1.3.1 Duties
The auditors are required to report on every balance sheet (statement of financial position) and profit and
loss account (statement of comprehensive income) laid before the company in general meeting.
The auditors must consider the following.
Compliance with legislation Whether the financial statements have been prepared in accordance
with the relevant legislation
Truth and fairness of accounts Whether the balance sheet shows a true and fair view of the
company's affairs at the end of the period and the profit and loss
account (and cash flow statement) show a true and fair view of the
results for the period
Adequate accounting records Whether adequate accounting records have been kept and returns
and returns adequate for the audit received from branches not visited by the
auditor
Agreement of accounts to Whether the accounts are in agreement with the accounting records
records and returns
Consistency of other information Whether the information in the directors' report is consistent with the
financial statements
Directors' benefits Whether disclosure of directors' benefits has been made in
accordance with the Companies Act 2006

1.3.2 Rights
The auditors must have certain rights to enable them to carry out their duties effectively.
The principal rights auditors should have, excepting those dealing with resignation or removal, are set out
in the table below.
Access to records A right of access at all times to the books, accounts and vouchers of
the company (in whatever form they are held)
Information and explanations A right to require from the company's officers such information and
explanations as they think necessary for the performance of their
duties as auditors
Attendance at/notices of general A right to attend any general meetings of the company and to receive
meetings all notices of and other communications relating to such meetings
which any member of the company is entitled to receive
Attendance at/notices of general A right to be heard at general meetings which they attend on any part
meetings of the business that concerns them as auditors
Rights in relation to written A right to receive a copy of any written resolution proposed
resolutions
If auditors have not received all the information and explanations they consider necessary, they should
state this fact in their audit report.
The Companies Act 2006 makes it an offence for a company's officer knowingly or recklessly to make a
statement in any form to an auditor which:
x Conveys or purports to convey any information or explanation required by the auditor and
x Is misleading, false or deceptive in a material particular
2 Appointment, removal and resignation of auditors

FAST FORWARD
There are various legal and professional requirements on appointment, resignation and removal of
auditors which must be followed.
2.1 Appointment
The auditors should be appointed by and therefore answerable to the shareholders. The table below
shows what the position should ideally be, again using the UK as an example. The Companies Act 2006
sets out the rules for appointment of auditors. An auditor must be appointed for each financial year unless
the directors reasonably resolve otherwise on the grounds that audited financial statements are unlikely to
be required. The table summarises the appointment of auditors for UK public companies.
AUDITOR APPOINTMENT (UK)

Directors Can appoint auditor:
(a) Before company's first period for appointing auditors
(b) Following a period during which the company did not have an
auditor (as exempt), at any time before the next period for
appointing auditors
(c) To fill a casual vacancy
Members Can appoint auditor by ordinary resolution:
(a) During a period for appointing auditors
(b) If company should have appointed auditor during a period for
appointing auditors but failed to do so
(c) If directors failed to do so
Secretary of State Can appoint auditors if no auditors are appointed per above

2.1.1 Remuneration
The remuneration of the auditors, which will include auditors' expenses, will be fixed by whoever made the
appointment.
However the auditors' remuneration is fixed, in many countries it must be disclosed in the annual financial
statements of the company.
2.2 Resignation and removal

The legal requirements for resignation and removal of auditors using the UK as an example are discussed
below.
It is important that auditors know the procedures because as part of their client acceptance, they have a
duty to ensure the old auditors were properly removed from office.
RESIGNATION OF AUDITORS (UK)
1 Resignation procedures Auditors deposit written notice together with statement of circumstances
relevant to members/creditors or statement that no circumstances exist. A
statement of circumstance must always be submitted for a quoted
company, even if the auditor considers that there are no circumstances
that should be brought to the attention of members or creditors.
2 Notice of resignation Sent by company to regulatory authority
3 Statement of Sent by:
circumstances (a) Auditors to regulatory authority
(b) Company to everyone entitled to receive a copy of accounts
4 Convening of general Auditors can require directors to call an extraordinary general meeting
meeting to discuss circumstances of resignation.
Directors must send out notice for meeting within 21 days of having
received requisition by auditors.
5 Statement prior to Auditors may require company to circulate (different) statement of
general meeting circumstances to everyone entitled to notice of meeting.
6 Other rights of auditors Can receive all notices that relate to:
(a) A general meeting at which their term of office would have expired
(b) A general meeting where casual vacancy caused by their resignation
to be filled
Can speak at these meetings on any matter which concerns them as auditors
REMOVAL OF AUDITORS (UK)

1 Notice of removal Either special notice (28 days) with copy sent to auditor
Or if elective resolution in place, written resolution to terminate auditors'
appointment
Directors must convene meeting to take place within reasonable time.
2 Representations Auditors can make representations on why they ought to stay in office,
and may require company to state in notice that representations have been
made and send copy to members.
3 If resolution passed (a) Company must notify regulatory authority
(b) Auditors must deposit statement of circumstances at company's
registered office within 14 days of ceasing to hold office. Statement
must be sent to regulatory authority.
4 Auditor rights Can receive notice of and speak at:
(a) General meeting at which their term of office would have expired
(b) General meeting where casual vacancy caused by their removal is to
be filled

The UK’s Companies Act 2006 places a requirement on auditors to notify the appropriate audit authority in
certain circumstances on leaving office.
If it is a major audit (quoted company or major public interest company), the notification must be given
whenever an auditor ceases to hold office.
If it is not a major audit, the notification is only required if the auditor is leaving before the end of his term
of office.
The appropriate audit authority is:
x Secretary of State or delegated body (such as the UK Professional Oversight Board) if a major audit
x Recognised Supervisory Body (eg ACCA) for other audits
Notice must inform the appropriate audit authority that the auditor has ceased to hold office and be
accompanied by a statement of circumstances or no circumstances.
3 Regulation of auditors
FAST FORWARD
Requirements for the eligibility, registration and training of auditors are extremely important as they are
designed to maintain standards in the auditing profession.
3.1 National level

The accounting and auditing profession varies in structure from country to country. In some countries
accountants and auditors are subject to strict legislative regulation, while in others the profession is
allowed to regulate itself. We cannot look at every country, but some of the examples below will show you
the divergence of structure and we can make some general points.
3.1.1 United Kingdom

In the UK there are a number of different accountancy, or accountancy-related, institutes and associations,
such as the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA), the Institute of Chartered Accountants
in England and Wales (ICAEW) and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS). All these
bodies vary from each other but they are all characterised by various attributes:
x Stringent entrance requirements (examinations and practical experience)
x Strict code of ethics
x Technical updating of members
3.1.2 France
In France, the accounting profession is split into two distinct organisations:
x Accountants (Ordre des Experts Comptables et des Comptables Agréés)
x Auditors (Compagnie Nationale des Commissaires aux Comptes)
Most members of the auditors' organisation are also members of the more important accountants'
organisation. Examinations, work experience and articles are similar to those of the UK accountancy
bodies. The profession's main influence is through the issue of non-mandatory opinions and
recommendations of accounting principles relevant to the implementation of the National Plan.
3.1.3 Germany
The main professional body in Germany is the Institute of Certified Public Accountants (Institut der
Wirtschaftsprüfer). Members of this institute carry out all the statutory audits, and are required to have
very high educational and experience qualifications. The Institute issues a form of auditing standard but
this is tied very closely to legislation. As well as auditing, members are mainly involved in tax and
business management, with no obvious significant role in establishing financial accounting principles and
practices. There is no independent accounting standard-setting body.

3.1.4 USA
In America, accountants are members of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), a
private sector body. Although the Securities and Exchange Commission in the USA can prescribe
accounting standards for listed companies, it relies on the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB),
an independent body, to set such standards. In turn, FASB keeps in close contact with the AICPA, which
issues guidance on US standards and which is closely involved in their development.
3.1.5 Ghana
In Ghana, the Institute of Chartered Accountants (Ghana), established in 1963, is the sole body charged
with the regulation of the accountancy profession. Its members are the only persons recognised under the
country’s companies’ legislation to carry out the audit of company financial statements. The institute is
governed by a council of 11 chartered accountants.
3.1.6 Singapore
The Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Singapore (ICPAS) is the national organisation of the
accountancy profession in Singapore. It was established in 1963 and its objective is to develop, support
and enhance the integrity, status and interests of the accountancy profession in Singapore. ICPAS has a
Joint Scheme of Examination agreement in place with ACCA.
3.1.7 General points

It can be seen from the above paragraphs that the accounting and auditing profession in most Western
Countries is regulated by legislation to some extent. In the UK and the USA the profession effectively
regulates itself, ie regulation is devolved from statute to the private bodies involved in the accountancy
profession. In many European countries, statutory control by governments is much more direct.
3.2 EC member states

Persons carrying out audits in EC member states must have the permission of the relevant authorities. In
the UK the relevant authorities are Recognised Supervisory Bodies (RSBs). As well as giving authority,
RSBs in the UK supervise and monitor auditors. In other countries however supervising and monitoring is
carried out by a state body or by the national government.
The Companies Act 2006 defines an RSB as a body established in the UK which maintains and enforces
rules as to the
x Eligibility of persons for appointment as a statutory auditor
x Conduct of statutory audit work
The following bodies are all RSBs:
x ACCA
x ICAEW
x ICAS
x ICAI (Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland)
x AAPA (Association of Authorised Public Accountants)
Professional qualifications, which will be prerequisites for membership of an RSB, are offered by
Recognised Qualifying Bodies (RQBs) approved by the government. RQBs include ACCA, ICAEW and
ICAS amongst others.

3.3 International level
Regulations governing auditors will, in most countries, be most important at the national level.
International regulation, however, can play a major part by:
(a) Setting minimum standards and requirements for auditors
(b) Providing guidance for those countries without a well-developed national regulatory framework
(c) Aiding intra-country recognition of professional accountancy qualifications
3.3.1 International Federation of Accountants (IFAC)

IFAC, based in New York, is a non-profit, non-governmental, non-political international organisation of
accountancy bodies. The ACCA is a member of IFAC.
IFAC came into being in the 1970s as a result of proposals put forward and eventually approved by the
International Congress of Accountants. IFAC's mission is:
'The development and enhancement of the profession to enable it to provide services of
consistently high quality in the public interest'.
IFAC co-operates with member bodies, regional organisations of accountancy bodies and other world
organisations. Through such co-operation, IFAC initiates, co-ordinates and guides efforts to achieve
international technical, ethical and educational pronouncements for the accountancy profession.
Any accountancy body may join IFAC if it is recognised by law or general consensus within its own
country as a substantial national organisation of good standing within the accountancy profession.
Members of IFAC automatically become members of the International Accounting Standards Committee
Foundation, which is an independent not-for-profit, private sector organisation which sets international
financial reporting standards through its standard-setting body, the International Accounting Standards
Board.
3.4 Regulation, monitoring and supervision

Each country's regulation of external audits will differ. Most regimes do have certain common elements,
which we examine in detail below. Briefly these are as follows.
(a) Education and work experience: the IFAC has issued guidance on this.
(b) Eligibility: there may well be statutory rules determining who can act as auditors. Membership of
an appropriate body is likely to be one criteria.
(c) Supervision and monitoring: these activities came under particular scrutiny in a number of
countries during the 1990s. Questions were asked about why auditors have failed to identify
impending corporate failures, and whether therefore they were being regulated strongly enough.
The supervision regime has come under particular scrutiny in countries where regulation and
supervision is by the auditors' own professional body (self-regulation). Suggestions have been
made in these countries that supervision ought to be by external government agencies.
3.5 Education, examinations and experience

IFAC issued the Statement of Policy of Council Recognition of Professional Accountancy Qualifications
primarily to tackle the problems of intra-country recognition of qualifications. It sets minimum standards
for accountancy qualifications. It looks at three main areas.
3.5.1 Education
The theoretical knowledge to be contained in the body of knowledge of accountants should include
compulsory subjects (such as audit, consolidated accounts and general accounting) and relevant subjects
(such as law and economics). Accountants should have covered these subjects in a breadth and depth
sufficient to enable them to perform their duties to the expected standard.

3.5.2 Examinations
Accountants should demonstrate that they have passed an examination of professional competence. This
examination must assess not only the necessary level of theoretical knowledge but also the ability to
apply that knowledge competently in a practical situation. Objective evaluation of professional
examinations is a key requirement.
3.5.3 Experience
It is crucial to any professional to have not only a sound theoretical knowledge but also to be able to apply
that knowledge competently in the world of work.
It is suggested that, prior to qualification, an individual should have completed a minimum of two years
approved and properly supervised practical experience primarily in the area of audit and accountancy and
in a suitable professional environment.
3.6 Eligibility to act as auditor

Eligibility to act as an auditor is likely to arise from membership of some kind of regulatory body.
Bodies of this type will offer qualifications and set up rules to ensure compliance with any statutory
requirements related to auditors. In this way national governments will control who may act as an auditor
to limited liability companies, or to any other body requiring a statutory audit.
In some countries, regulation is devolved to professional accountancy bodies by the statutory authorities.
On the other hand, the regulatory body could be a direct extension of national government.
The regulatory body should have rules to ensure that those eligible for appointment as a company auditor
are either:
x Individuals holding an appropriate qualification or
x Firms controlled by qualified persons
Regulatory bodies should also have procedures to maintain the competence of members. The regulatory
body's rules should:
x Ensure that only fit and proper persons are appointed as company auditors
x Ensure that company audit work is conducted properly and with professional integrity
x Include rules as to the technical standards of company audit work (eg following International
Standards on Auditing)
x Ensure that eligible persons maintain an appropriate level of competence
x Ensure that all firms eligible under its rules have arrangements to prevent:
– Individuals not holding an appropriate qualification
– Persons who are not members of the firm from being able to exert influence over an audit
which would be likely to affect the independence or integrity of the audit
The regulatory body's rules should provide for adequate monitoring and enforcement of compliance with
its rules and should include provisions relating to:
x Admission and expulsion of members
x Investigation of complaints against members
x Compulsory professional indemnity insurance
Up-to-date lists of approved auditors and their names and addresses should be maintained by the
regulatory body. This register of auditors should be made available to the public.
Membership of a regulatory body is the main prerequisite for eligibility as an auditor. Some countries
allow a 'firm' to be appointed as a company auditor. A firm may be either a body corporate (such as a
company) or a partnership.

A person should be ineligible for appointment as a company auditor if he or she is:
x An officer or employee of the company
x A partner or employee of such a person
x A partnership in which such a person is a partner
There may be further rules about connections between the company or its officers and the auditor,
depending on local statutory rules.
3.7 Supervisory and monitoring roles

Some kind of supervision and monitoring regime should be implemented by the regulatory body. This
should inspect auditors on a regular basis.
The frequency of inspection will depend on the number of partners, number of offices and number of
listed company audits (these factors may also be reflected in the size of annual registration fees payable
by approved audit firms).
The following features should be apparent in each practice visited by the monitoring regulatory body.
(a) A properly structured audit approach, suitable for the range of clients served and work undertaken
by the practice.
(b) Carefully instituted quality control procedures, revised and updated constantly, to which the
practice as a whole is committed. This will include:
x Staff recruitment
x Staff training
x Continuing professional development
x Frequent quality control review
(c) Commitment to ethical guidelines, with an emphasis on independence issues
(d) An emphasis on technical excellence
(e) Adherence to the 'fit and proper' criteria by checking personnel records and references
(f) Use of internal and, if necessary, external peer reviews, consultations etc
(g) Appropriate fee charging per audit assignment
4 International Standards on Auditing

FAST FORWARD
International Standards on Auditing are set by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards
Board.
4.1 Rules governing audits

We discussed in Chapter 1 the various stakeholders in a company, and the various people who might read
a company's financial statements. Consider also that some of these readers will not just be reading a
single company's financial statements, but will also be looking at those of a large number of companies,
and making comparisons between them.
Readers want assurance when making comparisons that the reliability of the financial statements does
not vary from company to company. This assurance will be obtained not just from knowing that each set
of financial statements has been audited, but knowing that this has been done to common standards.
Hence there is a need for audits to be regulated so that auditors follow the same standards. As we see in
this chapter, auditors have to follow rules issued by a variety of bodies. Some obligations are imposed by
governments in law, or statute. Some obligations are imposed by the professional bodies to which
auditors are required to belong, such as the ACCA.
International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) are produced by the International Auditing and Assurance
Standards Board (IAASB), a technical standing committee of IFAC, which also issues standards relating to
review engagements, other assurance engagements, quality control and related services. An explanation of
the workings of the IAASB, the authority of ISAs and so on are laid out in the Preface to the International

Standards on Quality Control, Auditing, Review, Other Assurance and Related Services, and we will look at
this below.
4.2 Preface
The preface states that the IAASB’s objective is the development of a set of international standards that are
accepted worldwide. The IAASB’s pronouncements relate to audit, other assurance and related services
that are conducted in accordance with international standards.
Within each country, local laws and regulations govern, to a greater or lesser degree, the practices
followed in the auditing of financial or other information. Such regulations may be either of a statutory
nature, or in the form of statements issued by the regulatory or professional bodies in the countries
concerned. For example, in the UK, the Auditing Practices Board (APB) sets ISAs, and the Companies Act
2006 provides legislative regulations.
4.2.1 The authority attached to ISAs and other pronouncements

The preface also lays out the authority attached to international standards issued by the IAASB:
IAASB Pronouncements
International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) To be applied in the audit of historical financial
information
International Standards on Review Engagements To be applied in the review of historical financial
(ISREs) information
International Standards on Assurance Engagements To be applied in assurance engagements dealing
(ISAEs) with subject matters other than historical financial
information
International Standards on Related Services (ISRSs) To be applied to compilation engagements,
engagements to apply agreed upon procedures to
information and other related services engagement
as specified by the IAASB
International Standards on Quality Control (ISQCs) To be applied for all services falling under the
IAASB’s engagement standards (ISAs, ISREs,
ISAEs, ISRSs)
International Auditing Practice Statements (IAPSs) Provide interpretive guidance and practical
assistance to professional accountants in
implementing ISAs and to promote good practice
Any limitation of the applicability of a specific ISA is made very clear in the Preface.
ISAs do not override the local regulations referred to above governing the audit of financial or other
information in a particular country.
(a) To the extent that ISAs conform with local regulations on a particular subject, the audit of financial
or other information in that country in accordance with local regulations will automatically comply
with the ISA regarding that subject.
(b) In the event that the local regulations differ from, or conflict with, ISAs on a particular subject,
member bodies should comply with the obligations of members set forth in the IFAC Constitution
as regards these ISAs (ie encourage changes in local regulations to comply with ISAs).
The IAASB also publishes other papers, such as Discussion Papers, to promote discussion on auditing,
review, other assurance and related services and quality control issues affecting the accounting
profession, present findings, or describe matters of interest relating to these engagements.

4.2.2 Working procedures of the IAASB
A rigorous due process is followed by the IAASB to ensure that the views of all those affected by its
guidance are taken into account. The following diagram summarises the process followed in the
development of IAASB standards.
Research and consultation

A project task force is established to develop a draft standard or practice statement.
Transparent debate
A proposed standard is discussed at a meeting, open to the public.
Exposure for public comment

Exposure drafts are put on the IAASB’s website and widely distributed for comment
for a minimum of 120 days.
Consideration of comments
Any comments as a result of the exposure draft are considered at an open meeting
of the IAASB, and it is revised as necessary.
Affirmative approval
Approval is made by the affirmative vote of at least 2/3 of IAASB members.
4.3 Current ISAs and other standards

The following table sets out those ISAs and other pronouncements that are examinable in accordance with
the F8 syllabus.
No Title
200 (Revised and Redrafted) Overall objectives of the independent auditor and the conduct of an
audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing
210 (Redrafted) Agreeing the terms of audit engagements
230 (Redrafted) Audit documentation
240 (Redrafted) The auditor's responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of financial statements
250 (Redrafted) Consideration of laws and regulations in an audit of financial statements
260 (Revised and Redrafted) Communication with those charged with governance
265 Communicating deficiencies in internal control to those charged with governance and
management
300 (Redrafted) Planning an audit of financial statements
315 (Redrafted) Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement through understanding
the entity and its environment

No Title
320 (Revised and Redrafted) Materiality in planning and performing an audit
330 (Redrafted) The auditor's responses to assessed risks
402 (Revised and Redrafted) Audit considerations relating to an entity using a service organisation
450 (Revised and Redrafted) Evaluation of misstatements identified during the audit
500 (Redrafted) Audit evidence
501 (Redrafted) Audit evidence – specific considerations for selected items
505 (Revised and Redrafted) External confirmations
510 (Redrafted) Initial audit engagements – opening balances
520 (Redrafted) Analytical procedures
530 (Redrafted) Audit sampling
540 (Revised and Redrafted) Auditing accounting estimates, including fair value accounting
estimates, and related disclosures
560 (Redrafted) Subsequent events
570 (Redrafted) Going concern
580 (Revised and Redrafted) Written representations
610 (Redrafted) Using the work of internal auditors
620 (Revised and Redrafted) Using the work of an auditor’s expert
700 (Redrafted) Forming an opinion and reporting on financial statements
705 (Revised and Redrafted) Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor’s report
706 (Revised and Redrafted) Emphasis of matter paragraphs and other matter paragraphs in the
independent auditor’s report
710 (Redrafted) Comparative information – corresponding figures and comparative financial
statements
720 (Redrafted) The auditor's responsibilities relating to other information in documents containing
audited financial statements
The following IAASB pronouncements are also examinable:
International Auditing Practice Statements

IAPS 1000 Inter-bank confirmation procedures
IAPS 1013 Electronic commerce: effect on the audit of financial statements
IAPS 1014 Reporting by auditors on compliance with International Financial Reporting Standards
International Standards on Assurance Engagements
ISAE 3000 Assurance engagements other than audits or reviews of historical financial information
International Standards on Review Engagements
ISRE 2400 Engagements to review financial statements
Exam focus ISAs are quoted throughout this text and you must understand how they are applied in practice. You do
point not therefore need to know the names of the standards or the details off by heart – it's your ability to
apply them in the exam that will be tested.

4.4 Application of ISAs to smaller entities
You should refer back to the definition of small entities given earlier in this chapter. Although ISAs apply to
the audit of historical financial information of any entity regardless of its size, small businesses possess a
combination of characteristics which makes it necessary for the auditors to adapt their audit approach to
the circumstances surrounding the small business engagement. ISAs include an indication of how they
would be applied to smaller entities.
4.5 The IAASB Clarity project

This section highlights an important current issue regarding ISAs issued by the IAASB, known as the
Clarity project. Although the background of the Clarity project is not examinable under the F8 syllabus,
you must be aware of it, particularly because all the clarified ISAs issued as a result of it which are relevant
to F8 are examinable from the June 2010 exam onwards. It will certainly impact on your further auditing
studies in Paper P7 and in practice if you work in the auditing profession. Below we provide some
background to the Clarity project.
In 2004, the IAASB began a comprehensive program to enhance the clarity of its ISAs by setting an
overall objective for each ISA and improving the overall readability and understandability through
structural and drafting improvements.
At the end of 2008, the IAASB had finalised all its clarified ISAs, and auditors all over the world now have
access to 36 newly updated and clarified ISAs and a clarified ISQC.
The improvements arising from the Clarity project can be summarised below:
x Identifying the auditor's overall objectives when conducting an audit
x Setting an objective in each ISA and establishing the auditor's obligation in relation to that
objective
x Clarifying the obligations imposed on auditors by the requirements of ISAs and the language used
to communicate these requirements
x Eliminating any possible ambiguity about the auditor’s requirements
x Improving the overall readability and understandability of the ISAs through structural and
drafting improvements
Chapter Roundup
x Most companies are required to have an audit by law, but some small companies are exempt. The
outcome of the audit is the audit report, which sets out the auditor’s opinion on the financial statements.
x The law gives auditors both rights and duties. This allows auditors to have sufficient power to carry out an
independent and effective audit.
x There are various legal and professional requirements on appointment, resignation and removal of
auditors which must be followed.
x Requirements for the eligibility, registration and training of auditors are extremely important as they are
designed to maintain standards in the auditing profession.
x International Standards on Auditing are set by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards
Board.

Quick Quiz
1 What makes a person ineligible for appointment as a company auditor?
2 A person does not have to satisfy membership criteria to become a member of an RSB.
True
False
3 Using the UK as an example, who can appoint an auditor?
4 The ACCA has its own monitoring unit which inspects registered auditors on a regular basis.
True
False
5 What is the function of IFAC?
6 Which of the following are not engagement standards issued by the IAASB?
x International Standards on Auditing
x International Standards on Quality Control
x International Auditing Practice Statements
x International Standards on Related Services
x International Standards on Assurance Engagements
x International Standards on Review Engagements

1 An officer or employee of the company
A partner or employee of such a person
A partnership in which such a person is a partner
2 False. All RSBs have stringent membership requirements.
3 Members can appoint the auditors (at each general meeting where accounts are laid).
Directors can appoint the auditors (before the first general meeting where accounts are laid or to fill a
casual vacancy).
The Secretary of State can appoint the auditors (if no auditors are appointed/reappointed at the general
meeting where accounts are laid).
4 True
5 The function of IFAC is to initiate, co-ordinate and guide efforts to achieve international technical, ethical
and educational pronouncements for the accountancy profession.
6 International Standards on Quality Control and International Auditing Practice Statements are not
engagement standards issued by the IAASB. The others are all classed as engagement standards.
Now try the questions below from the Exam Question Bank

Q2 Examination 10 18 mins

Corporate
governance

1 Codes of corporate governance A3
2 Audit committees A3
3 Internal control effectiveness A3
4 Communication with those charged with governance A3
Introduction
The concept of corporate governance was introduced in Chapter 1. In this
chapter we will look at the codes of practice that have been put in place to
ensure that companies are well managed and controlled. The UK's Combined
Code on Corporate Governance is an internationally recognised code which we
will use as an example of a code of best practice. The audit carried out by the
external auditors is a very important part of corporate governance, as it is an
independent check on what the directors are reporting to the shareholders.
Auditors of all kinds have most contact with the audit committee, a sub-
committee of the board of directors. External auditors liaise with the audit
committee over the audit, and internal auditors will report their findings about
internal control effectiveness to it. We shall look at audit committees in Section
2 and internal control effectiveness in Section 3.
We end this chapter with a consideration of the importance of auditors
communicating with those charged with governance in an entity. ISA 260
Communication with those charged with governance provides guidance to
auditors in this respect.
35
Study guide
Intellectual level
A3 The regulatory environment and corporate governance
(c) Discuss the objective, relevance and importance of corporate governance 2
(d) Discuss the need for auditors to communicate with those charged with 2
governance
(e) Discuss the provisions of international codes of corporate governance (such 2
as OECD) that are most relevant to auditors
(f) Describe good corporate governance requirements relating to directors’ 1
responsibilities (eg for risk management and internal control) and the
reporting responsibilities of auditors
(g) Analyse the structure and roles of audit committees and discuss their 2
drawbacks and limitations
(h) Explain the importance of internal control and risk management 1
(i) Compare the responsibilities of management and auditors for the design 2
and operation of systems and controls
Exam guide
Questions on corporate governance could be either knowledge-based or application-based and may be
part of a scenario question on ethics. The pilot paper had 10 marks on a question on corporate
governance in the context of meeting corporate governance requirements and communication with the
audit committee by the auditors. The June 2009 paper had a 12 mark part on the benefits of forming an
audit committee (scenario question).
1 Codes of corporate governance Pilot paper

FAST FORWARD
Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled. Good corporate
governance is important because the owners of a company and the people who manage the company are
not always the same.
1.1 The importance of corporate governance

Key term Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled.
There are various stakeholders in companies, as we discussed in Chapter 1. The Cadbury Report on
financial aspects of corporate governance commissioned by the UK government in the early 1990s
identified the following:
x Directors: responsible for corporate governance
x Shareholders: linked to the directors by the financial statements
x Other relevant parties: such as employees, customers and suppliers (stakeholders)
In some companies, the shareholders are fully informed about the management of the business because
they are directors themselves, whereas in other companies, the shareholders only have an opportunity to
find out about the management of the company at the AGM (annual general meeting).
The day-to-day running of a company is the responsibility of the directors and other management staff
to whom they delegate, and although the company's results are submitted for shareholders' approval at
the AGM, there is often apathy and acquiescence in directors’ recommendations.
36 3: Corporate governance ~ Part A Audit framework and regulation

AGMs are often very poorly attended. For these reasons, there is the potential for conflicts of interest
between management and shareholders.
Corporate governance is important because it ensures that stakeholders with a relevant interest in the
company's business are fully taken into account.
In other words, it is necessary for structures to be in place to ensure that every stakeholder in the
company is not disadvantaged. As it is the directors that manage the company, the burden of good
corporate governance falls on them. It is important that they manage the company in the best way for the
shareholders, employees and other parties.
1.2 OECD Principles of Corporate Governance

FAST FORWARD
The OECD Principles of Corporate Governance set out the rights of shareholders, the importance of
disclosure and transparency and the responsibilities of the board of directors.
An important question to consider is 'will the same way of managing companies be the best method for all
companies?' The answer is likely to be no. Companies are different from each other, and globally, they operate
in different legal systems with different institutions, frameworks and traditions. It would not be possible to
construct one single way of operating companies that could be described as good practice for all.
The key issue in corporate governance is that 'a high degree of priority [is] placed on the interests of
shareholders, who place their trust in corporations to use their investment funds wisely and effectively'.
Shareholders in a company might be a family, they might be the general public or they might be
institutional investors representing, in particular, people's future pensions. These shareholders will vary in
their degree of interaction with the company and their directors.
In the context of this great variety in the basic element of these companies, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) has established a number of Principles of Corporate Governance,
which were issued in 1999 and reviewed in 2004, and which serve as a reference point for countries (to
develop corporate governance codes if they wish) and companies. They were developed in response to a
mandate given to the OECD to develop a set of standards and guidelines on good corporate governance.
OECD Principles of Corporate Governance

I The corporate governance framework should promote transparent and efficient markets, be
consistent with the rule of law and clearly articulate the division of responsibilities among different
supervisory, regulatory and enforcement authorities.
II The corporate governance framework should protect shareholders' rights.
III The corporate governance framework should ensure the equitable treatment of all shareholders,
including minority and foreign shareholders. All shareholders should have the opportunity to obtain
effective redress for violation of their rights.
IV The corporate governance framework should recognise the rights of stakeholders established by
law or through mutual agreements and encourage active co-operation between corporations and
stakeholders in creating wealth, jobs and the sustainability of financially sound enterprises.
V The corporate governance framework should ensure that timely and accurate disclosure is made
on all material matters regarding the corporation, including the financial situation, performance,
ownership, and governance of the company.
VI The corporate governance framework should ensure the strategic guidance of the company, the
effective monitoring of management by the board, and the board's accountability to the company
and the shareholders.
In order to obtain the best of the advantages and avoid the worst disadvantages, countries may take a
hybrid approach and make some elements of corporate governance mandatory and some voluntary. For
instance, in the UK, companies are required to comply with legislation (such as the Companies Act) and
there is also a voluntary corporate governance code, the Combined Code on Corporate Governance,
Part A Audit framework and regulation ~ 3: Corporate governance 37

which contains some mandatory elements for listed companies. We discuss the provisions of the
Combined Code below.
1.3 The Combined Code on Corporate Governance

FAST FORWARD
The Combined Code on Corporate Governance contains detailed guidance for UK companies on good
corporate governance.
1.3.1 A history of corporate governance in the UK

Before we discuss the provisions of the Combined Code in detail, it is useful to provide a short history of
corporate governance in the UK.
As a result of several accounting scandals in the 1980s and 1990s (Mirror Group, BCCI, PollyPeck), the
Cadbury committee produced a report entitled Financial aspects of corporate governance.
In 1995, the Greenbury report added a set of principles on the remuneration of executive directors. The
Hampel report in 1998 brought the Cadbury and Greenbury reports together to form the first Combined
Code. In 1999, Turnbull produced a report relating to risk management and internal control.
In 2002, the Higgs report (Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors) was
commissioned to produce a single comprehensive code, which was refined by the FRC to produce the
Combined Code. At the same time, the Smith report was produced on the role of audit committees, and
the recommendations of this were incorporated into the new Combined Code.
1.3.2 Principles of the Combined Code

The Combined Code is produced by the FRC and sets out standards of good practice regarding board
composition, remuneration, accountability and audit, and relations with shareholders.
All companies incorporated in the UK and listed on the London Stock Exchange are required under the
Listing Rules to report on how they have applied the code in their annual report and accounts.
The Combined Code contains broad principles and more specific provisions. Listed companies have to
report how they have applied the principles, and either confirm that they have applied the provisions or if
they have not, to provide an explanation.
The code was first issued in 1998 and has been updated regularly. The current edition is from 2008,
although it is currently being reviewed by the FRC.

Principles of the Combined Code (for listed UK companies)
The board
x Every company should be headed by an effective board, which is collectively responsible for the
success of the company.
x There should be a clear division of responsibilities at the head of the company between the running of
the board and the executive responsibility for the running of the company's business. No one
individual should have unfettered powers of decision.
x The board should include a balance executive and non-executive directors (and in particular
independent non-executive directors) such that no individual or small group of individuals can
dominate the board's decision taking.
x There should be a formal, rigorous and transparent procedure for the appointment of new directors to
the board.
x The board should be supplied in a timely manner with information in a form and of a quality
appropriate to enable it to discharge its duties.
x All directors should receive induction on joining the board and should regularly update and refresh
their skills and knowledge.
x The board should undertake a formal and rigorous annual evaluation of its own performance and that
of its committees and individual directors.
x All directors should be submitted for re-election at regular intervals, subject to continued satisfactory
performance. The board should ensure planned and progressive refreshing of the board.
Remuneration
x Levels of remuneration should be sufficient to attract, retain and motivate directors of the quality
required to run the company successfully, but a company should avoid paying more than is necessary
for this purpose. A significant proportion of executive directors' remuneration should be structured so
as to link rewards to corporate and individual performance.
x There should be a formal and transparent procedure for developing policy on executive remuneration
and for fixing the remuneration packages of individual directors. No director should be involved in
deciding his or her remuneration.
Accountability and audit
x The board should present a balanced and understandable assessment of the company's position and
prospects.
x The board should maintain a sound system of internal control to safeguard shareholders' investment
and the company's assets.
x The board should establish formal and transparent arrangements for considering how they should
apply the financial reporting and internal control principles and for maintaining an appropriate
relationship with the company's auditors.
Relations with shareholders
x There should be a dialogue with shareholders based on the mutual understanding of objectives. The
board as a whole has responsibility for ensuring that satisfactory dialogue with shareholders takes
place.
x The board should use the AGM to communicate with investors and to encourage their participation.
Institutional shareholders
x Institutional shareholders should enter into a dialogue with companies based on the mutual
understanding of objectives.
x Institutional shareholders have a responsibility to make considered use of their votes.

1.3.3 Auditors and the Combined Code
There are three key issues in relation to auditors suggested by the principles of the Combined Code.
x They strongly recommend that all companies have an annual, independent audit of financial
statements.
x They state that information should be disclosed and audited according to high quality standards.
This is in order to increase reliability and comparability of reporting, allowing investors to make
better investment decisions.
x They imply that shareholders will benefit if other information is subject to checks by auditors.
So for example, auditors could be asked to check whether companies are applying certain aspects of
corporate governance codes. Auditors in the UK are required to report on whether listed companies
comply with the following aspects of the Combined Code:
x Directors’ responsibility for preparing financial statements explained in report
x System of internal control reviewed and reported on
x Audit committee of at least three non-executive directors set up
x Audit committee terms of reference set out in writing
x Audit committee terms of reference available/described in report
x Audit committee arranges methods for staff to report impropriety in financial reporting
x Audit committee monitors and reviews effectiveness of internal control
x Audit committee has primary responsibility for appointment of external auditors
x If external audit provides non-audit services, annual report sets out how independence maintained
1.3.4 Directors
The directors of a company should set company policy, including risk policy, and are responsible for the
company's systems and controls.
Policy
Directors are responsible ultimately for managing the company, and this includes setting strategy,
budgets, managing the company's people, maintaining company assets, and ensuring corporate
governance rules are kept. An important element of setting strategies is determining and managing risks.
We shall outline in Chapter 5 how internal audit may have a role in this area. The Combined Code requires
that there is clear division of responsibility at the head of a company between the chairman and the chief
executive. It requires that no one individual has unfettered powers of decision.
The board should be supplied with information in a timely manner to enable it to carry out its duties and
directors should receive induction on joining the board and should regularly update and refresh their
skills.
Systems, controls and monitoring
Directors are responsible for the systems put in place to achieve the company policies and the controls
put in place to mitigate risks. These issues will be considered further later in this chapter. Under the
Combined Code, UK boards are required to consider annually whether an internal audit department is
required.
They are also responsible for monitoring the effectiveness of systems and controls. Internal auditors have
an important role in this area as we shall discuss in Chapter 5, but remember it is the directors that are
responsible for determining whether to have an internal audit department to assist them in monitoring in
the first place.

In the UK, the Turnbull report on internal control made the following recommendations:
Turnbull Guidelines
Have a defined process for the effectiveness of internal control
Review regular reports on internal control
Consider key risks and how they have been managed
Check the adequacy of action taken to remedy weaknesses and incidents
Consider the adequacy of monitoring
Conduct an annual assessment of risks and the effectiveness of internal control
Make a statement on this process in the annual report
Non-executive directors
Key term Non-executive directors are directors who do not have day-to-day operational responsibility for the
company. They are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way.
An important recommendation of the principles of the Combined Code is that the board contains some
non-executive directors to ensure that it exercises objective judgement. The Combined Code requires 'a
balance' of executive and non-executive directors on the board and recommends that the board is made
up of at least half non-executive directors.
Such non-executive directors may have a particular role in some sensitive areas such as company
reporting, nomination of directors and remuneration of executive directors. Often companies will set up
sub-committees of the board to deal with such issues. We are now going on to consider one such sub-
committee, the audit committee, in more detail.
2 Audit committees Pilot paper, June 2009

FAST FORWARD
An audit committee can help a company maintain objectivity with regard to financial reporting and the
audit of financial statements.
2.1 Role and function of audit committees

An audit committee is a sub-committee of the board of directors, usually containing a number of non-
executive directors. The role and function of the audit committee is described by the Cadbury report,
which sets out the following advantages of having an audit committee.
x Improve the quality of financial reporting, by reviewing the financial statements on behalf of the
Board
x Create a climate of discipline and control which will reduce the opportunity for fraud
x Enable the non-executive directors to contribute an independent judgement and play a positive role
x Help the finance director, by providing a forum in which he can raise issues of concern, and which
he can use to get things done which might otherwise be difficult
x Strengthen the position of the external auditor, by providing a channel of communication and
forum for issues of concern
x Provide a framework within which the external auditor can assert his independence in the event of
a dispute with management
x Strengthen the position of the internal audit function, by providing a greater degree of
independence from management
x Increase public confidence in the credibility and objectivity of financial statements
One of the principles of the Combined Code is that the board should establish formal and transparent
arrangements for considering how it should apply the financial reporting and internal control principles for

maintaining an appropriate relationship with the company's auditors. The provisions relating to this
principle are set out in the following table.
Combined Code provisions relating to the audit committee

The board should establish an audit committee of at least three, or in the case of smaller companies,
two members, who should all be independent non-executive directors.
The main role and responsibilities should be set out in written terms of reference and should include:
(a) To monitor the integrity of the financial statements of the company and any formal
announcements relating to the company's financial performance, reviewing significant financial
reporting issues and judgements contained in them
(b) To review the company's internal financial controls and, unless expressly addressed by a
separate board risk committee composed of independent directors or by the board itself, the
company's control and risk management systems
(c) To monitor and review the effectiveness of the company's internal audit function
(d) To make recommendations to the board for it to put to the shareholders for their approval in
general meeting in relation to the appointment of the external auditor and to approve the
remuneration and terms of engagement of the external auditors
(e) To monitor and review the external auditor's independence, objectivity and effectiveness, taking
into consideration relevant UK professional and regulatory requirements
(f) To develop and implement policy on engagement of the external auditor to supply non-audit
services, taking into account relevant ethical guidance regarding the provisions of non-audit
services by the external audit firm and to report to the board, identifying any matters in respect
of which it considers that action or improvement is needed, and making recommendations as to
the steps to be taken
The terms of reference of the audit committee, including its role and the authority delegated to it by the
board, should be made available. A separate section of the annual report should describe the work of
the committee in discharging those responsibilities.
The audit committee should review arrangements by which staff of the company may, in confidence,
raise concerns about possible improprieties in matters of financial reporting or other matters. The
audit committee's objective should be to ensure that arrangements are in place for the proportionate
and independent investigation of such matters and for appropriate follow-up action.
The audit committee should monitor and review the effectiveness of the internal audit activities. Where
there is no internal audit function, the audit committee should consider annually whether there is a
need for an internal audit function and make a recommendation to the board, and the reasons for the
absence of such a function should be explained in the relevant section of the annual report.
The audit committee should have primary responsibility for making a recommendation on the
appointment, reappointment and removal of the external auditors. If the board does not accept the
audit committee's recommendation, it should include in the annual report, and in any papers
recommending appointment or re-appointment, a statement from the audit committee explaining the
recommendation and should set out reasons why the board has taken a different position.
The annual report should explain to shareholders how, if the auditor provides non-audit services,
auditor objectivity and independence is safeguarded.
2.2 Drawbacks of audit committees

We discussed the possible benefits of the audit committee above.
Opponents of audit committees argue that:
(a) The executive directors may not understand the purpose of an audit committee and may perceive
that it detracts from their authority.

(b) There may be difficulty selecting sufficient non-executive directors with the necessary competence
in auditing matters for the committee to be really effective.
(c) The establishment of such a formalised reporting procedure may dissuade the auditors from
raising matters of judgement and limit them to reporting only on matters of fact.
(d) Costs may be increased.
3 Internal control effectiveness

FAST FORWARD
The directors of a company are responsible for ensuring that a company's system of controls is
effective.
3.1 Importance of internal control and risk management

Internal controls are essential to management, as they contribute to:
x Safeguarding the company's assets
x Helping to prevent and detect fraud
x Safeguarding the shareholders' investment
Good internal control helps the business to run efficiently. A control system reduces identified risks to the
business. It also helps to ensure reliability of reporting, and compliance with laws.
3.2 Directors' responsibilities for internal control

The ultimate responsibility for a company's system of internal controls lies with the board of directors. It
should set procedures of internal control and regularly monitor that the system operates as it should.
Part of setting up an internal control system will involve assessing the risks facing the business, so that
the system can be designed to ensure those risks are avoided.
Internal control systems will always have inherent limitations, the most important being that a system of
internal control cannot eliminate the possibility of human error, or the chance that staff will collude in
fraud.
Once the directors have set up a system of internal control, they are responsible for reviewing it regularly,
to ensure that it still meets its objectives.
The board may decide that in order to carry out their review function properly they have to employ an
internal audit function to undertake this task. When deciding whether an internal audit function is
required, directors will need to consider the extent of systems and controls, and the relative expense of
obtaining checks from other parties, such as the external auditors. These issues will be considered in
more detail in Chapter 5.
If the board does not see the need for an internal audit function, in the UK, the Combined Code requires
companies to consider the need for one annually, so that the need for internal audit is regularly
reviewed.
The Combined Code also recommends that the board of directors reports on its review of internal
controls as part of the annual report.
The statement should be based on an annual assessment of internal control which should confirm that the
board has considered all significant aspects of internal control. In particular the assessment should
cover:
(a) The changes since the last assessment in risks faced, and the company's ability to respond to
changes in its business environment
(b) The scope and quality of management's monitoring of risk and internal control, and of the work of
internal audit, or consideration of the need for an internal audit function if the company does not
have one

(c) The extent and frequency of reports to the board
(d) Significant controls, failings and weaknesses which have or might have material impacts upon
the accounts
(e) The effectiveness of the public reporting processes
3.3 Auditors' responsibilities for internal control

The auditors' detailed responsibilities with regard to reporting on the requirements of the Combined Code
are set out in a bulletin issued by the UK's Auditing Practices Board, which is not examinable. However, in
summary, the auditors should review the statements made concerning internal control in the annual report
to ensure that they appear true and are not in conflict with the audited financial statements.
4 Communication with those charged with governance

Pilot paper
FAST FORWARD
Auditors shall communicate specific matters to those charged with governance and ISA 260 provides
guidance to auditors in this area.
4.1 The importance of communicating with those charged with

governance
ISA 260 Communication with those charged with governance sets out guidance for auditors on the
communication of audit matters arising from the audit of the financial statements of an entity with those
charged with governance.
‘Those charged with governance’ is defined by ISA 260 as ‘the person(s) or organisation(s) with
responsibility for overseeing the strategic direction of the entity and obligations related to the
accountability of the entity’.
‘Management’ is defined by ISA 260 as ‘the person(s) with executive responsibility for the conduct of the
entity’s operations’.
Communication with those charged with governance is important because:
x It assists the auditor and those charged with governance to understand audit-related matters in
context and allows them to develop a constructive working relationship.
x It allows the auditor to obtain information relevant to the audit.
x It assists those charged with governance to fulfil their responsibility to oversee the financial
reporting process, thus reducing the risks of material misstatement in the financial statements.
4.2 Matters to be communicated by auditors to those charged with

governance
The following matters shall be communicated to those charged with governance:
The auditor’s responsibilities in relation to the financial statement audit
Including that the auditor is responsible for forming and expressing an opinion on the financial statements
and that the audit does not relieve management or those charged with governance of their responsibilities
Planned scope and timing of the audit
An overview of the planned scope and timing of the audit

Significant findings from the audit
The auditor shall communicate the following:
x The auditor’s views about significant qualitative aspects of the entity’s accounting practices,
including accounting policies, accounting estimates and financial statement disclosures
x Significant difficulties encountered during the audit
x Material weaknesses in the design, implementation or operating effectiveness of internal control
that have come to the auditor’s attention and have been communicated to management
x Significant matters arising from the audit that were discussed or subject to correspondence with
management
x Written representations requested by the auditor
x Other matters that, in the auditor’s professional judgement, are significant to the oversight of the
financial reporting process
Auditor independence
The auditor shall communicate the following for listed entities:
x A statement that the engagement team and others in the firm, the firm, and network firms have
complied with relevant ethical requirements regarding independence
x All relationships between the firm and entity that may reasonably be thought to bear on
independence
x Related safeguards that have been applied to eliminate identified threats to independence or reduce
them to an acceptable level
4.3 The communication process

The auditor shall communicate with those charged with governance the form, timing and expected
general content of communications. The auditor shall communicate with those charged with governance
on a timely basis.
Exam focus
A question on corporate governance is most likely to come up in a scenario-based question, perhaps in
point
conjunction with internal audit (which we cover in Chapter 5) as the two are linked.

Chapter Roundup
x Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled. Good corporate
governance is important because the owners of a company and the people who manage the company are
not always the same.
x The OECD Principles of Corporate Governance set out the rights of shareholders, the importance of
disclosure and transparency and the responsibilities of the board of directors.
x The Combined Code on Corporate Governance contains detailed guidance for UK companies on good
x An audit committee can help a company maintain objectivity with regard to financial reporting and the
audit of financial statements.
x The directors of a company are responsible for ensuring that a company's system of controls is
effective.
x Auditors shall communicate specific matters to those charged with governance and ISA 260 provides

Quick Quiz
1 Briefly explain the meaning of the term 'corporate governance'.
2 The OECD principles strongly recommend:
A An annual audit
B Internal audit
C Directors should not receive pay
D Directors should be non-executive
3 Complete the blanks
An audit………….is a sub-committee of the…………. …… …………., usually containing a number
of………….………….directors.
4 When a company cannot easily find non-executive directors it should not have an audit committee.
True
False
5 Why are internal controls important in a company?

1 'Corporate governance' is the system by which companies are directed and controlled.
2 A
3 An audit committee is a sub-committee of the board of directors, usually containing a number of non-
executive directors.
4 False. It should have an audit committee if required, or if the directors feel it is in the best interests of the
shareholders, even if it is difficult to find non-executive directors.
5 Internal controls contribute to:

x Safeguarding company assets
x Preventing and detecting fraud
x Safeguarding the shareholder's investment


Professional ethics

1 Fundamental principles of professional ethics A4
2 Accepting audit appointments A4
3 Agreeing the terms of the engagement A4
Introduction
In Chapter 2 we looked at some of the regulations surrounding the audit. Here
we look at the ethical requirements of the RSBs, specifically the ACCA’s Code
of ethics and conduct, which is based on IFAC’s Code of ethics for professional
accountants.
The ethical matters covered in this chapter are very important. They could arise
in almost every type of exam question and you must be able to apply the
ACCA's guidance on ethical matters to any given situation, but remember that
common sense is usually a good guide.
First we examine the five fundamental principles of professional ethics as
defined in the ACCA's Code of ethics and conduct. We then look at the five
main threats to compliance with these principles and the sorts of safeguards
that can be put in place to mitigate these threats.
Sections 2 and 3 of this chapter are concerned with obtaining audit
engagements and agreeing the terms of the engagement.
49
Study guide
Intellectual level
A4 Professional ethics and ACCA's Code of Ethics and Conduct
(a) Define and apply the fundamental principles of professional ethics of 2
integrity, objectivity, professional competence and due care, confidentiality
and professional behaviour
(b) Define and apply the conceptual framework 2
(c) Discuss the sources of, and enforcement mechanisms associated with, 2
ACCA’s Code of ethics and conduct
(d) Discuss the requirements of professional ethics and other requirements in 2
relation to the acceptance of new audit engagements
(e) Discuss the process by which an auditor obtains an audit engagement 2
(f) Explain the importance of engagement letters and state their contents 1
Exam guide
Questions about auditor independence and objectivity may involve discussion of topical, controversial
issues in a scenario-based question, such as the provision of services other than the audit to audit clients.
Exam questions will generally require you to consider the possible threats and to suggest appropriate
safeguards to mitigate those threats. Other questions may include knowledge-based questions on topics
such as the audit engagement letter as in the pilot paper. The December 2007 paper had a five mark part
for explaining each of the fundamental principles of professional ethics in question 2. In the December
2008 paper, there was a 12 mark scenario-based question on ethical threats and safeguards to mitigate
those threats. The June 2009 had a four mark part on safeguards to overcome intimidation.
1 Fundamental principles of professional ethics

Pilot paper, Dec 07, Dec 08, June 09
FAST FORWARD
The ACCA’s Code of ethics and conduct sets out the five fundamental principles of professional ethics
and provides a conceptual framework for applying them.
The ACCA’s Code of ethics and conduct sets out five fundamental principles of professional ethics and
provides a conceptual framework for applying those principles. Members must apply this conceptual
framework to identify threats to compliance with the principles, evaluate their significance and apply
appropriate safeguards to eliminate or reduce them so that compliance is not compromised.
1.1 The fundamental principles

FAST FORWARD Members of the ACCA must comply with the fundamental principles set out in the Code of ethics and
conduct (integrity, objectivity, professional competence and due care, confidentiality and professional
behaviour).
The five fundamental principles are summarised in the table below:
The ACCA’s fundamental principles of professional ethics

Integrity Members should be straightforward and honest in all professional and
business relationships.
Objectivity Members should not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue
influence of others to override professional or business judgements.
50 4: Professional ethics ~ Part A Audit framework and regulation

The ACCA’s fundamental principles of professional ethics
Professional competence and Members have a continuing duty to maintain professional knowledge
due care and skill at a level required to ensure that a client or employer receives
competent professional service based on current developments in
practice, legislation and techniques. Members should act diligently
and in accordance with applicable technical and professional
standards when providing professional services.
Confidentiality Members should respect the confidentiality of information acquired as
a result of professional and business relationships and should not
disclose any such information to third parties without proper or
specific authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or
duty to disclose. Confidential information acquired as a result of
professional and business relationships should not be used for the
personal advantage of members or third parties.
Professional behaviour Members should comply with relevant laws and regulations and
should avoid any action that discredits the profession.
1.2 Confidentiality
FAST FORWARD
Although auditors have a professional duty of confidentiality, they may be compelled by law or consider it
necessary in the public interest to disclose details of clients' affairs to third parties.
Confidentiality requires members to refrain from disclosing information acquired in the course of
professional work except where:
x Consent has been obtained from the client, employer or other proper source, or
x There is a public duty to disclose, or
x There is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose
A member acquiring information in the course of professional work should neither use nor appear to use
that information for his personal advantage or for the advantage of a third party.
In general, where there is a right (as opposed to a duty) to disclose information, a member should only
make disclosure in pursuit of a public duty or professional obligation.
A member must make clear to a client that he may only act for him if the client agrees to disclose in full to
the member all information relevant to the engagement.
Where a member agrees to serve a client in a professional capacity both the member and the client should
be aware that it is an implied term of that agreement that the member will not disclose the client's affairs
to any other person save with the client's consent or within the terms of certain recognised exceptions,
which fall under obligatory and voluntary disclosures.
If a member knows or suspects his client to have committed money-laundering, treason, drug-trafficking
or terrorist offences, he is obliged to disclose all the information at his disposal to a competent authority.
Auditing standards require auditors to consider whether non-compliance with laws and regulations affects
the accounts.
Voluntary disclosure may be applicable in the following situations:
x Disclosure is reasonably necessary to protect the member's interests, for example to enable him
to sue for fees or defend an action for, say, negligence.
x Disclosure is compelled by process of law, for example where in an action a member is required
to give evidence of discovery of documents.
x There is a public duty to disclose, say where an offence has been committed which is contrary to
the public interest.
x Disclosure is to non-governmental bodies which have statutory powers to compel disclosure.
Part A Audit framework and regulation ~ 4: Professional ethics 51

If an ACCA member is requested to assist the police, the taxation or other authorities by providing
information about a client's affairs in connection with enquiries being made, he should first enquire under
what statutory authority the information is demanded.
Unless he is satisfied that such statutory authority exists he should decline to give any information until he
has obtained his client's authority. If the client's authority is not forthcoming and the demand for
information is pressed the member should not accede unless advised by his legal advisor.
If a member knows or suspects that a client has committed a wrongful act he must give careful thought to
his own position. He must ensure that he has not prejudiced himself by, for example, relying on
information given by the client which subsequently proves to be incorrect.
However, it would be a criminal offence for a member to act positively, without lawful authority or
reasonable excuse, in such a manner as to impede with intent the arrest or prosecution of a client whom
he knows or believes to have committed an 'arrestable offence'.
1.3 Integrity, objectivity and independence

The fundamental principles require that members behave with integrity in all professional and business
relationships and they strive for objectivity in all their professional and business judgements. Objectivity is a
state of mind but in certain roles the preservation of objectivity has to be shown by the maintenance of
independence from those influences which could impair objectivity.
It is very important that the auditor is impartial, and independent of management, so that he can give an
objective view on the financial statements of an entity. The onus is always on the auditor not only to be
ethical but also to be seen to be ethical.
Independence and objectivity matter because of:
(a) The expectations of those directly affected, particularly the members of the company. The audit
should be able to provide objective assurance on the truth and fairness of the financial statements
that the directors can never provide.
(b) The public interest. Companies are public entities, governed by rules requiring the disclosure of
information.
What can the auditor do to preserve objectivity? The simple answer is to withdraw from any engagement
where there is the slightest threat to objectivity. However there are disadvantages in this strict approach.
x Clients may lose an auditor who knows their business.
x It denies clients the freedom to be advised by the accountant of their choice.
A better approach would be to consider whether the auditors' own objectivity and the general
safeguards operating in the professional environment are sufficient to offset the threat and to consider
whether safeguards over and above the general safeguards are required, for example specified partners
or staff not working on an assignment.
However the ultimate option must always be withdrawing from an engagement or refusing to act.
1.4 Threats to independence and objectivity

FAST FORWARD
Threats to independence and objectivity may arise in the form of self-review, self-interest, advocacy,
familiarity and intimidation threats. Appropriate safeguards must be put in place to eliminate or reduce
such threats to acceptable levels.
Compliance with the fundamental principles of professional ethics may potentially be threatened by a wide
range of different circumstances. These generally fall into five categories:
x Self-interest (discussed in Section 1.4.1)
x Self-review (discussed in Section 1.4.2)
x Advocacy (discussed in Section 1.4.3)
x Familiarity (discussed in Section 1.4.4)
x Intimidation (discussed in Section 1.4.5)

1.4.1 Self-interest
The ACCA Code of ethics and conduct highlights a number of areas in which a self-interest threat might
arise. These may arise as a result of the financial or other interests of members or of immediate or close
family and are summarised in the diagram below.
Employment with assurance client
Close business
Financial relationships Partner on client board
interests
Family and personal relationships
Recruitment SELF-INTEREST THREAT Gifts and hospitality
Loans and guarentees

% or contingent
Lowballing fees
High %
of fees Overdue fees
We will look at each of theses areas in turn.

(i) Financial interests
Key term A financial interest exists where an audit firm has a financial interest in a client’s affairs, for example, the
audit firm owns shares in the client, or is a trustee of a trust that holds shares in the client.
The ACCA does not allow the following to own a direct financial interest or an indirect material
financial interest in a client:
x The assurance firm
x A member of the assurance team
x An immediate family member of a member of the assurance team
The following safeguards will therefore be relevant:
x Disposing of the interest
x Removing the individual from the team if required
x Keeping the client’s audit committee informed of the situation
x Using an independent partner to review work carried out if necessary
Audit firms should have quality control procedures requiring staff to disclose relevant financial
interests for themselves and close family members. They should also foster a culture of voluntary
disclosure on an ongoing basis so that any potential problems are identified in a timely manner.
(ii) Close business relationships
Examples of when an audit firm and an audit client have an inappropriately close business
relationship include:
x Having a material financial interest in a joint venture with the assurance client
x Arrangements to combine one or more services or products of the firm with one or more
services or products of the assurance client and to market the package with reference to
both parties
x Distribution or marketing arrangements under which the firm acts as distributor or marketer
of the assurance client’s products or services or vice versa
It will be necessary for the partners to judge the materiality of the interest and therefore its
significance. However, unless the interest is clearly insignificant, an assurance provider should

not participate in such a venture with an assurance client. Appropriate safeguards are therefore
to end the assurance provision or to terminate the (other) business relationship.
If an individual member of an assurance team has such an interest, he should be removed from the
assurance team.
However, if the firm or a member (and immediate family of the member) of the assurance team has
an interest in an entity when the client or its officers also have an interest in that entity, the threat
might not be so great.
Generally speaking, purchasing goods and services from an assurance client on an arm’s length
basis does not constitute a threat to independence. If there are a substantial number of such
transactions, there may be a threat to independence and safeguards may be necessary.
(iii) Employment with assurance client
It is possible that staff might transfer between an assurance firm and a client, or that negotiations
or interviews to facilitate such movement might take place. Both situations are a threat to
independence:
x An audit staff member might be motivated by a desire to impress a future possible
employer (objectivity is therefore affected)
x A former partner turned Finance Director has too much knowledge of the audit firm’s
systems and procedures
The extent of the threat to independence depends on various factors, such as the role the individual
has taken up at the client, the extent of his influence on the audit previously, the length of time that
has passed between the individual’s connection with the audit and the new role at the client.
Various safeguards might be:
x Considering modifying the assurance plan
x Ensuring the audit is assigned to someone of sufficient experience
x Involving an additional professional accountant not involved with the engagement to review
the work done
x Carrying out a quality control review of the engagement
In respect of audit clients, a partner should not accept a key management position at an audit client
until at least two years have elapsed since the conclusion of the audit he was involved with.
An individual who has moved from the firm to a client should not be entitled to any benefits or
payments from the firm unless these are made in accordance with pre-determined arrangements. If
money is owed to the individual, it should not be so much as to compromise the independence of
the assurance engagement.
A firm should have quality control procedures setting out that an individual involved in serious
employment negotiations with an audit client should notify the firm and that this person would then
be removed from the engagement.
(iv) Partner on client board
A partner or employee of an assurance firm should not serve on the board of an assurance
client.
It may be acceptable for a partner or an employee of an assurance firm to perform the role of
company secretary for an assurance client, if the role is essentially administrative.
(v) Family and personal relationships
Family or close personal relationships between assurance firm and client staff could seriously
threaten independence. Each situation has to be evaluated individually. Factors to consider are:
x The individual’s responsibilities on the assurance engagement
x The closeness of the relationship
x The role of the other party at the assurance client

When an immediate family member of a member of the assurance team is a director, an officer or
an employee of the assurance client in a position to exert direct and significant influence over the
subject matter information of the assurance engagement, the individual should be removed from
the assurance team.
The audit firm should also consider whether there is any threat to independence if an employee
who is not a member of the assurance team has a close family or personal relationship with a
director, an officer or an employee of an assurance client.
A firm should have quality control policies and procedures under which staff should disclose if a
close family member employed by the client is promoted within the client.
If a firm inadvertently violates the rules concerning family and personal relationships they should
apply additional safeguards, such as undertaking a quality control review of the audit and
discussing the matter with the audit committee of the client, if there is one.
(vi) Gifts and hospitality
Unless the value of the gift/hospitality is clearly insignificant, a firm or a member of an assurance
team should not accept. Threats to independence in such circumstances cannot be reduced to an
acceptable level by the application of any safeguard.
(vii) Loans and guarantees
The advice on loans and guarantees falls into two categories:
x The client is a bank or other similar institution
x Other situations
If a lending institution client lends an immaterial amount to an audit firm or member of assurance
team on normal commercial terms, there is no threat to independence. If the loan is material it will
be necessary to apply appropriate safeguards to bring the risk to an acceptable level. A suitable
safeguard is likely to be an independent review (by a partner from another office in the firm).
Loans to members of the assurance team from a bank or other lending institution client are likely to
be material to the individual, but provided that they are on normal commercial terms, these do not
constitute a threat to independence.
An audit firm or individual on the assurance engagement should not enter into any loan or
guarantee arrangement with a client that is not a bank or similar institution. The self-interest
threat created by entering into such an arrangement would be so significant that no safeguard
would be able to reduce the threat to an acceptable level.
(viii) Overdue fees
In a situation where there are overdue fees, the auditor runs the risk of, in effect, making a loan to
a client, whereupon the guidance above becomes relevant.
Audit firms should guard against significant fees building up by discussing the issues with those
charged with governance, and, if necessary, the possibility of resigning if overdue fees are not paid.
(ix) Contingent fees
Key term Contingent fees are fees calculated on a predetermined basis relating to the outcome or result of a
transaction or the result of the work performed.
A firm should not enter into any fee arrangement for an assurance engagement under which the
amount of the fee is contingent on the result of the assurance work or on items that are the subject
matter of the assurance engagement.

It would also usually be inappropriate to accept a contingent fee for non-assurance work from an
assurance client. Factors to consider in deciding whether a contingent fee is acceptable or not
include:
x The range of possible fee outcomes
x The degree of variability in the fee
x The basis on which the fee is to be determined
x Whether the transaction is to be reviewed by an independent third party
x The effect of the transaction on the assurance engagement
In other circumstances it may be appropriate to accept a contingent fee for non-assurance work if
suitable safeguards are in place. Examples include:
x Making disclosures to the audit committee about the fees
x Reviewing or determination of the fee by an unrelated third party
x Quality control policies and procedures
(x) High percentage of fees
A firm should be alert to the situation arising where the total fees generated by an assurance client
represent a large proportion of a firm’s total fees. Factors such as the structure of the firm and the
length of time it has been trading will be relevant in determining whether there is a threat to
independence. It is also necessary to beware of situations where the fees generated by an
assurance client present a large proportion of the revenue of an individual partner.
Safeguards in these situations might include:
x Discussing the issues with the audit committee
x Taking steps to reduce the dependency on the client
x Obtaining external/internal quality control reviews
x Consulting a third party such as the ACCA
The public may perceive that a member’s objectivity is likely to be in jeopardy where the fees
for audit and recurring work paid by one client or group of connected clients exceed 15% of the
firm’s total fees. Where the entity is listed or a public interest company, this figure should be
10%.
It will be difficult for new firms establishing themselves to keep outside of these limits and firms in
this situation should make use of the safeguards outlined.
(xi) Lowballing
When a firm quotes a significantly lower fee level for an assurance service than would have been
charged by the predecessor firm, there is a significant self-interest threat. If the firm’s tender is
successful, the firm must apply safeguards such as:
x Maintaining records such that the firm is able to demonstrate that appropriate staff and time
are spent on the engagement
x Complying with all applicable assurance standards, guidelines and quality control
procedures
(xii) Recruitment
Recruiting senior management for an assurance client, particularly those able to affect the subject
matter of an assurance engagement, creates a self-interest threat for the assurance firm.
Assurance providers must not make management decisions for the client. Their involvement could
be limited to reviewing a shortlist of candidates, providing that the client has drawn up the criteria
by which they are to be selected.

1.4.2 Self-review threat
Self-review threats may occur when a previous judgement needs to be re-evaluated by members
responsible for that judgement. Circumstances that may give rise to such threats include the following:
Recent service General other
with assurance services
client
Preparing accounting records

and financial statements
Other services SELF-REVIEW THREAT Valuation services
Corporate
Internal audit Tax services
finance
services
The key area in which there is likely to be a self-review threat is where a firm provides services other than
assurance services to an assurance client (providing multiple services). There is a great deal of guidance
in the ACCA and IFAC rules about various other services accountancy firms could provide their clients and
these are discussed below.
(i) Recent service with an assurance client
Individuals who have been a director or officer of the client, or an employee in a position to exert
direct and significant influence over the subject matter information of the assurance engagement
in the period under review or the previous two years should not be assigned to the assurance team.
If an individual had been closely involved with the client prior to the time limits set out above, the
assurance firm should consider the threat to independence arising and apply appropriate
safeguards, such as:
x Obtaining a quality control review of the individual’s work on the assignment
x Discussing the issue with the audit committee
(ii) General other services
For assurance clients, accountants are not allowed to:
x Authorise, execute or consummate a transaction
x Determine which recommendation of the company should be implemented
x Report in a management capacity to those charged with governance
Having custody of an assurance client’s assets, supervising client employees in the performance of
their normal duties, and preparing source documents on behalf of the client also pose significant
self-review threats which should be addressed by safeguards such as the following:
x Ensuring non-assurance team staff are used for these roles
x Involving an independent professional accountant to advise
x Quality control policies on what staff are and are not allowed to do for clients
x Making appropriate disclosures to those charged with governance
x Resigning from the assurance engagement
(iii) Preparing accounting records and financial statements
There is clearly a significant risk of self-review if a firm prepares accounting records and financial
statements and then audits them. However, in practice, auditors routinely assist management with
the preparation of financial statements and give advice about accounting treatments and journal
entries.

Assurance firms must therefore analyse the risks arising and put safeguards in place to ensure that
the risk is at an acceptable level. Safeguards include:
x Using staff members other than assurance team members to carry out work
x Obtaining client approval for work undertaken
The rules are more stringent when the client is listed or public interest. Firms should not prepare
accounts or financial statements for listed or public interest clients, unless an emergency arises.
For any client, assurance firms are also not allowed to:
x Determine or change journal entries without client approval
x Authorise or approve transactions
x Prepare source documents
(iv) Valuation services
Key term A valuation comprises the making of assumptions with regard to future developments, the application of
certain methodologies and techniques, and the combination of both in order to compute a certain value, or
range of values, for an asset, a liability or for a business as a whole.
If an audit firm performs a valuation for which will be included in financial statements audited by
the firm, a self-review threat arises.
Audit firms should not carry out valuations on matters which will be material to the financial
statements. If the valuation is for an immaterial matter, the audit firm should apply safeguards to
ensure that the risk is reduced to an acceptable level. Matters to consider when applying
safeguards are the extent of the audit client’s knowledge of the relevant matters in making the
valuation and the degree of judgement involved, how much use is made of established
methodologies and the degree of uncertainty in the valuation. Safeguards include:
x Second partner review
x Confirming that the client understands the valuation and the assumptions used
x Ensuring the client acknowledges responsibility for the valuation
x Using separate personnel for the valuation and the audit
(v) Taxation services
In many jurisdictions, the assurance firm may be asked to provide taxation services to its client.
These encompass a wide range of services, including compliance, planning, provision of formal
taxation opinions and assistance in the resolution of tax disputes. The provision of taxation
services is generally not seen to threaten independence.
(vi) Internal audit services
A firm may provide internal audit services to an audit client. However, it should ensure that the
client acknowledges its responsibility for establishing, maintaining and monitoring the system of
internal control. It may be appropriate to use safeguards such as ensuring that an employee of the
client is designated responsible for internal audit activities and that the client approves all the work
that internal audit does.
(vii) Corporate finance
Certain aspects of corporate finance will create self-review threats that cannot be reduced to an
acceptable level by safeguards. Therefore, assurance firms are not allowed to promote, deal in or
underwrite an assurance client’s shares. They are also not allowed to commit an assurance
client to the terms of a transaction or consummate a transaction on the client’s behalf.
Other corporate finance services, such as assisting a client in defining corporate strategies,
assisting in identifying possible sources of capital and providing structuring advice may be
acceptable, providing that safeguards, such as using different teams of staff, are used and ensuring
no management decisions are taken on behalf of the client.

(viii) Other services
The audit firm might sell a variety of other services to audit clients, such as:
x IT services
x Temporary staff cover
x Litigation support
x Legal services
The assurance firm should consider whether there are any barriers to independence, such as if the
firm were asked to design internal control IT systems, which it would then review as part of its
audit, or if the firm were asked to provide an accountant to cover the chief accountant’s maternity
leave. The firm should consider whether the threat to independence could be reduced to an
acceptable level by appropriate safeguards.
1.4.3 Advocacy threat

Advocacy threats arise in those situations where the assurance firm promotes a position or opinion to the
point that subsequent objectivity is compromised. Examples include commenting publicly on future events
in particular circumstances, having made assertions without detailing the assumptions, or acting as an
advocate on behalf of an assurance client in litigation or disputes with third parties. Advocacy threats
might also arise if the firm promoted shares in a listed audit client.
Relevant safeguards might include using different departments to carry out the work and making
disclosures to the audit committee. Remember, the ultimate option is always to withdraw from an
engagement if the risk to independence is too high.
1.4.4 Familiarity threat

A familiarity threat occurs when, because of a close relationship, members become too sympathetic to the
interests of others. There is a substantial risk of loss of professional scepticism in such circumstances.
We have already discussed some examples of when this risk arises, because very often a familiarity threat
arises in conjunction with a self-interest threat. These include situations where there are family and
personal relationships between the client and firm, long association with a client, employment with a client
and recent service with a client.
Independence may be threatened significantly if senior members of staff at an audit firm have a long
association with a client. All firms should therefore monitor the relationship between staff and established
clients and use safeguards such as rotating senior staff off the assurance team, obtaining second partner
reviews and independent (but internal) quality control reviews.
In addition, the Code of ethics and conduct sets out specific rules for listed and other public interest
entities in this situation:
x The engagement partner should be rotated after a pre-defined period, normally no more than five
years, and should not return to the engagement until a period of five years has elapsed.
x Other key audit partners should be rotated after a pre-defined period, normally no more than seven
years, and should not return to the engagement until a period of two years (or five years if
returning as engagement partner) has elapsed.
x The individual responsible for the engagement quality control review should be rotated after a pre-
defined period, normally no more than seven years, and should not return to the engagement until
a period of two years has elapsed
When an entity becomes a listed entity, the length of time the staff involved with the audit have been
involved should be taken into consideration, but the engagement partner, other key partners and quality
control person should only continue in those positions for another two years.

1.4.5 Intimidation threat
An intimidation threat arises when members of the assurance team may be deterred from acting
objectively by threats, actual or perceived. These could arise from family and personal relationships,
litigation, or close business relationships. These are also examples of self-interest threats, largely because
intimidation may only arise significantly when the assurance firm has something to lose.
The most obvious example is when the client threatens to sue, or does sue, the assurance firm for work
that has been done previously. The firm is then faced with the risk of losing the client, bad publicity and
the possibility that it will be found to have been negligent. This could lead to the firm being under pressure
to produce an unqualified audit report when it has been qualified in the past, for example.
Generally, assurance firms should seek to avoid such situations arising. If they do arise, factors to
consider are:
x The materiality of the litigation
x The nature of the assurance engagement
x Whether the litigation relates to a prior assurance engagement
The following safeguards could be considered:
x Disclosing to the audit committee the nature and extent of the litigation
x Removing specific affected individuals from the engagement team
x Involving an additional professional accountant on the team to review work
However, if the litigation is at all serious, it may be necessary to resign from the engagement, as the threat
to independence is so great.
1.5 Conflicts of interest

In some ways conflict of interest issues are similar to the difficulties firms have in maintaining independence.
They can arise in a variety of circumstances and each problem has to be dealt with on its own merits. There are
no rules to deal with most of the situations, outside the ACCA's rules about independence and integrity, and the
solution will usually be based on common sense as much as ethical behaviour.
We have already dealt with conflicts of interest in terms of auditor independence, particularly in situations
where there is a financial or personal interest in a client company.
Conflicts of interest can arise when a firm has two (or more) audit clients, both of which have reason to be
unhappy that their auditors are also auditors of the other company. This situation frequently arises when
the companies are in direct competition with each other, and particularly when the auditors have access
to particularly sensitive information.
In general, where conflicts of interest arise, there should be full and frank explanation to those involved
by the audit firm, coupled with any action necessary to disengage from one or both positions.
Conflicts should, so far as possible, be avoided by not accepting any appointment or assignment in which
they seem likely to occur.
This avoidance of clients causing a conflict of interest is more important for smaller audit firms. The larger
firms can overcome a conflict by building a 'Chinese wall' within the firm. This would mean that the
respective audits are undertaken by different audit 'groups', the engagement partners are different and all
the other audit staff are allowed to work on one of the clients only.
Case Study
British Telecom was not happy when its auditors merged with the firm which audited Cable and Wireless.
The new firm was forced to drop one of the audits. Legal cases such as Prince Jefri of Brunei and KPMG,
and in connection with the merger of Robson Rhodes and Parnell Kerr Forster, have also cast doubt on the
ability of accountants to rely on Chinese walls.

Whenever accountants are acting for two clients who are in a directly adversarial situation, both should
be informed and asked to give consent for the accountant to continue to act for both.
Other situations, for example clients in competition, might be covered by a paragraph in the audit engagement
letter (the audit engagement letter is covered in section 3 of this chapter).
If consent has not been given, a Chinese wall may be effective, providing the departments concerned are
physically separated and there are strict procedures and monitoring in place. The Chinese wall needs to
be part of the organisational culture of the firm.
The guidance suggests firms can avoid the need for a Chinese wall in these circumstances by a paragraph in the
audit engagement letter saying that information will be kept confidential except as required by law, regulatory or
ethical guidance, and the client permits the firm to take such steps as it thinks fit to preserve confidentiality.
It would be better to advise the companies to obtain arbitration from an independent accountant. The
auditors should not investigate one client on behalf of another, nor pass on any knowledge of either client
in such a situation. This is not always easy, particularly when the auditors can see the whole picture, but
the companies cannot. The auditors must be extremely tactful and firm.
1.6 Enforcement mechanisms

In this section we briefly consider how ACCA enforces the Code of ethics and conduct. Members are liable
to disciplinary action if they breach the ethical guidance.
The professional conduct department first investigates the potential breach and if liability is indicated, it
prepares a report for consideration by an external assessor. If the assessor concludes there is a case to
answer, he or she may refer the matter to the ACCA's Disciplinary Committee.
The Disciplinary Committee hears the case and if the complaint is proved wholly or in part, the member
concerned could be excluded from membership of the ACCA, severely reprimanded or fined for example.
Members can appeal to the Appeal Committee which will consider the appeal at a hearing.
Members have to confirm in their annual Continuing Professional Development (CPD) returns that they
have kept their professional ethics up to date. ACCA does monitor CPD returns by checking a sample on
an annual basis.
1.7 Country-specific ethical guidance

Although the ACCA and IFAC have produced detailed ethical guidance for professional accountants,
countries may have their own additional ethical guidance.
For example, in the UK, the Auditing Practices Board of the Financial Reporting Council has issued five
ethical standards, an ethical standard specific to small entities and an ethical standard for reporting
accountants, which provide an additional source of guidance. These are not examinable under your
syllabus, but are simply mentioned here as an example.
2 Accepting audit appointments

FAST FORWARD
The present and proposed auditors must communicate with each other prior to the audit being accepted,
however if the client refuses to give permission to the proposed auditors to make contact, the proposed
auditors must decline nomination.
2.1 Tendering and obtaining work

Members are entitled to advertise their services and products. The advertising medium should not reflect
adversely on the member, ACCA or the accountancy profession. Adverts should not:
x Bring ACCA into disrepute or bring discredit to the member, firm or accountancy profession
x Discredit the services of others
x Be misleading
x Fall short of local regulatory or legislative requirements

2.1.1 Fee negotiation and lowballing
The audit fee is a sensitive subject for most companies. It represents a cost for something the company
often does not really want and the fees may be perceived as too high just for this reason. The auditors
must ensure that they can provide a quality audit for the price.
Many large companies invite tenders for their audit work. The directors then have the opportunity to
compare directly a range of offers.
Generally, a tender will take the form of detailed written proposals and a presentation. Factors include:
x The level of expertise each firm has in the industry
x Similar companies audited by each firm (good for expertise, bad for confidentiality?)
x National and international presence
x The proposed fee
Audit firms which tender for such audits will usually give at least an indication of the level of fees in the
next few years, including likely overall rate rises. Fee levels are very important to most companies and are
often the determining factor.
In all situations, the auditors should quote a fee based on the estimated hours worked by each member of
staff required on the audit, multiplied by the hourly rate plus any travel and other expenses to be incurred
during the audit. They may also charge a premium for more complex audits.
Sometimes it appears that firms are charging less than 'market rate' for an audit, especially when
tendering for new clients. This practice is known as lowballing, and we discussed it in Section 1.4.1.
It is not considered ethically wrong to charge a low price for an audit in itself. However, the auditors must
ensure that they carry out an audit of the quality demanded by auditing standards and that the 'cut-price'
audit fee does not call their independence into question.
This is always going to be a topical debate, but in terms of negotiating the audit fee the following factors
need to be taken into account.
(a) The audit is perceived to have a fluctuating 'market price' as any other commodity or service.
(b) Companies can reduce external audit costs through various legitimate measures:
x Extending the size and function of internal audit
x Reducing the number of different audit firms used world-wide
x Selling off subsidiary companies leaving a simplified group structure to audit
x The tender process itself simply makes auditors more competitive
x Exchange rate fluctuations in audit fees
(c) Auditing firms have increased productivity, partly through the use of more sophisticated
information technology techniques in auditing.
In any case, an auditing firm lays itself open to accusations of loss of independence if it reduces its fees to
below a certain level, particularly if it is difficult to see how such fees will cover direct labour costs. This is
also true of firms which use the audit as a 'loss leader' to obtain profitable consultancy work from audit
clients.
When such non-audit services are offered to a client by the auditors, there can, of course, be an apparent
loss of independence. The allegation may arise that the price of an 'acceptable' audit opinion is lucrative
taxation or consulting work.
2.2 Appointment ethics

This section covers the procedures that the auditors must undertake to ensure that their appointment is
valid and that they are clear to act.

2.2.1 Before accepting nomination
Before a new audit client is accepted, the auditors must ensure that there are no independence or other
ethical problems likely to cause conflict with the ethical code. Furthermore, new auditors should ensure
that they have been appointed in a proper and legal manner.
The nominee auditors must carry out the following procedures:
ACCEPTANCE PROCEDURES
Ensure professionally qualified to act Consider whether disqualified on legal or ethical grounds
Ensure existing resources adequate Consider available time, staff and technical expertise
Obtain references Make independent enquiries if directors not personally known
Communicate with present auditors Enquire whether there are reasons/circumstances behind the
change which the new auditors ought to know, also courtesy
An appointment decision chart is shown below.
Approach by new
audit client
No need to follow
Is this the client’s Yes professional rules - the
first audit? auditor can make own
decision
No
Does client
give No
permission to
contact old
auditor?
Yes
Write for all information Prospective auditor

pertinent to the should decline
appointment section appointment
Does client
give old auditor No
permission to
reply?
Yes
Does
old auditor Give old auditor due
provide information No notice then decide on
relevant to new bass of knowledge
appointment? obtained otherwise
Yes
Accept/reject
appointment
decision

2.2.2 Example nomination letter
This is an example of an initial communication.
To: Retiring & Co

Certified Accountants
Dear Sirs
Re: New Client Co Ltd
We have been asked to allow our name to go forward for nomination as auditors of the above company,
and we should therefore be grateful if you would let us know whether there are any professional reasons
why we should not accept nomination ...... .
Acquiring & Co
Having negotiated these steps the auditors will be in a position to accept the nomination, or not, as the
case may be. These procedures are demonstrated in the appointment decision chart.
2.2.3 Procedures after accepting nomination

The following procedures should be carried out after accepting nomination.
(a) Ensure that the outgoing auditors' removal or resignation has been properly conducted in
accordance with national legislation. The new auditors should see a valid notice of the outgoing
auditors' resignation, or confirm that the outgoing auditors were properly removed.
(b) Ensure that the new auditors' appointment is valid. The new auditors should obtain a copy of the
resolution passed at the general meeting appointing them as the company's auditors.
(c) Set up and submit a letter of engagement to the directors of the company. Letters of engagement
are discussed in the next section.
2.2.4 Other matters

Where the previous auditors have fees still owing to them by the client, the new auditors need not decline
appointment solely for this reason. They should decide how far they may go in aiding the former auditors
to obtain their fees, as well as whether they should accept the appointment.
Once a new appointment has taken place, the new auditors should obtain all books and papers which
belong to the client from the old auditors. The former auditors should ensure that all such documents are
transferred, unless they have a lien (a legal right to hold on to them) over the books because of unpaid
fees. They should also pass any useful information onto the new auditors if it will be of help, without
charge, unless a lot of work is involved.
2.3 Client screening

As well as contacting the previous auditors many firms, particularly larger ones, carry out stringent
checks on potential client companies and their management. Some of the basic factors for consideration
are given below.
2.3.1 Management integrity

The integrity of those managing a company will be of great importance, particularly if the company is
controlled by one or a few dominant personalities.

2.3.2 Risk
The following table contrasts low and high risk clients.
LOW RISK HIGH RISK

Good long-term prospects Poor recent or forecast performance
Well-financed Likely lack of finance
Strong internal controls Significant control weaknesses
Conservative, prudent accounting policies Evidence of questionable integrity, doubtful accounting policies
Competent, honest management Lack of finance director
Few unusual transactions Significant related party or unexplained transactions
Where the risk level of a company's audit is determined as anything other than low, then the specific risks
should be identified and documented. It might be necessary to assign specialists in response to these
risks, particularly industry specialists, as independent reviewers. Some audit firms have procedures for
closely monitoring audits which have been accepted, but which are considered high risk.
2.3.3 Engagement economics

Generally, the expected fees from a new client should reflect the level of risk expected. They should also
offer the same sort of return expected of clients of this nature and reflect the overall financial strategy of
the audit firm. Occasionally, the audit firm will want the work to gain entry into the client's particular
industry, or to establish better contacts within that industry. These factors will all contribute to a total
expected economic return.
2.3.4 Relationship with client

The audit firm will generally want the relationship with a client to be long-term. This is not only to enjoy
receiving fees year after year but to allow the audit work to be enhanced by better knowledge of the client
and thereby offer a better service.
Conflict of interest problems are significant here; the firm should establish that no existing clients will
cause difficulties as competitors of the new client. Other services to other clients may have an impact
here, not just audit.
2.3.5 Ability to perform the work

The audit firm must have the resources to perform the work properly, as well as any specialist
knowledge or skills. The impact on existing engagements must be estimated, in terms of staff time and
the timing of the audit.
2.4 Approval
Once all the relevant procedures and information gathering has taken place, the company can be put
forward for approval. The engagement partner will have completed a client acceptance form and this,
along with any other relevant documentation, will be submitted to the partner who is in overall charge of
accepting clients.
Exam focus In the exam you may be given a 'real-life' client situation and asked what factors you would consider in
point deciding whether to accept appointment.

3 Agreeing the terms of the engagement Pilot paper
FAST FORWARD
The terms of the audit engagement shall be agreed with management and recorded in an audit
engagement letter.
3.1 Preconditions for an audit

ISA 210 Agreeing the terms of audit engagements states that the objective of the auditor is to accept or
continue an audit engagement only when the basis on which it is to be carried out has been agreed by
establishing whether the preconditions for an audit are present and confirming that there is a common
understanding between the auditor and management of the terms of the engagement.
Key term The preconditions for an audit are the use by management of an acceptable financial reporting framework
in the preparation of the financial statements and the agreement of management and, where appropriate,
those charged with governance to the premise on which an audit is conducted.
To determine whether the preconditions for an audit are present, the auditor shall do the following:
x Determine whether the financial reporting framework is acceptable. Factors to consider include
the nature of the entity, the purpose of the financial statements, the nature of the financial
statements, and whether law or regulation prescribes the applicable financial reporting framework.
x Obtain management’s agreement that it acknowledges and understands its responsibilities for
the following.
– Preparing the financial statements in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
framework
– Internal control that is necessary to enable the preparation of financial statements which
are free from material misstatement
– Providing the auditor with access to all information of which management is aware that is
relevant to the preparation of the financial statements, with additional information that the
auditor may request, and with unrestricted access to entity staff from whom the auditor
determines it necessary to obtain audit evidence
If these preconditions are not present, the auditor shall discuss the matter with management. The auditor
shall not accept the audit engagement if:
x The auditor has determined that the financial reporting framework to be applied is not acceptable.
x Management’s agreement referred to above has not been obtained.
3.2 The audit engagement letter

Key term The engagement letter is the written terms of an engagement in the form of a letter.
The auditor shall agree the terms of the engagement with management or those charged with governance
and these shall be recorded in an audit engagement letter or other suitable form of written agreement.
This has to be done before the audit engagement begins so as to avoid misunderstandings regarding the
audit.
3.2.1 Form and content of the audit engagement letter

The audit engagement letter shall include the following:
x The objective and scope of the audit
x The auditor’s responsibilities
x Management’s responsibilities

x Identification of the applicable financial reporting framework for the preparation of the financial
statements
x Reference to the expected form and content of any reports to be issued by the auditor and a
statement that there may be circumstances in which a report may differ from its expected form and
content
3.2.2 Additional matters that may be included

The audit engagement letter may also make reference to the following:
x Elaboration of scope of audit, including reference to legislation, regulations, ISAs, ethical and
other pronouncements
x Form of any other communication of results of the engagement
x The fact that due to the inherent limitations of an audit and those of internal control, there is an
unavoidable risk that some material misstatements may not be detected, even though the audit
is properly planned and performed in accordance with ISAs
x Arrangements regarding planning and performance, including audit team composition
x Expectation that management will provide written representations
x Agreement of management to provide draft financial statements and other information in time to
allow auditor to complete the audit in accordance with proposed timetable
x Agreement of management to inform auditor of facts that may affect the financial statements, of
which management may become aware from the date of the auditor’s report to the date of issue of
the financial statements
x Fees and billing arrangements
x Request for management to acknowledge receipt of the letter and agree to the terms outlined in it
x Involvement of other auditors and experts
x Involvement of internal auditors and other staff
x Arrangements to be made with predecessor auditor
x Any restriction of auditor’s liability
x Reference to any further agreements between auditor and entity
x Any obligations to provide audit working papers to other parties
Appendix 1 of ISA 210 includes an example of an audit engagement letter.
3.3 Recurring audits

On recurring audits, the auditor shall assess whether the terms of the engagement need to be revised and
whether there is a need to remind the entity of the existing terms. The following factors may indicate that it
would be appropriate to revise the terms of the engagement or remind the entity of the existing terms.
x Any indication that the entity misunderstands the objective and scope of the audit
x Any revised or special terms of the audit engagement
x A recent change of senior management
x A significant change in ownership
x A significant change in nature or size of the entity’s business
x A change in legal or regulatory requirements
x A change in the financial reporting framework
x A change in other reporting requirements

3.4 Acceptance of a change in terms
A change in the terms of audit engagement prior to completion may result from:
(a) A change in circumstances affecting the need for the service
(b) A misunderstanding as to the nature of an audit or of the related service originally requested
(c) A restriction on the scope of the audit engagement, whether imposed by management or caused
by circumstances
The auditor shall not agree to a change in the terms of the audit engagement where there is no reasonable
justification for doing so. In the case of (a) and (b) above, these might be acceptable reasons for
requesting a change in the engagement. A change may not be considered reasonable, however, if it seems
to relate to information that is incorrect, incomplete or otherwise unsatisfactory. An example of this would
be if the auditor could not obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence for receivables and the entity then
asks the auditor to change the engagement from an audit to a review so as to avoid a qualification of the
auditor’s report.
If the auditor is asked to change the audit engagement before it is completed to an engagement providing
a lower level of assurance such as a review or a related service, the auditor shall determine whether there
is reasonable justification for doing so because there may be legal or contractual implications.
If the terms are changed, the auditor and management shall agree and record the new terms in an
engagement letter. However, to avoid confusing users, the report on the related service will not include
reference to the original audit engagement or any procedures performed in the original audit engagement
(unless the engagement is changed to a agreed-upon procedures engagement, where reference to
procedures performed is included in the report).
However, if the auditor cannot agree to a change of terms and management does not allow the auditor to
carry on with the original audit engagement, the auditor shall withdraw from the engagement and
determine whether there is an obligation to report this to other parties (e.g. those charged with
governance, owners, regulators).
Question New auditors
You are a partner in Messrs Borg, Connors & Co, Certified Accountants. You are approached by Mr
Nastase, the managing director of Navratilova Enterprises Ltd, who asks your firm to become auditors of
his company. In return for giving you this appointment Mr Nastase says that he will expect your firm to
waive 50 per cent of your normal fee for the first year's audit. The existing auditors, Messrs Wade, Austin
& Co, have not resigned but Mr Nastase informs you that they will not be re-appointed in the future.
Required
(a) What action should Messrs Borg, Connors & Co take in response to the request from Mr Nastase
to reduce their first year's fee by 50 per cent?
(b) Are Messrs Wade, Austin & Co within their rights in not resigning when they know Mr Nastase
wishes to replace them? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer
(a) The request by Mr Nastase that half of the first year's audit fee should be waived is quite improper.
If this proposal were to be accepted it could be held that Borg Connors & Co had sought to procure
work through the quoting of lower fees. This would be unethical and would result in disciplinary
proceedings being taken against the firm.
Mr Nastase should be informed that the audit fee will be determined by reference to the work
involved in completion of a satisfactory audit, taking into account the nature of the audit tasks
involved and the resources required to carry out those tasks in an efficient manner. He should also
be told that if he is not prepared to accept an audit fee arrived at in this way and insists on there
being a reduction then regrettably the nomination to act as auditor will have to be declined.

(b) Wade, Austin & Co have every right not to resign even though they may be aware that Mr Nastase
wishes to replace them. The auditors of a company are appointed by, and report to, the members
of a company and the directors are not empowered to remove the auditors. If the reason for the
proposed change arises out of a dispute between management and the auditors then the auditors
have a right to put forward their views as seen above and to insist that any decision should be
made by the members, but only once they have been made aware of all pertinent facts concerning
the directors' wishes to have them removed from office.
Chapter Roundup
x The ACCA’s Code of ethics and conduct sets out the five fundamental principles of professional ethics
and provides a conceptual framework for applying them.
x Members of the ACCA must comply with the fundamental principles set out in the Code of ethics and
conduct (integrity, objectivity, professional competence and due care, confidentiality and professional
behaviour).
x Although auditors have a professional duty of confidentiality, they may be compelled by law or consider
it necessary in the public interest to disclose details of clients' affairs to third parties.
x Threats to independence and objectivity may arise in the form of self-review, self-interest, advocacy,
familiarity and intimidation threats. Appropriate safeguards must be put in place to eliminate or reduce
such threats to acceptable levels.
x The present and proposed auditors must communicate with each other prior to the audit being accepted,
however if the client refuses to give permission to the proposed auditors to make contact, the proposed
auditors must decline nomination.
x The terms of the audit engagement shall be agreed with management and recorded in an audit
engagement letter.

Quick Quiz
1 Match each ethical principle to the correct definition.
(a) Integrity
(b) Objectivity
(c) Professional competence and due care
(d) Confidentiality
(e) Professional behaviour
(i) Not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue influence of others to override professional or
business judgements.
(ii) Have a continuing duty to maintain professional knowledge and skill at a level required to ensure
that a client or employer receives competent professional service based on current developments
in practice, legislation and techniques. Act diligently and in accordance with applicable technical
and professional standards when providing professional services.
(iii) Be straightforward and honest in all business and professional relationships.
(iv) Comply with relevant laws and regulations and avoid any action that discredits the profession.
(v) Respect the confidentiality of information acquired as a result of professional and business
relationships and should not disclose any such information to third parties without proper or
specific authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose. Confidential
information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships should not be used for
the personal advantage of members or third parties.
2 ACCA’s Code of ethics and conduct applies only to statutory audits.
True
False
3 Fill in the blanks:
In general, the recurring work paid by the client or group of connected clients should not exceed ……..%
of the gross practice income.
In the case of ………..… or other ………… ………………. companies, the figure should be ………%
of gross practice income.
4 (a) Which of the following are legitimate reasons for breach of client confidentiality?
(i) Auditor suspects client has committed treason
(ii) Disclosure needed to protect auditor's own interests
(iii) Information is required for the auditor of another client
(iv) Auditor knows client has committed terrorist offence
(v) There is a public duty to disclose
(vi) Auditor considers there to be non-compliance with law and regulations
(vii) Auditor suspects client has committed fraud
(b) Of the above reasons, which are voluntary disclosures and which are obligatory disclosures?
5 An engagement letter is only ever sent to a client before the first audit.
True
False

1 (a) (iii)
(b) (i)
(c) (ii)
(d) (v)
(e) (iv)
2 False. The spirit of the guidance applies equally to other audit situations.
3 15, listed, public interest, 10
4 (a) (i), (ii), (iv), (v), (vi)
(b) (i) Obligatory
(ii) Voluntary
(iv) Obligatory
(v) Voluntary
(vi) Obligatory
(NB. In the case of (vii), the auditor should not take action outside the company until he is certain. When
he is certain, he should seek legal advice.)
5 False. It should be re-issued if there is a change in circumstances.


P
A
R
T
Internal audit
73
74
Internal audit

1 Internal audit and corporate governance B1
2 Distinction between internal and external audit B2
3 Scope of the internal audit function B3
4 Internal audit assignments B5
5 Internal audit reports B2, B3, G3
6 Outsourcing the internal audit function B4
Introduction
Internal audit is a function established by management to assist in corporate
governance by assessing internal controls and helping in risk management. It
can be a department of employees or can be outsourced to expert service
providers.
Internal auditing is different from external auditing, although the techniques
used by both are very similar. While the techniques used may be similar, the
focus and reasons behind the audit are different.
Various assurance assignments may be undertaken by internal auditors and
these are outlined in Section 4. The role of internal audit with regard to fraud is
also discussed briefly.
The chapter ends with a consideration of outsourcing the internal audit function
– this is very common in the real world and we discuss the potential benefits
and drawbacks of doing so.
75
Study guide
Intellectual level
B1 Internal audit and corporate governance
(a) Discuss the factors to be taken into account when assessing the need for 2
internal audit
(b) Discuss the elements of best practice in the structure and operations of 2
internal audit with reference to appropriate international codes of corporate
governance
B2 Differences between external and internal audit
(a) Compare and contrast the role of external and internal audit regarding audit 2
planning and the collection of audit evidence
(b) Compare and contrast the types of report provided by internal and external 2
audit
B3 The scope of the internal audit function
(a) Discuss the scope of internal audit and the limitations of the internal audit 2
function
(b) Explain the types of audit report provided in internal audit assignments 1
(c) Discuss the responsibilities of internal and external auditors for the 2
prevention and detection of fraud and error
B4 Outsourcing the internal audit department
(a) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing internal audit 1
B5 Internal audit assignments
(a) Discuss the nature and purpose of internal audit assignments including 2
value for money, IT, best value and financial
(b) Discuss the nature and purpose of operational internal audit assignments 2
including procurement, marketing, treasury and human resources
management
G3 Internal audit reports
(a) Describe and explain the format and content of internal audit review reports 1
and other reports dealing with the enhancement of performance
(b) Explain the process for producing an internal audit report 1
Exam guide
Internal audit has featured in every sitting of the F8 paper to date so it is therefore very important that you
understand what internal auditing is and how it differs from external auditing, as there is a good chance it
could come up again.
The pilot paper had a question worth six marks on the responsibilities of internal and external auditors to
detect fraud. In December 2007, there were eight marks available on the independence of internal audit in
a scenario question. In June 2008, question 4 was wholly devoted to internal audit – part (a) was
knowledge-based for eight marks on the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing the internal audit
function, and part (b) was for 12 marks on the reasons for having an internal audit function (scenario
context). There was a similar question in December 2008 on the benefits of having an internal audit
department, worth eight marks and in a scenario context. The June 2009 paper had an eight mark
question on comparing and contrasting the role of internal and external auditors.
76 5: Internal Audit ~ Part B Internal audit

1 Internal audit and corporate governance Pilot paper
FAST FORWARD
Internal audit assists management in achieving the entity’s corporate objectives, particularly in
establishing good corporate governance.
1.1 Introduction
The following definition of internal auditing was given in Chapter 1, for comparison with other forms of
assurance service and providers:
Key term
Internal auditing is an appraisal or monitoring activity established within an entity as a service to the
entity. It functions by, amongst other things, examining, evaluating and reporting to management and the
directors on the adequacy and effectiveness of components of the accounting and internal control
systems.
Internal audit is generally a feature of large companies. It is a function, provided either by employees of
the entity or sourced from an external organisation, to assist management in achieving corporate
objectives. An entity’s corporate objectives will vary from company to company, and will be found in a
company's mission statement and strategic plan. However, other corporate objectives will not vary so
much between companies, and are linked to a key issue we have already discussed in Chapter 3 on good
1.2 Internal audit and corporate governance

Established codes of corporate governance such as the UK's Combined Code highlight the need for
businesses to maintain good systems of internal control to manage the risks the company faces. Internal
audit can play a key role in assessing and monitoring internal control policies and procedures.
The internal audit function can assist the board in other ways as well:
x By, in effect, acting as auditors for board reports not audited by the external auditors
x By being the experts in fields such as auditing and accounting standards in the company and
assisting in implementation of new standards
x By liaising with external auditors, particularly where external auditors can use internal audit work
and reduce the time and therefore cost of the external audit.
One of the principles of the Combined Code that was set out in Chapter 3 is that:
The board should establish formal and transparent arrangements for considering how they should apply
the financial reporting and internal control principles for maintaining an appropriate relationship with the
company’s auditors.
Part of achieving this principle requires the audit committee to:

x Monitor and review the effectiveness of internal audit activities
x Where there is no internal audit function, to consider annually whether there is a need for this
function and make a recommendation to the board
x Where there is no internal audit function, to explain in the annual report the absence of such a
function
Part B Internal audit ~ 5: Internal Audit 77

2 Distinction between internal and external audit
June 09
FAST FORWARD
Although many of the techniques internal and external auditors use may be similar, the basis and
reasoning of their work is different.
The external audit is focused on the financial statements, whereas the internal audit is focused on the
operations of the entire business.
The following table highlights the key differences between internal and external audit.
Internal audit External audit

Objective Designed to add value and improve an An exercise to enable auditors to express
organisation's operations. an opinion on the financial statements.
Reporting Reports to the board of directors, or other Reports to the shareholders or members
people charged with governance, such as of a company on the truth and fairness of
the audit committee. Reports are private the accounts. Audit report is publicly
and for the directors and management of available to the shareholders and other
the company. interested parties.
Scope Work relates to the operations of the Work relates to the financial statements.
organisation.
Relationship Often employees of the organisation, Independent of the company and its
although sometimes the function is management. Usually appointed by the
outsourced. shareholders.
Planning and Strategic long term planning carried out, Planning carried out to achieve objective
collection of to achieve objective of assignments, with regarding truth and fairness of financial
evidence no materiality level being set. statements.
Some audits may be procedural, rather Materiality level set during planning (may
than risk-based. be amended during course of audit).
Evidence mainly from interviewing staff External audit work is risk-based.
and inspecting documents (ie not Evidence collected using a variety of
external). procedures per ISAs to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence.
The table demonstrates that the whole basis and reasoning of internal audit work is fundamentally different
to that of external audit work.
Exam focus It is vital that you understand the difference between the role of internal and external audit. Questions from
point either perspective could come up in the exam, so your understanding of the respective roles of internal
and external auditors will assist you in answering the question set.
2.1 Regulation of internal auditors

Internal auditing is not regulated in the same way as statutory external auditing (which we covered in
Chapter 2). There are no legal requirements associated with becoming an internal auditor. The scope and
nature of internal audit's work is more likely to be set by company policy than by any external guidelines.
In contrast to external auditors, internal auditors are not required to be members of a professional body
such as the ACCA. However, this does not mean they cannot be, and many are. There is also a global
Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) which internal auditors may become members of. It issues 'Standards
for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing'. These are not examinable, so are not detailed in this
Study Text, but you should be aware of the them as being another Code of Good Practice that internal
auditors can follow, providing a framework for a wide range of internal audit services.

3 Scope of the internal audit function Pilot paper, Dec 07
FAST FORWARD
Internal audit has two key roles to play in relation to organisational risk management:
x Ensuring the company's risk management system operates effectively
x Ensuring that strategies implemented in respect of business risks operate effectively
3.1 Business risk

The UK's Turnbull guidance on internal control assists companies in applying the section of the Combined
Code relating to internal control. This guidance refers to the management of risks that are significant to
the fulfilment of the company’s objectives which is known as business risk.
Key term Business risk is a risk resulting from significant conditions, events, circumstances, actions or inactions
that could adversely affect an entity’s ability to achieve its objectives and execute its strategies, or from the
setting of inappropriate objectives and strategies.
Business risk cannot be eliminated, but it must be managed by the company:
IDENTIFY DETERMINE IMPLEMENT

RISKS COMPANY STRATEGY
POLICY
Designing and operating internal control systems is a key part of a company's risk management. This will
often be done by employees in their various departments, although sometimes (particularly in the case of
specialised computer systems) the company will hire external expertise to design systems.
3.2 The role of internal audit

The internal audit department has a two-fold role in relation to risk management.
x It monitors the company's overall risk management policy to ensure it operates effectively.
x It monitors the strategies implemented to ensure that they continue to operate effectively.
As a significant risk management policy in companies is to implement internal controls, internal audit has
a key role in assessing systems and testing controls.
Internal audit may assist in the development of systems. However, its key role will be in monitoring the
overall process and in providing assurance that the systems which the departments have designed meet
objectives and operate effectively.
It is important that the internal audit department retains its objectivity towards these aspects of its role,
which is another reason why internal audit would generally not be involved in the assessment of risks and
the design of the system.
3.3 Responsibility for fraud and error

FAST FORWARD
It is the responsibility of management and those charged with governance to prevent and detect fraud, and
in this respect, internal auditors may have a role to play.
Fraud is a key business risk. It is the responsibility of the directors to prevent and detect fraud. As the
internal auditor has a role in risk management he is involved in the process of managing the risk of fraud. It
is not the responsibility of the external auditors to prevent and detect fraud, although they may unearth
fraud as part of their audit of the financial statements, and they shall be aware of the risks of fraud while
carrying out the audit. (We look at the external auditor's responsibilities for fraud and error in more detail in
Chapter 6.)

The internal auditor can help to prevent fraud by carrying out work on assessing the adequacy and
effectiveness of control systems. The internal auditor can help to detect fraud by being mindful when
carrying out his work and reporting any suspicions.
The very existence of an internal audit department may act as a deterrent to fraud. The internal auditors
might also be called upon to undertake special projects to investigate a suspected fraud.
3.4 Limitations of the internal audit function

Although the presence of an internal audit department within an organisation is indicative of good internal
control, by its very nature, there are some limitations of the internal audit function.
Internal auditors are employed by the organisation and this can impair their independence and
objectivity and ability to report fraud/error to senior management because of perceived threats to their
continued employment within the company.
To ensure transparency, best practice indicates that the internal audit function should have a dual
reporting relationship, i.e. report both to management and those charged with governance (the audit
committee). If this reporting structure is not in place, management may be able to unduly influence the
internal audit plan, scope, and whether issues are reported appropriately. This results in a serious conflict,
limits the scope and compromises the effectiveness of the internal audit function.
Internal auditors are not required to be professionally qualified (as accountants are) and so there may be
limitations in their knowledge and technical expertise.
Question Internal control procedures
The growing recognition by management of the benefits of good internal control and the complexities of an
adequate system of internal control have led to the development of internal auditing as a form of control
over all other internal controls. The emergence of internal auditors as experts in internal control is the result
of an evolutionary process similar in many ways to the evolution of external auditing.
Required
(a) Explain why the internal and independent external auditors' review of internal control procedures
differ in purpose.
(b) Explain the reasons why internal auditors should or should not report their findings on internal
control to the following company officials:
(i) The board of directors
(ii) The chief accountant
Answer
(a) Internal auditors review and test the system of internal control and report to management in order
to improve the information received by managers and to help in their task of running the company.
They will recommend changes to the system to ensure that management receives objective
information which is efficiently produced. They also have a duty to search for and discover fraud.
The external auditors review the system of internal control in order to determine the extent of the
substantive work required on the year-end accounts.
The external auditors report to the shareholders rather than the managers or directors. They report
on the truth and fairness of the financial statements, not directly on the system of internal control.
External auditors usually however issue a report to management, laying out any areas of weakness
and recommendations for improvement in the system of internal control. They do not have a
specific duty to detect fraud, although they should plan their audit procedures so as to detect any
material misstatements in the accounts on which they give an opinion.

(b) (i) Board of directors
A high level of independence is achieved by the internal auditors if they report directly to the
board. There may be problems with this approach.
(1) The members of the board may not understand all the implications of the internal
audit reports when accounting or technical information is required.
(2) The board may not have enough time to spend considering the reports in sufficient
depth. Important recommendations might therefore remain unimplemented.
A way around these problems might be to delegate the review of internal audit reports to an
audit committee, which would act as a sub-committee to the main board. The audit
committee should be made up largely of non-executive directors who have more time and
independence from the day-to-day running of the company.
(ii) Chief accountant
It would be inappropriate for internal audit to report to the chief accountant, who is in
charge of running the system of internal control. It may be feasible for him or her to receive
the report as well as the board. Otherwise, the internal audit function cannot be effectively
independent as the chief accountant may suppress unfavourable reports or may just not act
on the recommendations of such reports.
4 Internal audit assignments

FAST FORWARD
Internal audit can be involved in many different assignments as directed by management. These can range
from value for money projects to operational assignments looking at specific parts of the business.
In the next section we will consider a number of the detailed assignments which an internal auditor could
get involved in.
4.1 Value for money audits

Value for money (VFM) audits examine the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of activities and
processes. These are known as the three Es of VFM audits. For example, in Singapore, the Auditor-
General’s Office carries out VFM audits on the economic, efficient and effective use of public resources.
The three Es can be defined as follows.
(a) Economy: attaining the appropriate quantity and quality of physical, human and financial resources
(inputs) at lowest cost. An activity would not be economic, if, for example, there was over-staffing
or failure to purchase materials of requisite quality at the lowest available price.
(b) Efficiency: this is the relationship between goods or services produced (outputs) and the resources
used to produce them. An efficient operation produces the maximum output for any given set of
resource inputs, or it has minimum inputs for any given quantity and quality of product or service
provided.
(c) Effectiveness: this is concerned with how well an activity is achieving its policy objectives or other
intended effects.
The internal auditors will evaluate these three factors for any given business system or operation in the
company. Value for money can often only be judged by comparison. In searching for value for money,
present methods of operation and uses of resources must be compared with alternatives.
The following list identifies areas of an organisation, process or activity where there might be scope for
significant value for money improvements. Each of these should be reviewed within individual organisations.
x Service delivery (the actual provision of a public service)
x Management process
x Environment

An alternative approach is to look at areas of spending. A value for money assessment of economy,
efficiency and effectiveness would look at whether:
x Too much money is being spent on certain items or activities, to achieve the targets or objectives
of the overall operation
x Money is being spent to no purpose, because the spending is not helping to achieve objectives
x Changes could be made to improve performance
An illustrative list is shown below of the sort of spending areas that might be looked at, and the aspects of
spending where value for money might be improved.
x Employee expenses
x Premises expenses
x Suppliers and services
x Establishment expenses
x Capital expenditure
Problems with VFM auditing
Measuring outputs For example, the outputs of a fire brigade can be measured by the
number of call-outs, but it is not satisfactory to compare a call-out to
individuals stuck in a lift with a call-out to a small house fire or a
major industrial fire or a road accident etc.
Defining objectives In not-for-profit organisations the quality of the service provided will be a
significant feature of their service. For example, a local authority has,
amongst its various different objectives, the objective of providing a
rubbish collection service. The effectiveness of this service can only be
judged by establishing what standard or quality of service is required.
Sacrifice of quality Economy and efficiency can be achieved by sacrificing quality. Neither
outputs nor impacts are necessarily measured in terms of quality. For
example, the cost of teaching can be reduced by increasing the
pupil:teacher ratio in schools, but it is difficult to judge the
consequences of such a change on teaching standards and quality.
Measuring effectiveness For example, the effectiveness of the health service could be said to
have improved if hospitals have greater success in treating various
illnesses and other conditions, or if the life expectancy of the
population has increased, but a consequence of these changes will be
overcrowded hospitals and longer waiting lists.
Over-emphasis in cost control There can be an emphasis with VFM audits on costs and cost control
rather than on achieving more benefits and value, so that management
might be pressurised into 'short-term' decisions, such as abandoning
capital expenditure plans which would create future benefits in order
to keep current spending levels within limits.
Measuring efficiency In profit-making organisations, the efficiency of the organisation as a
whole can be measured in terms of return on capital employed.
Individual profit centres or operating units within the organisation can
also have efficiency measured by relating the quantity of output
produced, which has a market value and therefore a quantifiable
financial value, to the inputs (and their cost) required to make the
output.
In not-for-profit organisations, output does not usually have a market
value, and it is therefore more difficult to measure efficiency. This
difficulty is compounded by the fact that, since such organisations
often have many different activities or operations, it is difficult to
compare the efficiency of one operation with the efficiency of another.
For example, with the police force, it might be difficult to compare the
efficiency of a serious crimes squad with the efficiency of the traffic
police.

4.2 Information technology audits
An information technology (IT) audit is a test of controls in a specific area of the business, the computer
systems. Increasingly in modern business, computers are vital to the functioning of the business, and
therefore the controls over them are key to the business.
It is likely to be necessary to have an IT specialist in the internal audit team to undertake an audit of the
controls, as some of them will be programmed into the computer system.
The diagram below shows the various areas of IT in the business which might be subject to a test of
controls by the auditors.
Database
E business management system
System development
Operational process
system
Access control Problem

IT SYSTEMS
management
Capacity
management
Change
Desktop management
audit Asset Networks
management
4.3 Best value audits

'Best value' is a performance framework introduced into local authorities by the UK government. They are
required to publish annual best value performance plans and review all of their functions over a five year period.
As part of best value authorities are required to strive for continuous improvement by implementing the '4 Cs':
x Challenge. How and why is a service provided?
x Compare. Make comparisons with other local authorities and the private sector.
x Consult. Talk to local taxpayers and services users and the wider business community in setting
performance targets.
x Compete. Embrace fair competition as a means of securing efficient and effective services.
One of internal audit's standard roles in a company is to provide assurance that internal control systems
are adequate to promote the effective use of resources and that risks are being managed properly.
This role can be extended to ensure that the local authority has arrangements in place to achieve best
value, that the risks and impacts of best value are incorporated into normal audit testing and that the
authority keeps abreast of best value developments.
As best value depends on assessing current services and setting strategies for development, internal audit
can take part in the 'position audit', as they should have a good understanding of how services are
currently organised and relate to each other.
As assurance providers, internal audit will play a key part in giving management assurance that its
objectives and strategies in relation to best value are being met.
4.4 Financial
The financial audit is internal audit's traditional role. It involves reviewing all the available evidence (usually
the company's records) to substantiate information in management and financial reporting.
This role in many ways echoes that of the external auditor, and is not one in which the internal auditors
can add any particular value to the business. Increasingly, it is a minor part of the function of internal
audit.

4.5 Operational audits
Key term Operational audits are audits of the operational processes of the organisation. They are also known as
management or efficiency audits. Their prime objective is the monitoring of management's performance,
ensuring company policy is adhered to.
4.5.1 Approaching operational internal audit assignments

There are two aspects of an operational assignment:
x Ensure policies are adequate
x Ensure policies work effectively
In terms of adequacy, the internal auditor will have to review the policies of a particular department by:
x Reading them
x Discussion with members of the department
Then the auditor will have to assess whether the policies are adequate, and possibly advise the board of
improvement.
The auditor will then have to examine the effectiveness of the controls by:
x Observing them in operation
x Testing them
This will be done on similar lines to the testing of controls by external auditors which is discussed in
Section D of this Study Text, even though the controls being tested may differ.
4.5.2 Procurement audits

Procurement is the process of purchasing for the business. A procurement audit will therefore
concentrate on the systems of the purchasing department(s). The internal auditor will be checking that the
system achieves key objectives and that it operates according to company guidelines.
4.5.3 Marketing audits

Marketing is the process of assessing and enhancing demand for the company's products. Marketing
and associated sales are very important for the business and also therefore for the internal auditor but as
the associated systems do not directly impact on the financial statements, they do not usually concern
the external auditor.
It is important for the internal auditor to review the marketing processes to ensure:
x The process is managed efficiently
x Information is freely available to manager demand
x Risks are being managed correctly
An audit may be especially critical for a marketing department which may be complex with several
different teams, for example:
x Research
x Advertising
x Promotions
x After-sales
It is vital to ensure that information is passed on properly within the department and that activities are
streamlined.
4.5.4 Treasury audits

Treasury is a function within the finance department of a business. It manages the funds of a business so
that cash is available when required.
There are risks associated with treasury, in terms of interest rate risk and foreign currency risk, and the
internal auditor must ensure that the risk is managed in accordance with company procedures.

As with marketing audits, it is vital to ensure that information is available to the treasury department, so
that they can ensure funds are available when required.
4.5.5 Human resources audits

The human resources department both procures a human resource (employee) for the operation of the
business and supports that employee in developing within the organisation.
It is important to ensure that the processes in place ensure that people are available to work as the
business requires them and that the overall development of the business is planned and controlled.
Again, ensuring company policies are maintained and information is freely available are key factors for
internal audit to assess.
5 Internal audit reports

FAST FORWARD
The internal auditors' report may take any form as there are no formal reporting requirements for these
reports as there are for the external auditor's report.
5.1 Reporting on internal audit assignments

Internal auditors produce reports for directors and management as a result of work performed. These
reports are internal to the business and are unlikely to be shared with third parties other than the external
auditors.
We have looked in detail at the types of assignment internal audit will carry out. These may be
summarised as 'risk-based', where the internal auditors consider internal and external risks and discuss
company operations and systems in place in respect of them or 'performance enhancement' where
internal auditors consider risk and strategy on a higher level.
For the most part work is likely to be risk-based. Regardless of the nature of the assignment, however, all
internal audits are likely to result in a formal report.
Usually at the end of the audit fieldwork, the internal auditors produce a draft report which is sent out for
consideration by the relevant management. Once this has been approved, the internal auditors will meet
with management to discuss the work and the findings and recommendations. After the meeting, the
internal auditors then produce a formal report which, once approved by the relevant people, is used to
produce the final report for distribution.
5.2 Contents of the report

There are no formal requirements for internal audit reports as there are for the external audit report. The
external audit report is a highly stylised document which is substantially the same for any audit. A report
from the internal auditors in relation to an assignment can take essentially any form. However, some
points should be borne in mind.
There is a generally accepted format for reports in business, which is laid out below. This format makes
reports useful to readers as it highlights the conclusions drawn and gives easy reference to the user.
Standard report format

TERMS OF REFERENCE
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
BODY OF THE REPORT
APPENDICES FOR ANY ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The report will also be dated, marked as draft or final and have a 'distribution list' attached.

Some internal audit reports will be modified as responses are made to them by various members of staff.
If this is the case, the report should clearly state which version it is. The distribution list may also be
annotated to show who has commented on the report at any time.
The executive summary of an internal audit report should give the following information.
x Background to the assignment
x Objectives of the assignment
x Major outcomes of the work
x Key risks identified
x Key action points
x Summary of the work left to do
The main body of the report will contain the detail such as the audit tests carried out and their findings,
full lists of action points, including details of who has responsibility for carrying them out, the future time-
scale and costs.
6 Outsourcing the internal audit function June 08

FAST FORWARD
Internal audit departments may consist of employees of the company, or may be outsourced to external
service providers. The advantages of outsourcing the internal audit function include speed, cost and a
tailored answer to internal audit requirements. One of the main disadvantages may include threats to
independence and objectivity if the external audit service is provided by the same firm.
6.1 What is outsourcing?

Key term Outsourcing is the use of external suppliers as a source of finished products, components or services. It is
also known as sub-contracting.
Whilst the scope of the internal auditor's work is different to that of the external auditor, there are many
features that can link them. One of the key factors is that the techniques which are used to carry out
audits are the same for internal and external auditors.
It can be expensive to maintain an internal audit function consisting of employees of the company. It is
possible that the monitoring and review required by a certain company could be done in a small amount of
time and full-time employees cannot be justified.
It is also possible that a number of internal audit staff are required, but the cost of recruitment is
prohibitive, or the directors are aware that the need for internal audit is only short-term.
In such circumstances, it is possible to outsource the internal audit function, that is, purchase the service
from outside.
In this respect, many of the larger accountancy firms offer internal audit services. It is likely that the same
firm might offer one client both internal and external audit services. In such circumstances the firm would
have to be aware of the independence issues this would raise for the external audit team and implement
safeguards to ensure that its independence and objectivity were not impaired. We discussed such issues
in Chapter 4 when we looked at professional ethics.

6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing
The advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing the internal audit function are set out in the following
table.
Advantages of outsourcing Disadvantages of outsourcing
x Staff do not need to be recruited, as the x There will be independence and objectivity
service provider has good quality staff. issues if the company uses the same firm to
x The service provider has different provide both internal and external audit
specialist skills and can assess what services.
management require them to do. x The cost of outsourcing the internal audit
x Outsourcing can provide an immediate function might be high enough to make the
internal audit department. directors choose not to have an internal audit
x Associated costs, such as staff training, are function at all.
eliminated. x Company staff may oppose outsourcing if it
results in redundancies.
x The service contract can be for the
appropriate time scale. x There may be a high staff turnover of internal
audit staff.
x Because the time scale is flexible, a team
of staff can be provided if required. x The outsourced staff may only have a limited
knowledge of the company.
x It can be used on a short-term basis.
x The company will lose in-house skills.
6.3 Managing an outsourced department

A company will need to establish controls over the outsourced internal audit department. These would
include:
x Setting performance measures in terms of cost and areas of the business reviewed and
investigating any variances
x Ensuring appropriate audit methodology (working papers/reviews) is maintained
x Reviewing working papers on a sample basis to ensure they meet internal standards/guidelines
x Agreeing internal audit work plans in advance of work being performed
x If external auditor is used, ensuring the firm has suitable controls to keep the two functions
separate so that independence and objectivity is not impaired

Chapter Roundup
x Internal audit assists management in achieving the entity’s corporate objectives, particularly in
establishing good corporate governance.
x Although many of the techniques internal and external auditors use may be similar, the basis and
reasoning of their work is different.
x Internal audit has two key roles to play in relation to organisational risk management:
– Ensuring the company's risk management system operates effectively
– Ensuring that strategies implemented in respect of business risks operate effectively
x It is the responsibility of management and those charged with governance to prevent and detect fraud, and
in this respect, internal auditors may have a role to play.
x Internal audit can be involved in many different assignments as directed by management. These can range
from value for money projects to operational assignments looking at specific parts of the business.
x The internal auditors' report may take any form as there are no formal reporting requirements for these
reports as there are for the external auditor's report.
x Internal audit departments may consist of employees of the company, or may be outsourced to external
service providers. The advantages of outsourcing the internal audit function include speed, cost and a
tailored answer to internal audit requirements. One of the main disadvantages may include threats to
independence and objectivity if the external audit service is provided by the same firm.

Quick Quiz
1 What is an internal audit?
2 Name three key differences between internal and external audit.
(1) ……………………………………………………
(2) ……………………………………………………
(3) ……………………………………………………
3 Link the value for money 'E' with its definition.
(a) Economy
(b) Efficiency
(c) Effectiveness
(i) The relationships between the goods and services produced (outputs) and the resources used to
produce them.
(ii) The concern with how well an activity is achieving its policy objectives or other intended effects.
(iii) Attaining the appropriate quantity and quality of physical, human and financial resources (inputs) at
lowest cost.
4 Name five areas of the computer system which might benefit from an IT audit.
(1) ……………………………………………………
(2) ……………………………………………………
(3) ……………………………………………………
(4) ……………………………………………………
(5) ……………………………………………………
5 There are formal statutory rules governing the format of internal audit reports.
True
False
6 It is possible to buy in an internal audit service from an external organisation.
True
False

1 Internal audit is an appraisal or monitoring activity established by the entity as a service to the entity.
2 (1) External auditors report to members, internal auditors report to directors.
(2) External auditors report on financial statements, internal auditors report on systems, controls and
risks.
(3) External auditors are independent of the company, internal auditors are often employed by it.
3 (a) (iii), (b) (i), (c) (ii)
4 Five from e-business, operational system, access control, capacity management, desktop audit, asset
management, networks, change management, problem management, system development process,
database management system.
5 False
6 True – this is known as outsourcing.


P
A
R
T
Planning and
risk assessment
91
92
Risk assessment

1 Introduction to risk C1
2 Materiality C3
3 Understanding the entity and its environment C2, C4
4 Assessing the risks of material misstatement C1, C2
5 Responding to the risk assessment C1, C2
6 Fraud, law and regulations C3
7 Documentation of risk assessment C1, C2, C3, C4
Introduction
This chapter covers the aspects of the external audit which will be considered
at the earliest stages, during planning.
Firstly we introduce the concept of risk and look in detail at audit risk and its
components (control risk, inherent risk and detection risk) and at how audit
risk is managed by the auditor. The distinction between audit risk and business
risk is also made.
We discuss the concept of materiality for the financial statements as a whole
and performance materiality and the methods used for calculating them. It is
important to understand that the calculation of materiality is a matter of
judgement and that materiality must be reviewed during the course of the audit
and revised if necessary.
The importance of understanding the entity being audited and its environment
is a key aspect of audit planning and helps the auditor to identify potential risk
areas to focus on. Various techniques can be used here such as inquiry,
analytical procedures, observation and inspection. The risk assessment stage
allows the auditor to respond with a proposed audit approach which may be
controls based or totally substantive.
The auditor also needs to consider the risks of fraud and non-compliance with
laws and regulations in the audit and this is examined towards the end of this
h
93
Study guide
Intellectual level
C1 Objective and general principles
(a) Identify and describe the need to plan and perform audits with an attitude of 2
professional scepticism
(b) Identify and describe engagement risks affecting the audit of an entity 1
(c) Explain the components of audit risk 1
(d) Compare and contrast risk based, procedural and other approaches to audit 2
work
(e) Discuss the importance of risk analysis 2
(f) Describe the use of information technology in risk analysis 1
C2 Understanding the entity and knowledge of the business
(a) Explain how auditors obtain an initial understanding of the entity and 2
knowledge of its business environment
C3 Assessing the risks of material misstatement and fraud
(a) Define and explain the concepts of materiality and tolerable error 2
(b) Compute indicative materiality levels from financial information 2
(c) Discuss the effect of fraud and misstatements on the audit strategy and 2
extent of audit work
C4 Analytical procedures
(a) Describe and explain the nature and purpose of analytical procedures in 2
planning
(b) Compute and interpret key ratios used in analytical procedures 2
Exam guide
Audit planning is a very important stage of the audit because it helps direct the focus of the audit. Within
planning, risk is a key topic area. You may be asked in the exam to explain various terms such as risk and
materiality. This involves not merely learning the definitions but also being able to show how in practice
the auditor uses these techniques in planning an audit. You might also have to identify the risks from a
given scenario – in such a question it’s important to explain fully why any factors you have identified are
risks, otherwise you will not attain the maximum marks available.
The June 2008 paper had a question on analytical procedures used during planning, with an eight mark
knowledge-based part and a nine mark part requiring the application of analytical procedures to income
statement figures.
The December 2008 paper had a question on audit risk and a 12 mark part on the identification of inherent
risk areas in a charity.
The June 2009 had a question worth six marks, on the external auditor's responsibilities for the detection
of fraud, and a ten mark question on risks relating to the audit of a new audit client.
94 6: Risk assessment ~ Part C Planning and risk assessment

1 Introduction to risk
1.1 Professional scepticism, professional judgement and ethical
requirements
FAST FORWARD
Auditors are required to carry out the audit with an attitude of professional scepticism, exercise
professional judgement and comply with ethical requirements.
Key terms Professional scepticism is an attitude that includes a questioning mind, being alert to conditions which
may indicate possible misstatement due to error or fraud, and a critical assessment of audit evidence.
Professional judgement is the application of relevant training, knowledge and experience in making
informed decisions about the courses of action that are appropriate in the circumstances of the audit
engagement.
1.1.1 Professional scepticism

ISA 200 Overall objectives of the independent auditor and the conduct of an audit in accordance with
International Standards on Auditing states that auditors must plan and perform an audit with an attitude of
professional scepticism recognising that circumstances may exist that cause the financial statements to
be materially misstated.
This requires the auditor to be alert to:
x Audit evidence that contradicts other audit evidence obtained
x Information that brings into question the reliability of documents and responses to inquiries to be
used as audit evidence
x Conditions that may indicate possible fraud
x Circumstances that suggest the need for audit procedures in addition to those required by ISAs
Professional scepticism needs to be maintained throughout the audit to reduce the risks of overlooking
unusual transactions, over-generalising when drawing conclusions, and using inappropriate assumptions
in determining the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures and evaluating the results of them.
Professional scepticism is also necessary to the critical assessment of audit evidence. This includes
questioning contradictory audit evidence and the reliability of documents and responses from
management and those charged with governance.
1.1.2 Professional judgement

ISA 200 also requires the auditor to exercise professional judgement in planning and performing an audit
of financial statements. Professional judgement is required in the following areas:
x Materiality and audit risk
x Nature, timing and extent of audit procedures
x Evaluation of whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been obtained
x Evaluating management’s judgements in applying the applicable financial reporting framework
x Drawing conclusions based on the audit evidence obtained
1.1.3 Ethical requirements

ISA 200 states that the auditor must comply with the relevant ethical requirements, including those
relating to independence, that are relevant to financial statement audit engagements. We discussed
professional ethics in Chapter 4 of this Study Text.
Part C Planning and risk assessment ~ 6: Risk assessment 95

1.2 Overall audit risk
Auditors usually follow a risk-based approach to auditing as required by ISAs. In this approach, auditors
analyse the risks associated with the client's business, transactions and systems which could lead to
misstatements in the financial statements, and direct their testing to risky areas. This is in contrast to a
procedural approach which is not in accordance with ISAs. In a procedural approach, the auditor would
perform a set of standard tests regardless of the client and its business. The risk of the auditor providing an
incorrect opinion on the truth and fairness of the financial statements might be higher if a procedural
approach was adopted.
1.3 Audit risk Dec 08

FAST FORWARD
Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an inappropriate audit opinion when the financial
statements are materially misstated. It is a function of the risk of material misstatement (inherent risk and
control risk) and the risk that the auditor will not detect such misstatement (detection risk).
Key term Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an inappropriate audit opinion when the financial
statements are materially misstated.
Audit risk has two elements, the risk that the financial statements contain a material misstatement and the
risk that the auditors will fail to detect any material misstatements.
Audit risk has two major components. One is dependent on the entity, and is the risk of material
misstatement arising in the financial statements (inherent risk and control risk). The other is dependent on
the auditor, and is the risk that the auditor will not detect material misstatements in the financial statements
(detection risk). We shall look in detail at the concept of materiality in the next section of this chapter. Audit
risk can be represented by the audit risk model:
Audit risk = Inherent risk u control risk u detection risk
1.3.1 Inherent risk

Key term Inherent risk is the susceptibility of an assertion to a misstatement that could be material individually or
when aggregated with other misstatements, assuming there were no related internal controls.
Inherent risk is the risk that items will be misstated due to the characteristics of those items, such as the
fact they are estimates or that they are important items in the accounts. The auditors must use their
professional judgement and all available knowledge to assess inherent risk. If no such information or
knowledge is available then the inherent risk is high.
Inherent risk is affected by the nature of the entity; for example, the industry it is in and the regulations it
falls under, and also the nature of the strategies it adopts. We shall look at more examples of inherent
risks later in this chapter.
1.3.2 Control risk

The other element of the risk of material misstatements in the financial statements is control risk.
Key term Control risk is the risk that a material misstatement that could occur in an assertion and that could be
material, individually or when aggregated with other misstatements, will not be prevented or detected and
corrected on a timely basis by the entity’s internal control.
We shall look at control risk in more detail in Chapter 9 when we discuss internal controls.

1.3.3 Detection risk
Key term Detection risk is the risk that the procedures performed by the auditor to reduce audit risk to an
acceptably low level will not detect a misstatement that exists and that could be material, individually or
when aggregated with other misstatements.
The third element of audit risk is detection risk. This is the component of audit risk that the auditors have a
degree of control over, because, if risk is too high to be tolerated, the auditors can carry out more work to
reduce this aspect of audit risk, and therefore audit risk as a whole. Sampling risk and non-sampling risk
are components of detection risk, and will be examined further in chapter 11.
1.4 Management of audit risk

ISA 200 states that 'to obtain reasonable assurance, the auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level and thereby enable the auditor to draw reasonable
conclusions on which to base the auditor’s opinion.’
Auditors will want their overall audit risk to be at an acceptable level, or it will not be worth them carrying
out the audit. In other words, if the chance of them giving an inappropriate opinion and being sued is high,
it might be better not to do the audit at all.
The auditors will obviously consider how risky a new audit client is during the acceptance process, and
may decide not to go ahead with the relationship. However, they will also consider audit risk for each
individual audit, and will seek to manage the risk.
As we have seen above, it is not in the auditors' power to affect inherent or control risk. These are risks
integral to the client, and the auditor cannot change the level of these risks.
The auditors therefore manage overall audit risk by manipulating detection risk, the only element of audit
risk they have control over. This is because the more audit work the auditors carry out, the lower detection
risk becomes, although it can never be entirely eliminated due to the inherent limitations of audit.
The auditors will decide what level of overall risk is acceptable, and then determine a level of audit work so
that detection risk is as low as possible.
It is important to understand that there is not a standard level of audit risk which is generally considered
by auditors to be acceptable. This is a matter of audit judgement, and so will vary from firm to firm and
audit to audit. Audit firms are likely to charge higher fees for higher risk clients. Regardless of the risk
level of the audit, however, it is vital that audit firms always carry out an audit of sufficient quality.
Question Audit risk
Hippo Co is a long established client of your firm. It manufactures bathroom fittings and fixtures, which it
sells to a range of wholesalers, on credit.
You are the audit senior and have recently been sent the following extract from the draft statement of
financial position by the finance director.
Budget Actual
$'000s $'000s $'000s $'000s
Non-current assets 453 367
Current assets
Trade accounts receivable 1,134 976
Bank – 54
Current liabilities
Trade accounts payable 967 944
Bank overdraft 9 –
During the course of your conversation with the finance director, you establish that a major new customer
the company had included in its budget went bankrupt during the year.

Required
Identify any potential risks for the audit of Hippo and explain why you believe they are risks.
Answer
Potential risks relevant to the audit of Hippo
(1) Credit sales. Hippo makes sales on credit. This increases the risk that Hippo's sales will not be
converted into cash. Trade receivables is likely to be a risky area and the auditors will have to
consider what the best evidence that customers are going to pay is likely to be.
(2) Related industry. Hippo manufactures bathroom fixtures and fittings. These are sold to
wholesalers, but it is possible that Hippo's ultimate market is the building industry. This is a
notoriously volatile industry, and Hippo may find that their results fluctuate too, as demand rises
and falls. This suspicion is added to by the bankruptcy of the wholesaler in the year. The auditors
must be sure that accounts which present Hippo as a viable company are in fact correct.
(3) Controls. The fact that a major new customer went bankrupt suggests that Hippo did not undertake
a very thorough credit check on that customer before agreeing to supply them. This implies that
the controls at Hippo may not be very strong.
(4) Variance. The actual results are different from budget. This may be explained by the fact that the
major customer went bankrupt, or it may reveal that there are other errors and problems in the
reported results, or in the original budget.
(5) Bankrupt wholesaler. There is a risk that the result reported contains balances due from the
bankrupt wholesaler, which are likely to be irrecoverable.
1.5 Business risk

The other major category of risk which the auditor must be aware of is business risk. As you shall see in
more detail in Chapter 9 when we look at internal control, the auditor is required to consider the
company's process of business risk management.
We briefly introduced the concept of business risk in Chapter 5 in the context of internal audit's role in risk
management and organisational control. Remember business risk is the risk inherent to the company in
its operations.
Exam focus It is important that you do not confuse the concepts of audit and business risks. Remember – audit risk is
point focused on the financial statements of a company, whereas business risk is related to the company as a
whole. If an exam question asks you to identify audit risks, make sure you explain them in relation to the
financial statements.
2 Materiality
FAST FORWARD
Materiality for the financial statements as a whole and performance materiality must be calculated at
the planning stages of all audits. The calculation or estimation of materiality should be based on
experience and judgement. Materiality for the financial statements as a whole must be reviewed
throughout the audit and revised if necessary.
ISA 320 Materiality in planning and performing an audit provides guidance to auditors on this area. The
objective of the auditor is to apply the concept of materiality appropriately in planning and performing the
audit. Information is generally consider to be material if its omission or misstatement could influence the
economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements.

2.1 Determining materiality and performance materiality when planning
the audit
Key term Performance materiality is the amount or amounts set by the auditor at less than materiality for the
financial statements as a whole to reduce to an appropriately low level the probability that the aggregate of
uncorrected and undetected misstatements exceeds materiality for the financial statements as a whole.
Performance materiality also refers to the amount or amounts set by the auditor at less than the
materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures.
During planning, the auditor must establish materiality for the financial statements as a whole. However, if
there are classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures for which misstatements less than
materiality for the financial statements as a whole could reasonably be expected to influence the economic
decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements, the auditor must also determine
materiality levels to be applied to these.
The auditor must also determine performance materiality in order to assess the risks of material
misstatement and to determine the nature, timing and extent of further audit procedures.
Determining materiality for the financial statements as a whole involves the exercise of professional
judgement (which we covered in section 1 of this chapter). Generally, a percentage is applied to a chosen
benchmark as a starting point for determining materiality for the financial statements as a whole. The
following factors may affect the identification of an appropriate benchmark:
x Elements of the financial statements (e.g. assets, liabilities, equity, revenue, expenses)
x Whether there are items on which users tend to focus
x Nature of the entity, industry and economic environment
x Entity’s ownership structure and financing
x Relative volatility of the benchmark
The following benchmarks and percentages may be appropriate in the calculation of materiality for the
financial statements as a whole.
Value %
Profit before tax 5
Gross profit ½–1
Revenue ½–1
Total assets 1–2
Net assets 2–5
Profit after tax 5 – 10
The determination of performance materiality involves the exercise of professional judgement and is
affected by the auditor’s understanding of the entity and the nature and extent of misstatements identified
in prior audits.
Exam focus Bear in mind that materiality has qualitative, as well as quantitative, aspects. You must not simply think of
point materiality as being a percentage of items in the financial statements.
2.2 Revision of materiality

The level of materiality must be revised for the financial statements as a whole if the auditor becomes
aware of information during the audit that would have caused the auditor to have determined a different
amount during planning.
If the auditor concludes that a lower amount of materiality for the financial statements as a whole is
appropriate, the auditor must determine whether performance materiality also needs to be revised, and
whether the nature, timing and extent of further audit procedures are still appropriate. A revision to

materiality might be required for example if during the audit it appears that actual results are going to be
significantly different from the expected results, which were used to calculate materiality for the financial
statements as a whole during planning.
2.3 Documentation of materiality

ISA 320 requires the following to be documented:
x Materiality for the financial statements as a whole
x Materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures if
applicable
x Performance materiality
x Any revision of the above as the audit progresses
3 Understanding the entity and its environment June 08

FAST FORWARD
The auditor is required to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment in order to be able to
assess the risks of material misstatements.
3.1 Why do we need an understanding?

ISA 315 Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement through understanding the entity and
its environment states that the objective of the auditor is to identify and assess the risks of material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, through understanding the entity and its environment,
including the entity’s internal control, thereby providing a basis for designing and implementing responses
to the assessed risks of material misstatement.
The following table summarises this simply.
OBTAINING AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Why? – To identify and assess the risks of material misstatement in the financial statements
– To enable the auditor to design and perform further audit procedures
– To provide a frame of reference for exercising audit judgement, for example, when setting
audit materiality
What? – Industry, regulatory and other external factors, including the applicable financial reporting
framework
– Nature of the entity, including operations, ownership and governance, investments,
structure and financing
– Entity’s selection and application of accounting policies
– Objectives and strategies and related business risks that might cause material
misstatement in the financial statements
– Measurement and review of the entity's financial performance
– Internal control (which we shall look at in detail in Chapter 9)
How? – Inquiries of management and others within the entity
– Analytical procedures
– Observation and inspection
– Prior period knowledge
– Client acceptance or continuance process
– Discussion by the audit team of the susceptibility of the financial statements to material
misstatement
– Information from other engagements undertaken for the entity

As can be seen in the table, the reasons the auditor has to obtain an understanding of the entity and its
environment are very much bound up with assessing risks and exercising audit judgement. We shall look
at these aspects more in the next two sections of this chapter.
3.2 What do we need an understanding of?

The ISA sets out a number of requirements about what the auditors shall consider in relation to obtaining
an understanding of the business. The general areas are shown in the following diagram.
Investments
Financial reporting
Expansion
Use of IT
Business operations
Financing
Nature
Industry
of the Objectives and developments
Taxation
entity strategies and
Regulatory relating business New products and
framework
risks services
Industry,
regulatory and UNDERSTANDING THE
Cyclical or seasonal
activity other external ENTITY AND ITS Selection and
factors ENVIRONMENT application of
accounting
The market and
competition
policies
Internal Information
Product control system
Accounting principles technology
Entity’.s risk
Energy supply and cost
assessment process
The control
environment
Control
Interest rates
activities
Monitoring of
controls Key performance
Financial indicators
Employee performance performance
measures
Financial analysis
Budgets, forecasts etc

Competitors
3.3 How do we gain an understanding?

ISA 315 sets out the methods that the auditor shall use to obtain the understanding and they were shown
in the table in Section 3.1. A combination of these procedures should be used.
x Inquiries of management and others within the entity
x Analytical procedures
x Observation and inspection
ISA 315 also states the auditor shall consider whether information obtained from client acceptance or
continuance processes is relevant.
If the engagement partner has performed other engagements for the entity, he/she shall consider whether
information from these is relevant to identifying risks of material misstatement.
ISA 315 states that if the auditor is going to use information from prior year audits, the auditor shall
determine whether changes have occurred that could affect the relevance to the current year’s audit.
ISA 315 also requires the engagement partner and other key team members to discuss the susceptibility
of the financial statements to material misstatement, and the application of the applicable financial

reporting framework to the entity’s facts and circumstances. The engagement partner shall determine
what matters are to be communicated to team members not involved in the discussion.
3.3.1 Inquiry
The auditors will usually obtain most of the information they require from staff in the accounts
department, but may also need to make enquiries of other personnel, for example, internal audit,
production staff or those charged with governance.
Those charged with governance may give insight into the environment in which the financial statements
are prepared. In-house legal counsel may help with understanding matters such as outstanding litigation,
or compliance with laws and regulations. Sales and marketing personnel may give information about
marketing strategies and sales trends.
3.3.2 Analytical procedures

Key term Analytical procedures consist of the evaluations of financial information made by a study of plausible
relationships among both financial and non-financial data. They also encompass the investigation of
identified fluctuations and relationships that are consistent with other relevant information or deviate
significantly from predicted amounts.
Analytical procedures can be used at all stages of the audit. ISA 315 requires their use during the risk
assessment stage of the audit. Their use during other stages of the audit is considered in Chapters 11 and
18.
Analytical procedures include:
(a) The consideration of comparisons with:
x Similar information for prior periods
x Anticipated results of the entity, from budgets or forecasts
x Predictions prepared by the auditors
x Industry information
(b) Those between elements of financial information that are expected to conform to a predicted
pattern based on the entity's experience, such as the relationship of gross profit to sales.
(c) Those between financial information and relevant non-financial information, such as the
relationship of payroll costs to number of employees.
A variety of methods can be used to perform the procedures discussed above, ranging from simple
comparisons to complex analysis using statistics, on a company level, branch level or individual account
level. The choice of procedures is a matter for the auditors' professional judgement. The use of
information technology may be extensive when carrying out analytical procedures during risk assessment.
Auditors may also use specific industry information or general knowledge of current industry conditions to
assess the client's performance.
As well as helping to determine the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures, such analytical
procedures may also indicate aspects of the business of which the auditors were previously unaware.
Auditors are looking to see if developments in the client's business have had the expected effects. They
will be particularly interested in changes in audit areas where problems have occurred in the past.
Analytical procedures at the risk assessment stage of the audit are usually based on interim financial
information, budgets or management accounts.
3.3.3 Observation and inspection

These techniques are likely to confirm the answers made to inquiries made of management. They will
include observing the normal operations of a company, reading documents or manuals relating to the
client's operations or visiting premises and meeting staff.

3.3.4 Companies that use e-business
IAPS 1013 Electronic commerce – effect on the audit of financial statements provides guidance to auditors
auditing entities that engage in e-commerce. The IAPS identifies specific matters to assist the auditor
when considering the significance of e-commerce to the entity’s business and the effect on the auditor’s
risk assessment.
The auditor needs to consider whether the skills and knowledge of team members are appropriate to
perform the audit, and also whether an expert is required.
The auditor also needs to have a good understanding of the business to assess the significance of e-
commerce and its effect on audit risk. The auditor should consider the following:
x The entity’s business activities and industry
x The entity’s e-commerce strategy
x The extent of e-commerce activities
x Outsourcing arrangements
The IAPS identifies specific business risks affecting entities that engage in e-commerce, which are
outlined below.
x Loss of transaction integrity
x Security risks
x Improper accounting policies (e.g. capitalisation of expenditure, translation of foreign currency,
allowances for warranties and returns, revenue recognition)
x Non-compliance with taxation and other laws and regulations
x Failure to ensure that contracts are binding
x Over-reliance on e-commerce
x Systems and infrastructure failures or crashes
The auditor uses the knowledge of the business gained to identify events, transactions and practices
related to business risks arising from e-commerce activities that may result in material misstatements in
The auditor also considers the control environment and control procedures that are relevant to the
financial statement assertions, in accordance with ISA 315, in particular those relating to security,
transaction integrity and process alignment.
Question Analytical procedures
You are auditing the financial statements of Pumpkin Co for the year ended 31 March 20X9. Pumpkin Co
is a chain of bakeries operating in 5 locations. The bakeries sell a range of cakes, pastries, bread,
sandwiches, pasties and drinks which customers purchase in cash. The company has had a ‘challenging’
year, according to its directors, and is renegotiating its bank overdraft facility with its bank. The income
statement for the year ended 31 March 20X8 is shown below together with the draft income statement for
the year ended 31 March 20X9.
Pumpkin Co: income statements
31 March 20X9 31 March 20X8
$000 $000
Revenue 4,205 3,764
Cost of sales (1,376) (1,555)
Gross profit 2,829 2,209
Operating expenses
Administration (667) (798)
Selling and distribution (423) (460)
Interest payable (50) (49)
Profit/(loss) before tax 1,689 902

Required
As part of your risk assessment procedures for the audit of Pumpkin Co, perform analytical procedures on
the draft income statement to identify possible risk areas requiring further audit work.
Answer
In total, Pumpkin’s profit for the year has increased by 87% which appears at odds with the revenue
figure, which has only increased by 12% in comparison to the previous year. This may indicate that
revenue has been inflated or incorrect cut-off applied, especially given the fact that the directors of
Pumpkin have described the year as ‘challenging’.
Revenue has increased overall by 12% but cost of sales has fallen by 12% - we would expect an increase
in revenue to be matched by a corresponding increase in cost of sales. Again this may indicate incorrect
allocation of revenue in order for the bank to look favourably on the company and increase its overdraft
facility. It could also indicate an error in the valuation of closing inventory.
The gross profit has increased by 28% compared to the previous period. The audit will need to focus on
this change which is significant, focusing on the revenue and costs of sales figures to establish the
reasons for the increase.
Administration expenses have fallen in comparison to the previous year (decrease of 16%) which is
unusual given that revenue has increased by 12%. We would expect an increase in costs to be in line with
the increase in the revenue figure. This could indicate that expenses may be understated through incorrect
cut-off or incorrectly capitalising expenditure which should be written off to the income statement for the
year.
A similar issue applies to selling and distribution costs which have fallen by 8% - they have not increased
as expected in line with revenue. There could be legitimate reasons for the change but this area needs to
be investigated further during the audit fieldwork stage.
Interest payable has stayed in line with the previous year (increase of 2%). This figure can be verified
easily during the audit fieldwork by inspecting bank statements and other relevant documentation from the
bank.
4 Assessing the risks of material misstatement

FAST FORWARD
When the auditor has obtained an understanding of the entity, he shall assess the risks of material
misstatement in the financial statements, also identifying significant risks.
4.1 Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement

ISA 315 says that the auditor shall identify and assess the risks of material misstatement at the financial
statement level and at the assertion level for classes of transactions, account balances and disclosures.
It requires the auditor to take the following steps:
x Identify risks throughout the process of obtaining an understanding of the entity and its
environment
x Assess the identified risks, and evaluate whether they relate more pervasively to the financial
statements as a whole
x Relate the risks to what can go wrong at the assertion level
x Consider the likelihood of the risks causing a material misstatement

Key term Assertions are representations by management, explicit or otherwise, that are embodied in the financial
statements, as used by the auditors to consider the different types of potential misstatements that may
occur. We look at these in detail in Chapter 8.
4.2 Significant risks

FAST FORWARD
Significant risks are complex or unusual transactions that may indicate fraud, or other special risks.
Key term Significant risks are those that require special audit consideration.
As part of the risk assessment described above, the auditor shall determine whether any of the risks are
significant risks.
The following factors indicate that a risk might be significant:
x Risk of fraud (see Section 6)
x Its relationship with recent economic, accounting or other developments
x The degree of subjectivity in the financial information
x It is an unusual transaction
x It is a significant transaction with a related party
x The complexity of the transaction
Routine, non-complex transactions are less likely to give rise to significant risk than unusual transactions
or matters of management judgement. This is because unusual transactions are likely to have more:
x Management intervention
x Complex accounting principles or calculations
x Manual intervention
x Opportunity for control procedures not to be followed
When the auditor identifies a significant risk, if he has not done so already, he shall obtain an
understanding of the entity’s controls relevant to that risk.
Question Assessing the risks of material misstatement
You are involved with the audit of Tantpro Co, a small company. You have been carrying out procedures to
gain an understanding of the entity. The following matters have come to your attention:
The company offers standard credit terms to its customers of 60 days from the date of invoice.
Statements are sent to customers on a monthly basis. However, Tantpro does not employ a credit
controller, and other than sending the statements on a monthly basis, it does not otherwise communicate
with its customers on a systematic basis. On occasion, the sales ledger clerk may telephone a customer if
the company has not received a payment for some time. Some customers pay regularly according to the
credit terms offered to them, but others pay on a very haphazard basis and do not provide a remittance
advice. Sales ledger receipts are entered onto the sales ledger but not matched to invoices remitted. The
company does not produce an aged list of balances.
Required
From the above information, assess the risks of material misstatement arising in the financial statements.
Outline the potential materiality of the risks and discuss factors in the likelihood of the risks arising.
Answer
The key risk arising from the above information is that trade receivables will not be carried at the
appropriate value in the financial statements, as some may be irrecoverable. Where receipts are not
matched against invoices in the ledger, the balance on the ledger may include old invoices that the
customer has no intention of paying.

It is difficult to assess at this stage whether this will be material. Trade receivables is likely to be a material
balance in the financial statements, but the number of irrecoverable balances may not be material.
Analytical procedures, for example, to see if the level of receivables has risen year-on-year, in a manner
that is not explained by price rises or levels of production, might help to assess this.
A key factor that affects the likelihood of the material misstatement arising is the poor controls over the
sales ledger. The fact that invoices are not matched against receipts increases the chance of old invoices
not having been paid and not noticed by Tantpro. It appears reasonably likely that the trade receivables
balance is overstated in this instance.
5 Responding to the risk assessment

FAST FORWARD
The auditor shall formulate an approach to the assessed risks of material misstatement.
The main objective of ISA 330 The auditor’s responses to assessed risks is to obtain sufficient appropriate
audit evidence regarding the assessed risks of material misstatement, through designing and
implementing appropriate responses to those risks.
5.1 Overall responses

Overall responses include issues such as emphasising to the team the importance of professional
scepticism, allocating more staff, using experts or providing more supervision.
Overall responses to address the risks of material misstatement at the financial statement level will be
changes to the general audit strategy or re-affirmations to staff of the general audit strategy. For example:
x Emphasising to audit staff the need to maintain professional scepticism
x Assigning additional or more experienced staff to the audit team
x Providing more supervision on the audit
x Incorporating more unpredictability into the audit procedures
x Making general changes to the nature, timing or extent of audit procedures
The evaluation of the control environment that will have taken place as part of the assessment of the
client's internal control systems will help the auditor determine what type of audit approach to take.
5.2 Responses to the risks of material misstatement at the assertion

level Dec 07
The ISA says that the auditor shall design and perform further audit procedures whose nature, timing and
extent are based on and are responsive to the assessed risks of material misstatement at the assertion
level. 'Nature' refers to the purpose and the type of test that is carried out, which include tests of controls
and substantive tests.
5.2.1 Tests of controls

Key term
Tests of controls are audit procedures designed to evaluate the operating effectiveness of controls in
preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements at the assertion level.
When the auditor's risk assessment includes an expectation that controls are operating effectively, the
auditor shall design and perform tests of controls to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the
controls were operating.
The auditor shall also undertake tests of control when it will not be possible to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence simply from substantive procedures. This might be the case if the entity
conducts its business using IT systems which do not produce documentation of transactions.

In carrying out tests of control, auditors shall use inquiry, but shall also use other procedures. Re-
performance and inspection will often be helpful procedures.
When considering timing in relation to tests of controls, the purpose of the test will be important. For
example, if the company carries out a year-end inventory count, controls over the inventory count can only
be tested at the year-end. Other controls will operate all year round, and the auditor may need to test that
those controls have been effective throughout the period.
Some controls may have been tested in prior audits and the auditor may choose to rely on that evidence of
their effectiveness. If this is the case, the auditor shall obtain evidence about any changes since the
controls were last tested and shall test the controls if they have changed. In any case, controls shall be
tested for effectiveness at least once in every three audits.
If the related risk has been designated a significant risk, the auditor shall not rely on testing done in prior
years, but shall perform testing in the current year.
5.2.2 Substantive procedures
Key term
Substantive procedures are audit procedures designed to detect material misstatements at the assertion
level. They consist of tests of details of classes of transactions, account balances and disclosures, and
substantive analytical procedures.
The auditor shall always carry out substantive procedures on material items. The ISA says that
irrespective of the assessed risk of material misstatement, the auditor shall design and perform
substantive procedures for each material class of transactions, account balance and disclosure.
In addition, the auditor shall carry out the following substantive procedures:
x Agreeing or reconciling the financial statements to the underlying accounting records
x Examining material journal entries
x Examining other adjustments made in preparing the financial statements
Substantive procedures fall into two categories: analytical procedures and tests of details. The auditor
must determine when it is appropriate to use which type of substantive procedure. We discuss these in
more detail in Chapter 11 but they are introduced below.
Analytical procedures as substantive procedures tend to be appropriate for large volumes of predictable
transactions (for example, wages and salaries). Tests of detail may be appropriate to gain information
about account balances for example, inventory or trade receivables.
Tests of detail rather than analytical procedures are likely to be more appropriate with regard to matters
which have been identified as significant risks, but the auditor must develop procedures that are
specifically responsive to that risk, which may include analytical procedures. Significant risks are likely to
be the most difficult to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about.

6 Fraud, law and regulations Pilot paper, June 09
FAST FORWARD
When carrying out risk assessment procedures, the auditor shall also consider the risk of fraud or non-
compliance with law and regulations causing a misstatement in the financial statements.
6.1 What is fraud?

Key terms Fraud is an intentional act by one or more individuals among management, those charged with
governance, employees or third parties involving the use of deception to obtain an unjust or illegal
advantage. Fraud may be perpetrated by an individual, or colluded in, with people internal or external to
the business.
Fraud risk factors are events or conditions that indicate an incentive or pressure to commit fraud or
provide an opportunity to commit fraud.
Fraud is a wide legal concept, but the auditor's main concern is with fraud that causes a material
misstatement in financial statements. It is distinguished from error, which is when a material
misstatement is caused by mistake, for example, in the misapplication of an accounting policy.
Specifically, there are two types of fraud causing material misstatement in financial statements:
x Fraudulent financial reporting
x Misappropriation of assets
6.1.1 Fraudulent financial reporting

Key term
Fraudulent financial reporting involves intentional misstatements, including omissions of amounts or
disclosures in financial statements, to deceive financial statement users.
This may include:

x Manipulation, falsification or alteration of accounting records/supporting documents
x Misrepresentation (or omission) of events or transactions in the financial statements
x Intentional misapplication of accounting principles
Such fraud may be carried out by overriding controls that would otherwise appear to be operating
effectively, for example, by recording fictitious journal entries or improperly adjusting assumptions or
estimates used in financial reporting.
6.1.2 Misappropriation of assets

Key term
Misappropriation of assets involves the theft of an entity's assets and is often perpetrated by employees
in relatively small and immaterial amounts. However, it can also involve management who are usually
more capable of disguising or concealing misappropriations in ways that are difficult to detect.
This is the theft of the entity's assets (for example, cash, inventory). Employees may be involved in such
fraud in small and immaterial amounts, but it can also be carried out on a larger scale by management
who may then conceal the misappropriation, for example by:
x Embezzling receipts (for example, diverting them to private bank accounts)
x Stealing physical assets or intellectual property (inventory, selling data)
x Causing an entity to pay for goods not received (payments to fictitious vendors)
x Using assets for personal use

6.2 Fraud and the auditor
ISA 240 The auditor’s responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of financial statements provides
6.2.1 Responsibilities of management and auditors

The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud is with those charged with governance
and the management of an entity. This is effected by having a commitment to creating a culture of
honesty and ethical behaviour and active oversight by those charged with governance.
The auditor is responsible for obtaining reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from
material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error. The risk of not detecting a material misstatement
from fraud is higher than from error because of the following reasons:
x Fraud may involve sophisticated schemes designed to conceal it.
x Fraud may be perpetrated by individuals in collusion.
x Management fraud is harder to detect because management is in a position to manipulate
accounting records or override control procedures.
The auditor is responsible for maintaining professional scepticism throughout the audit, considering the
possibility of management override of controls, and recognising that audit procedures effective for
detecting errors may not be effective for detecting fraud.
6.2.2 Risk assessment

ISA 315 requires a discussion among team members that places particular emphasis on how and where
the financial statements may be susceptible to fraud.
Risk assessment procedures to obtain information in identifying the risks of material misstatement due to
fraud shall include the following:
x Inquiries of management regarding:
– Management’s assessment of the risk that the financial statements may be misstated due
to fraud
– Management’s process for identifying and responding to the risk of fraud
– Management’s communication to those charged with governance in respect of its process
for identifying and responding to the risk of fraud
– Management’s communication to employees regarding its views on business practices
and ethical behaviour
– Knowledge of any actual, suspected or alleged fraud
x Inquiries of internal audit for knowledge of any actual, suspected or alleged fraud, and its views
on the risks of fraud
x Obtaining an understanding of how those charged with governance oversee management’s
processes for identifying and responding to the risk of fraud and the internal control established to
mitigate these risks
x Inquiries of those charged with governance for knowledge of any actual, suspected or alleged
fraud
x Evaluating whether any unusual relationships have been identified in performing analytical
procedures that may indicate risk of material misstatement due to fraud
x Considering whether any other information may indicate risk of material misstatement due to fraud
x Evaluating whether any fraud risk factors are present

In accordance with ISA 315, the auditor shall identify and assess the risks of material misstatement due to
fraud at the financial statement level and at the assertion level for classes of transactions, account
balances and disclosures. These risks shall be treated as significant risks.
In accordance with ISA 330, the auditor shall determine overall responses to address the assessed risks
of material misstatement due to fraud at the financial statement level. In this regard, the auditor shall:
x Assign and supervise staff responsible taking into account their knowledge, skill and ability.
x Evaluate whether the accounting policies may be indicative of fraudulent financial reporting.
x Incorporate unpredictability in the selection of the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures.
As we mentioned above, management fraud is more difficult to detect than employee fraud because of
management’s ability to override controls and therefore manipulate accounting records. ISA 240 states
that irrespective of the auditor’s assessment of the risks of management override of controls, the auditor
shall design and perform audit procedures to:
x Test the appropriateness of journal entries and other adjustments.
x Review accounting estimates for bias.
x For significant transactions outside the normal course of business, evaluate whether they have
been entered into to engage in fraudulent financial reporting or to conceal misappropriation of
assets.
6.2.3 Written representations

ISA 240 requires the auditor to obtain written representations from management and those charged with
governance that:
x They acknowledge their responsibility for the design, implementation and maintenance of internal
control to prevent and detect fraud.
x They have disclosed to the auditor management’s assessment of the risk of fraud in the financial
statements.
x They have disclosed to the auditor their knowledge of fraud/suspected fraud involving
management, employees with significant roles in internal control, and others where fraud could
have a material effect on the financial statements.
x They have disclosed to the auditor their knowledge of any allegations of fraud/suspected fraud
communicated by employees, former employees, analysts, regulators or others.
We shall look at written representations from management in more detail in Chapter 18 of this Study Text.
6.2.4 Communication to management and those charged with governance

If the auditor identifies fraud or receives information that a fraud may exist, the auditor shall report this on
a timely basis to the appropriate level of management.
If the auditor identifies or suspects fraud involving management, employees with significant roles in
internal control, and others where fraud could have a material effect on the financial statements, he shall
communicate this on a timely basis to those charged with governance.
The auditor also needs to consider whether there is a responsibility to report to the regulatory or
enforcement authorities – the auditor’s professional duty of confidentiality may be overridden by laws
and statutes in certain jurisdictions.

6.3 Law and regulations
The auditor is also required to consider the issue of law and regulations in the audit. Auditors are given
guidance in ISA 250 Consideration of laws and regulations in an audit of financial statements, the
objectives of the auditor are:
x To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding compliance with the provisions of those
laws and regulations that have a direct effect on the determination of material amounts and
disclosures in the financial statements
x To perform specified audit procedures to help identify non-compliance with other laws and
regulations that may have a material effect on the financial statements
x To respond appropriately to non-compliance/suspected non-compliance identified during the
audit
6.3.1 Responsibilities of management and auditors

It is management’s responsibility to ensure that the entity complies with the relevant laws and regulations.
It is not the auditor’s responsibility to prevent or detect non-compliance with laws and regulations.
The auditor’s responsibility is to obtain reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from
material misstatement, and in this respect, the auditor must take into account the legal and regulatory
framework within which the entity operates.
ISA 250 distinguishes the auditor’s responsibilities in relation to compliance with two different categories
of laws and regulations:
x Those that have a direct effect on the determination of material amounts and disclosures in the
x Those that do not have a direct effect on the determination of material amounts and disclosures in
the financial statements but where compliance may be fundamental to the operating aspects,
ability to continue in business, or to avoid material penalties
For the first category, the auditor’s responsibility is to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about
compliance with those laws and regulations.
For the second category, the auditor’s responsibility is to undertake specified audit procedures to help
identify non-compliance with laws and regulations that may have a material effect on the financial
statements. These include inquiries of management and inspecting correspondence with the relevant
licensing or regulatory authorities.
6.3.2 Audit procedures

In accordance with ISA 315, the auditor shall obtain a general understanding of:
x The applicable legal and regulatory framework
x How the entity complies with that framework
The auditor can achieve this understanding by using his/her existing understanding and updating it, and
making inquiries of management about other laws and regulations that may affect the entity, about its
policies and procedures for ensuring compliance, and about its policies and procedures for identifying,
evaluating and accounting for litigation claims.
The auditor shall remain alert throughout the audit to the possibility that other audit procedures may
bring instances of non-compliance or suspected non-compliance to the auditor’s attention. These audit
procedures could include:
x Reading minutes
x Making inquiries of management and in-house/external legal advisors regarding litigation, claims
and assessments
x Performing substantive tests of details of classes of transactions, account balances or disclosures

The auditor shall request written representations from management that all known instances of non-
compliance or suspected non-compliance with laws and regulations whose effects should be considered
when preparing the financial statements have been disclosed to the auditor.
6.3.3 Audit procedures when non-compliance is identified or suspected

The following factors may indicate non-compliance with laws and regulations:
x Investigations by regulatory authorities and government departments
x Payment of fines or penalties
x Payments for unspecified services or loans to consultants, related parties, employees or
government employees
x Sales commissions or agents’ fees that appear excessive
x Purchasing at prices significantly above/below market price
x Unusual payments in cash
x Unusual transactions with companies registered in tax havens
x Payment for goods and services made to a country different to the one in which the goods and
services originated
x Payments without proper exchange control documentation
x Existence of an information system that fails to provide an adequate audit trail or sufficient
evidence
x Unauthorised transactions or improperly recorded transactions
x Adverse media comment
The following table summarises audit procedures to be performed when non-compliance is identified or
suspected.
Non-compliance: audit procedures

Obtain understanding of nature of act and circumstances.
Obtain further information to evaluate possible effect on financial statements.
Discuss with management and those charged with governance.
Consider need to obtain legal advice if sufficient information not provided and matter is material.
Evaluate effect on auditor’s opinion if sufficient information not obtained.
Evaluate implications on risk assessment and reliability of written representations.
6.3.4 Reporting identified or suspected non-compliance

The auditor shall communicate with those charged with governance, but if the auditor suspects that those
charged with governance are involved, the auditor shall communicate with the next higher level of
authority such as the audit committee or supervisory board. If this does not exist, the auditor shall
consider the need to obtain legal advice.
The auditor shall consider the impact on the auditor’s report if he/she concludes that the non-compliance
has a material effect on the financial statements and has not been adequately reflected or is prevented by
management and those charged with governance from obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence to
evaluate whether non-compliance is material to the financial statements.
The auditor shall determine whether identified or suspected non-compliance has to be reported to the
regulatory and enforcement authorities. Although the auditor must maintain the fundamental principle of
confidentiality, in some jurisdictions the duty of confidentiality may be overridden by law or statute.

7 Documentation of risk assessment
FAST FORWARD
Auditors must ensure they have documented the work done at the risk assessment stage, such as the
discussion among the audit team of the susceptibility of the financial statements to material
misstatements, significant risks, and overall responses.
The need for auditors to document their audit work is discussed in the next chapter where we will look in
particular at the audit plan and the audit strategy, two documents for planning. ISAs 315 and 330 contain
a number of general requirements about documentation, and we shall briefly run through those here.
The following matters shall be documented during planning
x The discussion among the audit team concerning the susceptibility of the financial statements to
material misstatements, including any significant decisions reached
x Key elements of the understanding gained of the entity regarding the elements of the entity and its
internal control components specified in ISA 315, the sources of the information gained and the
risk assessment procedures carried out
x The identified and assessed risks of material misstatement at the financial statement level and at
the assertion level
x Risks identified and related controls evaluated
x The overall responses to address the risks of material misstatement at the financial statement level
x Nature, extent and timing of further audit procedures linked to the assessed risks at the assertion
level
x Results of audit procedures
x If the auditors have relied on evidence about the effectiveness of controls from previous audits,
conclusions about how this is appropriate
x Demonstration that the financial statements agree or reconcile with the underlying accounting
records

Chapter Roundup
x Auditors are required to carry out the audit with an attitude of professional scepticism, exercise
professional judgement and comply with ethical requirements.
x Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an inappropriate audit opinion when the financial
statements are materially misstated. It is a function of the risk of material misstatement (inherent risk and
control risk) and the risk that the auditors will not detect such misstatement (detection risk).
x Materiality for the financial statements as a whole and performance materiality must be calculated at
the planning stages of all audits. The calculation or estimation of materiality should be based on
experience and judgement. Materiality for the financial statements as a whole must be reviewed
throughout the audit and revised if necessary.
x The auditor is required to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment in order to be able to
assess the risks of material misstatements.
x When the auditor has obtained an understanding of the entity, he shall assess the risks of material
misstatement in the financial statements, also identifying significant risks.
x Significant risks are complex or unusual transactions that may indicate fraud, or other special risks.
x The auditor shall formulate an approach to the assessed risks of material misstatement.
x When carrying out risk assessment procedures, the auditor shall also consider the risk of fraud or non-
compliance with law and regulations causing a misstatement in the financial statements.
x Auditors must ensure they have documented the work done at the risk assessment stage, such as the
discussion among the audit team of the susceptibility of the financial statements to material
misstatements, significant risks, and overall responses.

Quick Quiz
1 Complete the definitions.
………………… risk is the risk that …………….. may give an …………………..opinion on the
………………… risk is the ……………………. of an assertion to a …………………. that could be
material, assuming there were no related …………… ……………
2 If control risk and inherent risk are assessed as sufficiently low, substantive procedures can be abandoned
completely.
True
False
3 Which procedures might an auditor use in gaining an understanding of the entity?
4 The audit team is required to discuss the susceptibility of the financial statements to material
misstatements.
True
False
5 Auditors have a duty to detect fraud.
True
False

1 Audit, auditors, inappropriate
Inherent, susceptibility, misstatement, internal controls
2 False
3 Inquiry, analytical procedures, observation and inspection
4 True
5 False


Audit planning and
documentation

1 Audit planning C5
2 Audit documentation C6
Introduction
In the chapter we look at the contents of the overall audit strategy and the
detailed audit plan.
We also look at how auditors document their work in general. Audit
documentation is important because it provides the evidence of the work
performed by the auditors in carrying out the audit.
117
Study guide
Intellectual level
C5 Planning an audit
(a) Identify and explain the need for planning an audit 2
(b) Identify and describe the contents of the overall audit strategy and audit plan 2
(c) Explain and describe the relationship between the overall audit strategy and 2
the audit plan
(d) Develop and document an audit plan 2
(e) Explain the difference between interim and final audit 1
C6 Audit documentation
(a) Explain the need for and the importance of audit documentation 1
(b) Describe and prepare working papers and supporting documentation 2
(c) Explain the procedures to ensure safe custody and retention of working 1
papers
Exam guide
Audit planning is a very important part of the audit process because it sets the direction for the audit,
based on an assessment of the risks relevant to the entity. Questions on planning could come up in a
scenario-based setting, asking you to identify risks relevant to planning the audit of the entity. You might
also be asked to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of standardised working papers in a
knowledge-based part to a question. The June 2009 paper had an eight mark part on the overall audit
strategy document in question 1.
1 Audit planning June 09

FAST FORWARD
The auditors formulate an overall audit strategy which is translated into a detailed audit plan for audit
staff to follow.
1.1 The importance of planning

An effective and efficient audit relies on proper planning procedures. The planning process is covered in
general terms by ISA 300 Planning an audit of financial statements which states that the auditor shall plan
the audit so that the engagement is performed in an effective manner.
Audits are planned to:
x Help the auditor devote appropriate attention to important areas of the audit.
x Help the auditor identify and resolve potential problems on a timely basis.
x Help the auditor properly organise and manage the audit so it is performed in an effective manner.
x Assist in the selection of appropriate team members and assignment of work to them.
x Facilitate the direction, supervision and review of work.
x Assist in coordination of work done by auditors of components and experts.
Audit procedures should be discussed with the client's management, staff and/or audit committee in order
to co-ordinate audit work, including that of internal audit. However, all audit procedures remain the
responsibility of the external auditors.
A structured approach to planning will include:
Step 1 Ensuring that ethical requirements are met, including independence
Step 2 Ensuring the terms of the engagement are understood
118 7: Audit planning and documentation ~ Part C Planning and risk assessment
Step 3 Establishing the overall audit strategy that sets the scope, timing and direction of the audit
and guides the development of the audit plan
x Identify the characteristics of the engagement that define its scope.
x Ascertain the reporting objectives to plan the timing of the audit and nature of
communications required.
x Consider significant factors in directing the team’s efforts.
x Consider results of preliminary engagement activities.
x Ascertain nature, timing and extent of resources necessary to perform the
engagement.
Step 4 Developing an audit plan that includes the nature, timing and extent of planned risk
assessment procedures and further audit procedures
1.2 The overall audit strategy and the audit plan

FAST FORWARD
The overall audit strategy and audit plan shall be updated and changed as necessary during the course of
the audit.
1.2.1 The audit strategy

Key term The overall audit strategy sets the scope, timing and direction of the audit, and guides the development of
the more detailed audit plan.
The matters the auditor may consider in establishing an overall audit strategy are set out in the table
below.
THE OVERALL AUDIT STRATEGY: MATTERS TO CONSIDER

Characteristics of the x Financial reporting framework
engagement x Industry-specific reporting requirements
x Expected audit coverage
x Nature of business segments
x Availability of internal audit work
x Use of service organisations
x Effect of information technology on audit procedures
x Availability of client personnel and data
Reporting objectives, x Entity’s timetable for reporting
timing of the audit and x Organisation of meetings with management and those charged with
nature of communications governance
x Discussions with management and those charged with governance
x Expected communications with third parties
Significant factors, x Determination of materiality
preliminary engagement x Areas identified with higher risk of material misstatement
activities, and knowledge x Results of previous audits
gained on other x Need to maintain professional scepticism
engagements x Evidence of management’s commitment to design, implementation and
maintenance of sound internal control
x Volume of transactions
x Significant business developments
x Significant industry developments
x Significant changes in financial reporting framework
x Other significant recent developments
Nature, timing and extent x Selection of engagement team
of resources x Assignment of work to team members
x Engagement budgeting
Part C Planning and risk assessment ~ 7: Audit planning and documentation 119
Examples of items to include in the overall audit strategy could be:
x Industry-specific financial reporting requirements
x Number of locations to be visited
x Audit client's timetable for reporting to its members
x Communication between the audit team and the client
1.2.2 The audit plan

Key term The audit plan converts the audit strategy into a more detailed plan and includes the nature, timing and
extent of audit procedures to be performed by engagement team members in order to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level.
The audit plan shall include the following:

x A description of the nature, timing and extent of planned risk assessment procedures
x A description of the nature, timing and extent of planned further audit procedures at the assertion
level
x Other planned audit procedures required to be carried out for the engagement to comply with ISAs
The planning for these procedures occurs over the course of the audit as the audit plan develops.
Examples of items included in the audit plan could be:
x Timetable of planned audit work
x Allocation of work to audit team members
x Audit procedures for each major account area (eg inventory, receivables, cash etc)
x Materiality for the financial statements as a whole and performance materiality
Any changes made during the audit engagement to the overall audit strategy or audit plan, and the reasons
for such changes, shall be included in the audit documentation.
1.3 Interim and final audits

Auditors usually carry out their audit work for a financial year in one or more sittings. These are referred to
as the interim audit(s) and the final audit.
The interim audit visits are carried out during the period of review and work focuses on planning and risk
assessment and tests of controls and systems, although substantive audit procedures may also be carried
out. The final audit visit is at the year-end or shortly after and work focuses on the audit of the financial
statements.
ISA 330 The auditor’s responses to assessed risks states that the higher the risk of material misstatement,
the more likely it is that the auditor will decide that it is more effective to undertake substantive procedures
nearer to, or at, the period-end rather than earlier. However, performing audit procedures before the
period-end can assist in identifying significant matters at an early stage of the audit and being able to
resolve them with management’s assistance or developing an effective audit approach to address them.
Auditors must obtain evidence that controls have operated effectively throughout the period. ISA 330
states that when the auditor obtains evidence about the operating effectiveness of controls during an
interim audit visit, the auditor must determine what additional audit evidence should be obtained for the
remaining period.
The ISA makes a similar observation with regard to substantive procedures: when substantive procedures
are performed at an interim audit visit, the auditor shall perform further substantive procedures or
substantive procedures combined with tests of controls to cover the remaining period that provide a
reasonable basis for extending the audit conclusions from the interim date to the period-end.
Some audit procedures can only be performed at the final audit visit, such as agreeing the financial
statements to the accounting records and examining adjustments made during the process of preparing
2 Audit documentation
FAST FORWARD
It is important to document audit work performed in working papers to:
x Enable reporting partner to ensure all planned work has been completed adequately
x Provide details of work done for future reference
x Assist in planning and control of future audits
x Encourage a methodical approach
2.1 The objective of audit documentation

Key term Audit documentation is the record of audit procedures performed, relevant audit evidence obtained and
conclusions reached. The term 'working papers' or 'work papers' are also sometimes used.
All audit work must be documented: the working papers are the tangible evidence of the work done in
support of the audit opinion. ISA 230 Audit documentation states that the auditor shall prepare audit
documentation on a timely basis.
Audit documentation is necessary for the following reasons:
x It provides evidence of the auditor’s basis for a conclusion about the achievement of the overall
objective.
x It provides evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with ISAs and other
legal and regulatory requirements.
x It assists the engagement team to plan and perform the audit.
x It assists team members responsible for supervision to direct, supervise and review audit work.
x It enables the team to be accountable for its work.
x It allows a record of matters of continuing significance to be retained.
x It enables the conduct of quality control reviews and inspections (both internal and external).
2.2 Form and content of working papers

The ISA requires working papers to be sufficiently complete and detailed to provide an overall
understanding of the audit. Auditors cannot record everything they consider. Therefore judgement must be
used as to the extent of working papers, based on the following general rule:
What would be necessary to provide an experienced auditor, with no previous connection with the audit,
with an understanding of the work performed, the results of audit procedures, audit evidence obtained,
significant matters arising during the audit and conclusions reached.
The form and content of working papers are affected by matters such as:
x The size and complexity of the entity
x The nature of the audit procedures to be performed
x The identified risks of material misstatement
x The significance of the audit evidence obtained
x The nature and extent of exceptions identified
x The need to document a conclusion or the basis for a conclusion not readily determinable from the
documentation of the work performed or audit evidence obtained
x The audit methodology and tools used
2.2.1 Examples of working papers
x Information obtained in understanding the entity and its environment, including its internal control,
such as the following:
– Information concerning the legal documents, agreements and minutes
– Extracts or copies of important legal documents, agreements and minutes
– Information concerning the industry, economic environment and legislative environment
within which the entity operates.
– Extracts from the entity's internal control manual
x Evidence of the planning process including audit programs and any changes thereto
x Evidence of the auditor's consideration of the work of internal audit and conclusions reached
x Analyses of transactions and balances
x Analyses of significant ratios and trends
x Identified and assessed risks of material misstatements
x A record of the nature, timing, extent and results of audit procedures
x Evidence that the work performed was supervised and reviewed
x An indication as to who performed the audit procedures and when they were performed
x Details of audit procedures applied regarding components whose financial statements are audited
by another auditor
x Copies of communications with other auditors, experts and other third parties
x Copies of letters or notes concerning audit matters communicated to or discussed with
management or those charged with governance, including the terms of the engagement and
material weaknesses in internal control
x Letters of representation received from the entity
x Conclusions reached by the auditor concerning significant aspects of the audit, including how
exceptions and unusual matters, if any, disclosed by the auditor's procedures were resolved or
treated.
x Copies of the financial statements and auditors’ reports
x Notes of discussions about significant matters with management and others
x In exceptional circumstances, the reasons for departing from a basic principle or essential
procedure of an ISA and how the alternative procedure performed achieve the audit objective
The following is an illustration of a typical audit working paper.
Name of client
Year-end Working
Client: Duckworth Builders Co Ref: A.1.1
date paper
reference
Year-end: 30 June 20X7 Prepared by: J Jones
Preparer
Subject: Year-end inventory count Date: 10 July 20X7
Subject
Aim Date prepared
Objective of work
Work done
– Sample selection
– Work done
– Source of information
– Key to any audit risks
– Appropriate cross-referencing
Results
– Results
– Analysis of errors or other significant observations
– Conclusions
– Key points
Conclusions
Reviewer
Reviewed by: L Paoli

Date: 15 July 20X7
Date reviewed
The auditor should record the identifying characteristics of specific items or matters being tested. Firms
should have standard referencing and filing procedures for working papers, to facilitate their review.
2.2.2 Audit files

For recurring audits, working papers may be split between:
Permanent audit files (containing information of continuing importance to the audit). These contain:
x Engagement letters
x New client questionnaire
x The memorandum and articles
x Other legal documents such as prospectuses, leases, sales agreement
x Details of the history of the client’s business
x Board minutes of continuing relevance
x Previous years’ signed accounts, analytical review and management letters
x Accounting systems notes, previous years’ control questionnaires
Current audit files (containing information of relevance to the current year’s audit). These should be
compiled on a timely basis after the completion of the audit and should contain:
x Financial statements
x Accounts checklists
x Management accounts details
x Reconciliations of management and financial accounts
x A summary of unadjusted errors
x Report to partner including details of significant events and errors
x Review notes
x Audit planning memorandum
x Time budgets and summaries
x Representation letter
x Management letter
x Notes of board minutes
x Communications with third parties such as experts or other auditors
They also contain working papers covering each audit area. These should include the following:
x A lead schedule including details of the figures to be included in the accounts
x Problems encountered and conclusions drawn
x Audit programmes
x Risk assessments
x Sampling plans
x Analytical review
x Details of substantive tests and tests of control
If it is necessary to modify/add new audit documentation to a file after it has been assembled, the auditor
should document:
x Who made the changes, and when, and by whom they were reviewed
x The reasons for making changes
x The effect of changes on the auditors' conclusions
If, in exceptional circumstances, changes are made to an audit file after the audit report has been signed,
the auditor should document:
x The circumstances
x The audit procedures performed, evidence obtained, conclusions drawn
x When and by whom changes to audit documents were made and reviewed
2.3 Standardised and automated working papers

The use of standardised working papers, for example, checklists and specimen letters, may improve the
efficiency of audit work but they can be dangerous because they may lead to auditors mechanically
following an approach without using audit judgement.
Automated working paper packages have been developed which can make the documenting of audit work
much easier. Such programs aid preparation of working papers, lead schedules, the trial balance and the
financial statements themselves. These are automatically cross-referenced, adjusted and balanced by the
computer.
The advantages of automated working papers are as follows.
x The risk of errors is reduced.
x The working papers will be neater and easier to review.
x The time saved will be substantial as adjustments can be made easily to all working papers,
including those summarising the key analytical information.
x Standard forms do not have to be carried to audit locations.
x Audit working papers can be transmitted for review via a modem or fax facilities.
2.4 Safe custody and retention of working papers

Judgement may have to be used in deciding the length of holding working papers, and further
consideration should be given to the matter before their destruction. The ACCA recommends seven years
as a minimum period.
Working papers are the property of the auditors. They are not a substitute for, nor part of, the entity’s
accounting records.
Auditors must follow ethical guidance on the confidentiality of audit working papers. They may, at their
discretion, release parts of or whole working papers to the entity, as long as disclosure does not
undermine ‘the independence or validity of the audit process’. Information should not be made available to
third parties without the permission of the entity.
Exam focus You must understand the difference between the audit strategy and the audit plan. A question on this area
point of the syllabus could come up as part of a longer scenario question or as a short factual question in
question 2.
Chapter Roundup
x The auditors formulate an overall audit strategy which is translated into a detailed audit plan for audit
staff to follow.
x The overall audit strategy and audit plan shall be updated and changed as necessary during the course of
the audit.
x It is important to document audit work performed in working papers to:
– Enable reporting partner to ensure all planned work has been completed adequately
– Provide details of work done for future reference
– Assist in planning and control of future audits
– Encourage a methodical approach
Quick Quiz
1 Complete the definitions:
An ……………… ……..……. ……………… is the formulation of a general strategy for the audit.
An ……………… ………….. is a set of instructions to the audit team that sets out the further audit
procedures to be carried out.
2 Changes to the overall audit strategy or audit plan do not need to be documented.
True
False
3 What is the general rule for audit documentation?
4 State two advantages of standardised working papers.
(1) …………………………………………
(2) …………………………………………
5 Complete the table, using the working papers given below.
Current audit file Permanent audit file
Engagement letters New client questionnaire

Financial statements Management letter
Accounts checklists Audit planning memorandum
Board minutes of continuing relevance Accounting systems notes
1 Overall audit strategy, audit plan.
2 False – any changes shall be fully documented in accordance with ISA 300 Planning an audit of financial
statements.
3 What would be necessary to provide an experienced auditor, with no previous connection with the audit,
with an understanding of the nature, timing and extent of the audit procedures performed, the results of
audit procedures, audit evidence obtained, significant matters arising during the audit and conclusions
reached.
4 Advantages of standardised working papers
(1) Facilitate the delegation of work
(2) Means of quality control
5
Current audit file Permanent audit file
Financial statements Engagement letters
Management letter New client questionnaire
Accounts checklists Board minutes of continuing relevance
Audit planning memorandum Accounting systems notes

Introduction to audit
evidence

1 Audit evidence E2
2 Financial statement assertions E1
Introduction
In this chapter, we introduce the fundamental auditing concept of audit
evidence. Audit evidence is required to enable the auditor to form an opinion on
the financial statements. Therefore such evidence has to be sufficient and
appropriate.
We also explain the financial statement assertions for which audit evidence is
required. These will be particularly important when we consider detailed testing
later in this Study Text, since audit tests are designed to obtain sufficient
appropriate evidence about the assertions for each balance or transaction in the
129
Study guide
Intellectual level
E1 The use of assertions by auditors
(a) Explain the assertions contained in the financial statements 2
(b) Explain the principles and objectives of transaction testing, account balance 1
testing and disclosure testing
(c) Explain the use of assertions in obtaining audit evidence 2
E2 Audit procedures
(a) Discuss the sources and relative merits of the different types of evidence 2
available
(e) Discuss the quality of evidence obtained 2
Exam guide
The issues of audit evidence and financial statement assertions will underpin exam questions about
detailed audit testing which we look at later in this Study Text. In addition, you could be asked a question
on the theory of evidence such as the different types of evidence that can be obtained by auditors.
The pilot paper had 12 marks for audit procedures to confirm assertions relating to purchases in the long
scenario question, as well as four knowledge-based marks available to explain types of audit evidence that
could be obtained by the auditor.
The December 2007 paper had a question on the aims of a test of control and a substantive procedure.
The June 2008 exam had four marks for explaining assertions relating to the confirmation of receivables
as part of question 1, and four marks in question 2 on factors that would influence the auditor's
judgement regarding the sufficiency of evidence obtained.
The December 2008 paper had eight marks available in question 1 for explaining audit procedures used in
collecting audit evidence. Question 2 had four marks for listing four assertions relevant to the audit of
tangible non-current assets.
The June 2009 paper had four marks in question 2 on assertions relating to classes of transactions.
1 Audit evidence Pilot paper, Dec 07, June 08

FAST FORWARD
Auditors must design and perform audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
1.1 The need for audit evidence

Remember that the objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an
opinion on whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an
identified financial reporting framework. In this section, we shall look at the audit evidence gathered,
which enables the auditor to express his opinion.
Key term Audit evidence is all of the information used by the auditor in arriving at the conclusions on which the
auditor’s opinion is based.
Audit evidence includes the information contained in the accounting records underlying the financial
statements, and other information gathered by the auditors, such as confirmations from third parties.
Auditors are not expected to look at all the information that might exist. They will often select samples to
test, as we shall see in Chapter 11.
130 8: Introduction to audit evidence ~ Part C Planning and risk assessment

1.2 Sufficient appropriate audit evidence
Key terms
The appropriateness of audit evidence is the measure of the quality of it, that is, its relevance and its
reliability in providing support for the conclusions on which the auditor’s opinion is based.
The sufficiency of audit evidence is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence. The quantity of audit
evidence required is affected by the auditor’s assessment of the risks of material misstatement and also by
the quality of such audit evidence.
ISA 500 Audit evidence requires auditors to 'design and perform audit procedures that are appropriate in
the circumstances for the purposes of obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence'. 'Sufficiency' and
'appropriateness' are interrelated and apply to both tests of controls and substantive procedures.
x Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence.
x Appropriateness is the measure of the quality or reliability of the audit evidence.
The quantity of audit evidence required is affected by the level of risk in the area being audited. It is also
affected by the quality of evidence obtained. If the evidence is high quality, the auditor may need less than
if it were poor quality. However, obtaining a high quantity of poor quality evidence will not cancel out its
poor quality. The ISA requires auditors to consider the relevance and reliability of the information to be
used as audit evidence when designing and performing audit procedures.
Relevance deals with the logical connection with the purpose of the audit procedure and the assertion under
consideration (we look at assertions in the next section). The relevance of information may be affected by the
direction of testing.
Reliability is influenced by the source and nature of the information, including the controls over its
preparation and maintenance. The following generalisations may help in assessing the reliability of audit
evidence.
QUALITY OF EVIDENCE
External Audit evidence from external sources is more reliable than that obtained from the
entity's records because it is from an independent source.
Auditor Evidence obtained directly by auditors is more reliable than that obtained indirectly or by
inference
Entity Evidence obtained from the entity's records is more reliable when the related control
system operates effectively
Written Evidence in the form of documents (paper or electronic) or written representations are
more reliable than oral representations, since oral representations can be retracted.
Originals Original documents are more reliable than photocopies or facsimiles, which can easily
be altered by the client.
1.2.1 Management’s expert

Key term A management’s expert is an individual or organisation possessing expertise in a field other than auditing
or accounting, whose work is used by the entity to assist in the preparation of the financial statements.
ISA 500 considers the use of a management’s expert by management and states that if information to be
used as audit evidence has been prepared by a management’s expert, the auditor must evaluate the
competence, capabilities and objectivity of the expert, obtain an understanding of the work done, and
evaluate the appropriateness of the work done as audit evidence.
Part C Planning and risk assessment ~ 8: Introduction to audit evidence 131

1.2.2 Information produced by the entity
If information produced by the entity is to be used by the auditor, the auditor needs to evaluate whether it
is sufficiently reliable for the auditor’s purposes, including obtaining audit evidence regarding its accuracy
and completeness, and evaluating whether it is sufficiently precise and detailed.
1.2.3 Selecting items to test
ISA 500 states that the auditor must determine the means of selecting items for testing that are effective in
meeting the purpose of the audit procedure. The auditor could either select all items, select specific
items or use audit sampling. We look at these in more detail in Chapter 11.
1.2.4 Inconsistencies and doubts over reliability
If audit evidence from one source is inconsistent with that from another, or the auditor has doubts over
the reliability of information, the auditor must determine what modifications or additions to audit
procedures are necessary to resolve the issues and must consider the effect on other aspects of the audit.
Objective 17 of the PER performance objectives is to prepare for and collect evidence for audit. You can
apply the knowledge you gain from this and subsequent chapters to assist in achieving this objective.
2 Financial statement assertions June 08, Dec 08, June 09

FAST FORWARD
Audit tests are designed to obtain evidence about the financial statement assertions. Assertions relate to
classes of transactions and events, account balances at the period-end, and presentation and
disclosure.
Key term Financial statement assertions are the representations by management, explicit or otherwise, that are
embodied in the financial statements, as used by the auditor to consider the different types of potential
misstatements that may occur.
ISA 315 states that the auditor must use assertions for classes of transactions (ie income statement),
account balances (ie statement of financial position), and presentation and disclosures in sufficient detail
to form the basis for the assessment of risks of material misstatement and the design and performance of
further audit procedures. It gives examples of assertions in these areas which are set out in the table
below.

Assertions used by the auditor
Assertions about Occurrence: transactions and events that have been recorded have occurred and
classes of pertain to the entity.
transactions and Completeness: all transactions and events that should have been recorded have been
events for the recorded.
period under audit Accuracy: amounts and other data relating to recorded transactions and events have
been recorded appropriately.
Cut-off: transactions and events have been recorded in the correct accounting period.
Classification: transactions and events have been recorded in the proper accounts.
Assertions about Existence: assets, liabilities, and equity interests exist.
account balances at Rights and obligations: the entity holds or controls the rights to assets, and liabilities
the period-end are the obligations of the entity.
Completeness: all assets, liabilities and equity interests that should have been
recorded have been recorded.
Valuation and allocation: assets, liabilities, and equity interests are included in the
financial statements at appropriate amounts and any resulting valuation or allocation
adjustments are appropriately recorded.
Assertions about Occurrence and rights and obligations: disclosed events, transactions and other
presentation and matters have occurred and pertain to the entity.
disclosure Completeness: all disclosures that should have been included in the financial
statements have been included.
Classification and understandability: financial information is appropriately presented
and described, and disclosures are clearly expressed.
Accuracy and valuation: financial and other information are disclosed fairly and at
appropriate amounts.
This is a key syllabus area and you must be very comfortable with the assertions that relate to each of the
three areas, as the same assertions do not always apply to each of these areas. Exam question are very
likely to test this area in the context of audit procedures to test particular assertions so it's vital that you
take the time to learn, understand and test your knowledge.
Exam focus When designing audit plans and procedures for specific areas, you must focus on the financial statement
point assertions that you are trying to find evidence to support. If a question asks for audit procedures relating
to a particular assertion, make sure your answer addresses only the assertion required by the question.
2.1 Audit procedures to obtain audit evidence Pilot paper, Dec 08

FAST FORWARD
Audit evidence can be obtained by inspection, observation, inquiry and confirmation, recalculation,
reperformance and analytical procedures.
The auditor obtains audit evidence by undertaking audit procedures to do the following:
x Obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment to assess the risks of material
misstatement at the financial statement and assertion levels (risk assessment procedures)
x Test the operating effectiveness of controls in preventing, or detecting and correcting, material
misstatements at the assertion level (tests of controls)
x Detect material misstatements at the assertion level (substantive procedures)
The auditor must always perform risk assessment procedures to provide a satisfactory assessment of
risks.
Tests of controls are necessary to test the controls to support the risk assessment, and also when
substantive procedures alone do not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence. Substantive

procedures must always be carried out for material classes of transactions, account balances and
disclosures.
The audit procedures described in the table below can be used as risk assessment procedures, tests of
controls and substantive procedures.
Key terms
Tests of controls are performed to obtain audit evidence about the operating effectiveness of controls
preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements at the assertion level.
Substantive procedures are audit procedures performed to detect material misstatements at the assertion
level. They are generally of two types:
x Substantive analytical procedures
x Tests of detail of classes of transactions, account balances and disclosures
Auditors obtain evidence by one or more of the following procedures.
PROCEDURES
Inspection of Inspection of tangible assets that are recorded in the accounting records confirms
tangible assets existence, but does not necessarily confirm rights and obligations or valuation.
Confirmation that assets seen are recorded in accounting records gives evidence of
completeness.
Inspection of This is the examination of documents and records, both internal and external, in paper,
documentation or electronic or other forms. This procedure provides evidence of varying reliability,
records depending on the nature, source and effectiveness of controls over production (if
internal). Inspection can provide evidence of existence (eg a document constituting a
financial instrument), but not necessarily about ownership or value.
Observation This involves watching a procedure or process being performed (for example, post
opening). It is of limited use, as it only confirms the procedure took place when the
auditor was watching, and because the act of being observed could affect how the
procedure or process was performed.
Inquiry This involves seeking information from client staff or external sources.
Strength of evidence depends on the knowledge and integrity of source of information.
Inquiry alone does not provide sufficient audit evidence to detect a material
misstatement at assertion level nor is it sufficient to test the operating effectiveness of
controls.
Confirmation This is the process of obtaining a representation of information or of an existing
condition directly from a third party eg confirmation from bank of bank balances
Recalculation This consists of checking the mathematical accuracy of documents or records and can
be performed through the use of IT.
Reperformance This is the auditor's independent execution of procedures or controls that were
originally performed as part of the entity's internal control.
Analytical Evaluating and comparing financial and/or non-financial data for plausible relationships.
procedures Also include the investigation of identified fluctuations and relationships that are
inconsistent with other relevant information or deviate significantly from predicted
amounts.

Question Audit evidence
(a) Discuss the quality of the following types of audit evidence, giving two examples of each form of
evidence.
(i) Evidence originated by the auditors
(ii) Evidence created by third parties
(iii) Evidence created by the management of the client
(b) Describe the general considerations which auditors must bear in mind when evaluating audit
evidence.
Answer
(a) Quality of audit evidence
(i) Evidence originated by the auditors
This is in general the most reliable type of audit evidence because there is little risk that it
can be manipulated by management.
Examples
(1) Analytical procedures, such as the calculation of ratios and trends in order to
examine unusual variations
(2) Physical inspection or observation, such as attendance at inventory counts
(3) Reperformance of calculations making up figures in the accounts, such as the
computation of total inventory values
(ii) Evidence created by third parties
Third party evidence is more reliable than client-produced evidence to the extent that it is
obtained from independent sources. Its reliability will be reduced if it is obtained from
sources which are not independent, or if there is a risk that client personnel may be able to
and have reason to suppress or manipulate it.
Examples
(1) Circularisation of trade receivables or payables, confirmation of bank balances.
(2) Reports produced by experts, such as property valuations, actuarial valuations, legal
opinions. In evaluating such evidence, the auditors need to take into account the
expert’s qualifications, independence and the terms of reference for the work.
(3) Documents held by the client which were issued by third parties, such as invoices,
price lists and statements. These may sometimes be manipulated by the client and
so are less reliable than confirmations received directly.
(iii) Evidence created by management
The auditors cannot place the same degree of reliance on evidence produced by client
management as on that produced outside the company. However, it will often be necessary
to place some reliance on such evidence. The auditors will need to obtain audit evidence
that the information supplied is complete and accurate, and apply judgement in doing so,
taking into account previous experience of the client's reliability and the extent to which the
client's representations appear compatible with other audit findings, as well as the
materiality of the item under discussion.

Examples
(1) The company's accounting records and supporting schedules. Although these are
prepared by management, the auditors have a statutory right to examine such
records in full: this right enhances the quality of this information.
(2) The client's explanations of, for instance, apparently unusual fluctuations in results.
Such evidence requires interpretation by the auditors and, being oral evidence, only
limited reliance can be placed upon it.
(3) Information provided to the auditors about the internal control system. The auditors
need to confirm that this information is accurate and up-to-date, and that it does not
simply describe an idealised system which is not adhered to in practice.
(b) General considerations in evaluating audit evidence
Audit evidence will often not be wholly conclusive. The auditors must obtain evidence which is
sufficient and appropriate to form the basis for their audit conclusions. The evidence gathered
should also be relevant to those conclusions, and sufficiently reliable to form the basis for the
audit opinion. The auditors must exercise skill and judgement to ensure that evidence is correctly
interpreted and that only valid inferences are drawn from it.
Certain general principles can be stated. Written evidence is preferable to oral evidence;
independent evidence obtained from outside the organisation is more reliable than that obtained
internally; and evidence generated by the auditors is more reliable than that obtained from others.

Chapter Roundup
x Auditors must design and perform audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
x Audit tests are designed to obtain evidence about the financial statement assertions. Assertions relate to
classes of transactions and events, account balances at the period-end, and presentation and
disclosure.
x Audit evidence can be obtained by inspection, observation, inquiry and confirmation, recalculation,
reperformance and analytical procedures.
Quick Quiz
1 Define sufficiency and appropriateness as they relate to audit evidence.
2 State the financial statement assertions.
3 Fill in the blanks.
Audit evidence from external sources is …………………… ………………….. than that obtained from
the entity's records.
4 State five procedures which auditors can use to obtain audit evidence.
5 Explain what 'reperformance' is.

1 Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence.
Appropriateness is the measure of the quality/reliability of audit evidence.
2 Existence, rights and obligations, occurrence, completeness, valuation, accuracy, classification and
understandability, cut-off, allocation.
3 More reliable
4 Any five from:
Inspection
Observation
Inquiry
Confirmation
Recalculation
Reperformance
Analytical procedures
5 'Reperformance' is the auditor's independent execution of procedures or controls that were originally
performed as part of the entity's internal control.


P
A
R
T
Internal
control
139
140
Internal control

1 Internal control systems D1, D5, E2
2 The use of internal control systems by auditors D1, D2
3 The evaluation of internal control components D5, D6
4 Internal controls in a computerised environment D3, D4
Introduction
The auditor generally seeks to rely on the internal controls within the entity in
order to reduce the amount of testing of final balances.
The initial evaluation of a client's system is essential as the auditor gains an
understanding of the entity, as we outlined in Chapter 6. In this chapter, we
shall look at some of the detailed requirements of ISA 315 with regard to
internal controls, and shall also set out control issues the auditor may come
across.
The auditor will assess the risks of material misstatement arising and, as we
discussed in Chapter 6, may respond to those risks by carrying out tests of
controls. If he concludes that he can rely on the controls in place, the level of
substantive audit testing required can be reduced.
In this chapter we also look at the ways in which auditors can document the
internal control systems using narrative notes, flowcharts, questionnaires and
checklists, focusing particularly on the use of questionnaires.
We shall examine the detailed controls that businesses operate in Chapter 10
and the tests that the auditors may carry out in specific areas. You should bear
in mind the principles discussed in this chapter when considering the controls
needed over specific accounting areas.
141
Study guide
Intellectual level
D1 Internal control systems
(a) Explain why an auditor needs to obtain an understanding of internal control 1
activities relevant to the audit
(b) Describe and explain the key components of an internal control system 1
(c) Identify and describe the important elements of internal control including 1
the control environment and management control activities
(d) Discuss the difference between tests of control and substantive procedures 2
D2 The use of internal control systems by auditors
(a) Explain the importance of internal control to auditors 1
(b) Explain how auditors identify weaknesses in internal control systems and 2
how those weaknesses limit the extent of auditors’ reliance on those
systems
D3 Transaction cycles
(b) Provide examples of computer system controls 2
D4 Tests of controls
(b) List examples of application controls and general IT controls 2
D5 The evaluation of internal control components
(a) Analyse the limitations of internal control components in the context of
fraud and error
(b) Explain the need to modify the audit strategy and audit plan following the 1
results of tests of control
(c) Identify and explain management’s risk assessment process with reference 1
to internal control components
D6 Communication on internal control
(a) Discuss and provide examples of how the reporting of internal control 2
weaknesses and recommendations to overcome those weaknesses are
provided to management
E2 Audit procedures
(d) Describe why smaller entities may have different control environments and 1
describe the types of evidence likely to be available in smaller entities
Exam guide
Questions on internal control are highly likely to come up in a scenario-based setting focusing on control
procedures in a given system or asking you to describe weaknesses in the system of internal control,
together with recommendations of internal controls to mitigate those weaknesses. The pilot paper had five
marks on control procedures relating to trade payables in question 1, and 16 marks on weaknesses in
internal control over a wages system and recommendations in question 4. The December 2007 paper had
similar style questions for 12 marks.
The June 2008 paper had a four mark part relating to internal control questionnaires and 12 marks in the
same question on tests of control. Question 2 of this paper had three marks relating to tests of control and
the impact of results on the audit opinion.
Question 1 of the December 2008 paper had 16 marks relating to controls in a wages system. There were
also four marks on the control environment in a charity in question 4 of the same paper.
142 9: Internal control ~ Part D Internal control

1 Internal control systems Dec 08
FAST FORWARD
The auditors must understand the accounting system and control environment in order to determine
their audit approach.
Key term Internal control is the process designed and effected by those charged with governance, management,
and other personnel to provide reasonable assurance about the achievement of the entity's objectives with
regard to reliability of financial reporting, effectiveness and efficiency of operations and compliance with
applicable laws and regulations.
ISA 315 Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement through understanding the entity and
its environment deals with the whole area of controls.
Internal control has five elements:
x The control environment
x The entity's risk assessment process
x The information system relevant to financial reporting
x Control activities
x Monitoring of controls
In obtaining an understanding of internal control, the auditor must understand the design of the internal
control and the implementation of that control. In the following sub-sections, we look at each of the
elements of internal control in turn.
1.1 Control environment

The control environment is the framework within which controls operate. The control environment is very
much determined by the management of a business.
Key term Control environment includes the governance and management functions and the attitudes, awareness
and actions of those charged with governance and management concerning the entity's internal control
and its importance in the entity.
A strong control environment does not, by itself, ensure the effectiveness of the overall internal control
system, but can be a positive factor when assessing the risks of material misstatement. A weak control
environment can undermine the effectiveness of controls.
Aspects of the control environment (such as management attitudes towards control) will nevertheless be a
significant factor in determining how controls operate. Controls are more likely to operate well in an
environment where they are treated as being important. In addition consideration of the control
environment will mean determining whether certain controls (internal auditors, budgets) actually exist.
ISA 315 states that auditors shall have an understanding of the control environment. As part of this
understanding, the auditor shall evaluate whether:
x Management has created and maintained a culture of honesty and ethical behaviour
x The strengths in the control environment provide an appropriate foundation for the other
components of internal control and whether those components are not undermined by deficiencies
in the control environment
The following table illustrates the elements of the control environment that may be relevant when
obtaining an understanding of the control environment.
Part D Internal control ~ 9: Internal control 143

CONTROL ENVIRONMENT
Communication and Essential elements which influence the effectiveness of the design,
enforcement of integrity and administration and monitoring of controls
ethical values
Commitment to competence Management's consideration of the competence levels for particular jobs
and how those levels translate into requisite skills and knowledge
Participation by those x Independence from management
charged with governance x Experience and stature
x Extent of involvement and scrutiny of activities
x Appropriateness of actions and interaction with internal and external
auditors
Management's philosophy x Approach to taking and managing business risks
and operating style x Attitudes and actions towards financial reporting
x Attitudes towards information processing and accounting functions
and personnel
Organisational structure The framework within which an entity's activities for achieving its
objectives are planned, executed, controlled and reviewed
Assignment of authority and How authority and responsibility for operating activities are assigned and
responsibility how reporting relationships and authorisation hierarchies are established
Human resource policies and Recruitment, orientation, training, evaluating, counselling, promoting,
practices compensation and remedial actions
The auditor shall assess whether these elements of the control environment have been implemented using
a combination of inquiries of management and observation and inspection.
1.2 Entity's risk assessment process

ISA 315 says the auditor shall obtain an understanding of whether the entity has a process for:
x Identifying business risks relevant to financial reporting objectives
x Estimating the significance of the risks
x Assessing the likelihood of their occurrence
x Deciding upon actions to address those risks
If the entity has established such a process, the auditor shall obtain an understanding of it. If there is not a
process, the auditor shall discuss with management whether relevant business risks have been identified
and how they have been addressed.
1.3 Information system relevant to financial reporting

Key term The information system relevant to financial reporting is a component of internal control that includes
the financial reporting system, and consists of the procedures and records established to initiate, record,
process and report entity transactions and to maintain accountability for the related assets, liabilities and
equity.
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the information system relevant to financial reporting
objectives, including the following areas:
x The classes of transactions in the entity's operations that are significant to the financial statements
x The procedures, within both IT and manual systems, by which those transactions are initiated,
recorded, processed, corrected, transferred to the general ledger and reported in the financial
statements

x The related accounting records, supporting information, and specific accounts in the financial
statements, in respect of initiating, recording, processing and reporting transactions
x How the information system captures events and conditions, other than transactions, that are
significant to the financial statements
x The financial reporting process used to prepare the entity's financial statements, including
significant accounting estimates and disclosures
x Controls surrounding journal entries, including non-standard journal entries used to record non-
recurring, unusual transactions or adjustments
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of how the entity communicates financial reporting roles and
responsibilities and significant matters relating to financial reporting.
1.4 Control activities

Key term Control activities are those policies and procedures that help ensure that management directives are
carried out.
ISA 315 states that the auditor shall obtain an understanding of control activities relevant to the audit and
how the entity has responded to risks arising from IT.
Control activities include those activities designed to prevent or to detect and correct errors. Examples
include activities relating to authorisation, performance reviews, information processing, physical controls
and segregation of duties.
Examples of control activities

Approval and control of Transactions should be approved by an appropriate person. For
documents example, overtime should be approved by departmental managers.
Controls over computerised We shall look at computer controls later in this chapter.
applications
Checking the arithmetical For example, checking to see if individual invoices have been added up
accuracy of records correctly.
Maintaining and reviewing Control accounts bring together transactions in individual ledgers. Trial
control accounts and trial balances bring together unusual transactions for the organisation as a
balances whole. Preparing these can highlight unusual transactions or accounts.
Reconciliations Reconciliations involve comparison of a specific balance in the
accounting records with what another source says the balance should
be, for example, a bank reconciliation. Differences between the two
figures should only be reconciling items.
Comparing the results of cash, For example, in a physical count of petty cash, the balance shown in the
security and inventory counts cash book should be the same as the amount held.
with accounting records
Comparing internal data with For example, comparing records of goods despatched to customers with
external sources of customers' acknowledgement of goods that have been received.
information
Limiting physical access to Only authorised personnel should have access to certain assets
assets and records (particularly valuable or portable ones). For example, ensuring that the
inventory store is only open when store personnel are there and is
otherwise locked.

1.4.1 Segregation of duties
Segregation implies a number of people being involved in the accounting process. This makes it more
difficult for fraudulent transactions to be processed (since a number of people would have to collude in the
fraud), and it is also more difficult for accidental errors to be processed (since the more people are
involved, the more checking there can be). Segregation should take place in various ways:
(a) Segregation of function. The key functions that should be segregated are the carrying out of a
transaction, recording that transaction in the accounting records and maintaining custody of
assets that arise from the transaction.
(b) The various steps in carrying out the transaction should also be segregated. We shall see how this
works in practice when we look at the major transaction cycles in Chapter 10.
(c) The carrying out of various accounting operations should be segregated. For example the same
staff should not record transactions and carry out the reconciliations at the period-end.
1.5 Monitoring of controls

Key term Monitoring of controls is a process to assess the effectiveness of internal control performance over time.
It includes assessing the design and operation of controls on a timely basis and taking necessary
corrective actions modified for changes in conditions.
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the major activities that the entity uses to monitor internal
control over financial reporting, including those related to those control activities relevant to the audit, and
how the entity initiates corrective actions to deficiencies in its controls.
If the entity has an internal audit function, the auditor shall obtain an understanding of the nature of its
responsibilities and how it fits in the organisational structure, and the activities performed/to be
performed.
The auditor shall also obtain an understanding of the sources of the information used in the monitoring
activities and the basis on which management considers it reliable.
1.6 Small companies – the problem of control

Many of the controls which would be relevant to a large entity are neither practical nor appropriate for a
small company. For a small company the most important form of internal control is generally the close
involvement of the directors or proprietors. However, that very involvement will enable them to override
controls and, if they wish, to exclude transactions from the records.
Auditors can have difficulties not because there is a general lack of controls but because the evidence
available as to their operation and the completeness of the records is insufficient.
Segregation of duties will often appear inadequate in enterprises having a small number of staff.
Similarly, because of the scale of the operation, organisation and management controls are likely to be
rudimentary at best.
The onus is on the proprietor, by virtue of his day-to-day involvement, to compensate for this lack. This
involvement should encompass physical, authorisation, arithmetical and accounting controls as well as
supervision.
However it is important to stress that in a well run small company there will be a system of internal
control. In any case, all companies must comply with any relevant legislation concerning the maintenance
of a proper accounting system.
Where the manager of a small business is not himself the owner, he may not possess the same degree of
commitment to the running of it as an owner-manager would. In such cases, the auditors will have to
consider the adequacy of controls exercised by the shareholders over the manager in assessing internal
control.

1.7 Limitations of accounting and control systems
Any internal control system can only provide the directors with reasonable assurance that their objectives
are reached, because of inherent limitations. These include:
x The costs of control not outweighing their benefits
x The potential for human error
x Collusion between employees
x The possibility of controls being by-passed or overridden by management
x Controls being designed to cope with routine and not non-routine transactions
These factors demonstrate why auditors cannot obtain all their evidence from tests of the systems of
internal control. The key factors in the limitations of controls system are human error and potential for
fraud.
The safeguard of segregation of duties can help deter fraud. However, if employees decide to perpetrate
frauds by collusion, or management commit fraud by overriding systems, the accounting system will not
be able to prevent such frauds.
This is one of the reasons that auditors always need to be alert to the possibility of fraud, the subject of
ISA 240, which was discussed in Chapter 6.
Question Internal control systems
An internal control system has been described as comprising 'the control environment and control
activities. It includes all the policies and procedures (internal controls) adopted by the directors and
management of an entity to assist in achieving their objective of ensuring, as far as practicable, the orderly
and efficient conduct of its business, including adherence to internal policies, the safeguarding of assets,
the prevention and detection of fraud and error, the accuracy and completeness of the accounting records,
and the timely preparation of reliable financial information'.
Explain the meaning and relevance to the auditors giving an opinion on financial statements of each of the
management objectives above.
Answer
The auditors' objective in evaluating and testing internal controls is to determine the degree of reliance
which they may place on the information contained in the accounting records. If they obtain reasonable
assurance by means of tests of controls that the internal control system is effective in ensuring the
completeness and accuracy of the accounting records, they may limit their substantive procedures.
(a) 'The orderly and efficient conduct of its business'
An organisation which is efficient and conducts its affairs in an orderly manner is much more likely
to be able to supply the auditors with sufficient appropriate audit evidence on which to base their
audit opinion. More importantly, the level of inherent and control risk will be lower, giving extra
assurance that the financial statements do not contain material errors.
(b) 'Adherence to internal policies'
Management is responsible for setting up an effective system of internal control and management
policy provides the broad framework within which internal controls have to operate. Unless
management does have a pre-determined set of policies, then it is very difficult to imagine how the
company could be expected to operate efficiently. Management policy will cover all aspects of the
company's activities, ranging from broad corporate objectives to specific areas such as wage rates.
Given that the auditors must have a sound understanding of the company's affairs generally, and of
specific areas of control in particular, then the fact that management policies are followed will make
the task of the auditors easier in that they will be able to rely more readily on the information
produced by the systems established by management.

(c) 'Safeguarding of assets'
This objective may relate to the physical protection of assets (for example locking cash in a safe at
night) or to less direct safeguarding (for example ensuring that there is adequate insurance cover
for all assets). It can also be seen as relating to the maintenance of proper records in respect of all
assets.
The auditors will be concerned to ensure that the company has properly safeguarded its assets so that
they can form an opinion on the existence of specific assets and whether the company's records can be
taken as a reliable basis for the preparation of financial statements. Reliance on the underlying records
will be particularly significant where the figures in the financial statements are derived from such records
rather than as the result of physical inspection.
(d) 'Prevention and detection of fraud and error'
The directors are responsible for taking reasonable steps to prevent and detect fraud. They are also
responsible for preparing financial statements which give a true and fair view of the entity's affairs.
However, the auditors must plan and perform their audit procedures and evaluate and report the
results of these, recognising that fraud or error may materially affect the financial statements. A
strong system of internal control will give the auditors some assurance that frauds and errors are
not occurring, unless management are colluding to overcome that system.
(e) 'Accuracy and completeness of the accounting records'/'timely preparation of reliable financial
information'
This objective is most clearly related to statutory requirements relating to both management and
auditors. The company generally has legal obligations to maintain proper accounting records. The
auditors must form an opinion on whether the company has fulfilled these obligations and also
conclude whether the financial statements agree with the underlying records.
2 The use of internal control systems by auditors June 08

FAST FORWARD
The auditors shall assess the adequacy of the systems as a basis for the financial statements and shall
identify risks of material misstatements to provide a basis for designing and performing further audit
procedures.
Auditors are only concerned with assessing policies and procedures which are relevant to the financial
statements. Auditors shall:
x Assess the adequacy of the accounting system as a basis for preparing the accounts
x Identify the types of potential misstatements that could occur in the accounts
x Consider factors that affect the risk of misstatements
x Design appropriate audit procedures
We have discussed the process of assessing the risks of material misstatement in Chapter 6. The
assessment of the controls of an entity will have an impact on that risk assessment.
Risks arising from poor control environments are unlikely to be confined to particular assertions in the
financial statements, and, if severe, may even raise questions about whether the financial statements are
capable of being audited, that is, if control risk is so high that audit risk cannot be reduced to an
acceptable level.
On the other hand, some control procedures may be closely connected to an assertion in financial
statements, for example, controls over the inventory count are closely connected with the existence and
completeness of inventory in the financial statements.
There may be occasions where substantive procedures alone are not sufficient to address the risks
arising. Where such risks exist, auditors shall evaluate the design and determine the implementation of

the controls, that is by controls testing. This is most likely to be the case in a system which is highly
computerised and which does not require much manual intervention.
2.1 Recording accounting and control systems

FAST FORWARD
The auditors must keep a record of the client's systems which must be updated each year. This can be
done through the use of narrative notes, flowcharts, questionnaires or checklists.
There are several techniques for recording the assessment of control risk, that is, the system. One or more of
the following may be used depending on the complexity of the system.
x Narrative notes x Questionnaires
x Flowcharts x Checklists
Whatever method of recording is used, the record will usually be retained on the permanent file and
updated each year. We will look at the use of questionnaires in a little more detail here. There are two
types, each with a different purpose.
x Internal Control Questionnaires (ICQs) are used to ask whether controls exist which meet specific
control objectives.
x Internal Control Evaluation Questionnaires (ICEQs) are used to determine whether there are
controls which prevent or detect specified errors or omissions.
The specific controls for each major transaction system (sales, purchases, inventory, cash, payroll,
revenue and capital expenditure) are examined in Chapter 10.
3 The evaluation of internal control components

FAST FORWARD
If the auditors believe the system of controls is strong, they may choose to test controls to assess whether
they can rely on the controls having operated effectively.
3.1 Confirming understanding

In order to confirm their understanding of the control systems, auditors will often carry out walk-through
tests. This is where they pick up a transaction and follow it through the system to see whether all the
controls they anticipate should be in existence were in operation with regard to that transaction.
3.2 Tests of control

Remember Tests of control are tests performed to obtain audit evidence about the effectiveness of the:
x Design of the accounting and internal control systems, ie whether they are suitably designed to
prevent, or detect and correct, material misstatement at the assertion level; and
x Operation of the internal controls throughout the period.
Tests of control are distinguished from substantive tests which are designed to detect material
misstatements in the financial statements.
Tests of control may include the following.
(a) Inspection of documents supporting controls or events to gain audit evidence that internal controls
have operated properly, eg verifying that a transaction has been authorised
(b) Inquiries about internal controls which leave no audit trail, eg determining who actually performs
each function not merely who is supposed to perform it
(c) Reperformance of control procedures, eg reconciliation of bank accounts, to ensure they were
correctly performed by the entity

(d) Examination of evidence of management views, eg minutes of management meetings
(e) Testing of internal controls operating on computerised systems or over the overall IT function, eg
access controls
(f) Observation of controls to consider the manner in which the control is being operated
Auditors should consider:
x How controls were applied
x The consistency with which they were applied during the period
x By whom they were applied
Deviations in the operation of controls (caused by change of staff etc) may increase control risk and tests
of control may need to be modified to confirm effective operation during and after any change.
The use of computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) may be appropriate and these are discussed in
detail in Chapter 11.
In a continuing engagement, the auditor will be aware of the accounting and internal control systems
through work carried out previously but will need to update the knowledge gained and consider the need
to obtain further audit evidence of any changes in control.
3.3 Revision of risk assessment

The auditors may find that the evidence they obtain from controls testing indicates that controls did not
operate as well as they expected. If the evidence contradicts the original risk assessment, the auditors will
have to amend the further procedures they have planned to carry out.
In particular, if controls testing reveals that controls have not operated effectively throughout the year, the
auditor may have to extend substantive testing.
3.4 Communication of deficiencies in internal control

Significant deficiencies in internal controls shall be communicated in writing to those charged with
governance in a report to management in accordance with ISA 265 Communicating deficiencies in
internal control to those charged with governance and management which states that the objective of the
auditor is to communicate appropriately to those charged with governance and management deficiencies
in internal control identified during the audit which the auditor considers are of sufficient importance to
warrant their attention.
We will look at an example report to management in more detail in Chapter 19, but in this section we will
discuss the requirements of ISA 265.
Key terms
A deficiency in internal control exists when a control is designed, implemented or operated in such a way
that it is unable to prevent, or detect and correct, misstatements in the financial statements on a timely
basis, or a control necessary to prevent, or detect and correct, misstatements in the financial statements
on a timely basis is missing.
A significant deficiency in internal control is a deficiency or combination of deficiencies in internal
control that, in the auditor’s professional judgement, is of sufficient importance to merit the attention of
those charged with governance.
ISA 265 requires the auditor to determine whether one or more deficiencies in internal control have been
identified and if so, whether these constitute significant deficiencies in internal control. The significance of
a deficiency depends on whether a misstatement has occurred and also on the likelihood of a
misstatement occurring and its potential magnitude, ISA 265 includes examples of matters to consider
when determining whether a deficiency in internal control is a significant deficiency:
x The likelihood of the deficiencies resulting in material misstatements in the financial statements in
the future
x The susceptibility to loss or fraud of the related asset or liability

x The subjectivity and complexity of determining estimated amounts
x The amounts exposed to the deficiencies
x The volume of activity that has occurred or could occur
x The importance of the controls to the financial reporting process
x The cause and frequency of the exceptions identified as a result of the deficiencies
x The interaction of the deficiency with other deficiencies in internal control
The ISA also lists examples of indicators of significant deficiencies in internal control, which include the
following:
x Evidence of ineffective aspects of the control environment
x Absence of a risk assessment process
x Evidence of an ineffective entity risk assessment process
x Evidence of an ineffective response to identified significant risks
x Misstatements detected by the auditor’s procedures that were not prevented, or detected and
corrected, by the entity’s internal control
x Restatement of previously issued financial statements that were corrected for a material
misstatement due to fraud or error
Evidence of management’s inability to oversee the preparation of the financial statements
The auditor shall communicate any significant deficiencies in internal control to those charged with
governance on a timely basis. The auditor shall also communicate in writing to management on a timely
basis significant deficiencies in internal control that the auditor has communicated or intends to
communicate to those charged with governance and other deficiencies in internal control that have not
been communicated to management by other parties and that the auditor considers are of sufficient
importance to warrant management’s attention. The communication to management of other deficiencies
in internal control can be done orally.
The auditor shall include the following in the written communication:
x A description of the deficiencies and an explanation of their potential effects (but there is no need
to quantify the effects).
x Sufficient information to enable those charged with governance and management to understand
the context of the communication, in particular that:
– The purpose of the audit was for the auditor to express an opinion on the financial
statements.
– The audit included consideration of internal control relevant to the preparation of the
financial statements in order to design audit procedures appropriate in the circumstances,
but not to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal control.
– The matters being reported are limited to those deficiencies identified during the audit and
which the auditor has concluded are sufficiently important to merit being reported to those
charged with governance.
The auditor may also include suggestions for remedial action on the deficiencies, management’s actual or
proposed responses and a statement as to whether or not the auditor has undertaken any steps to verify
whether management’s responses have been implemented. In addition, the auditor may also include the
following additional information:
x A statement that if the auditor had undertaken more extensive procedures on internal control, more
deficiencies might have been identified or some of the reported deficiencies need not have been
reported.
x The written communication is for the purpose of those charged with governance and may not be
suitable for other purposes.

4 Internal controls in a computerised environment
FAST FORWARD
There are special considerations for auditors when a system is computerised. IT controls comprise
general and application controls.
The internal controls in a computerised environment include both manual procedures and procedures
designed into computer programs. Such control procedures comprise two types of control, general
controls and application controls.
Key term General IT controls are policies and procedures that relate to many applications and support the effective
functioning of application controls by helping to ensure the continued proper operation of information
systems. They commonly include controls over data centre and network operations, system software
acquisition, change and maintenance, access security, and application system acquisition, development
and maintenance.
Application controls are manual or automated procedures that typically operate at a business process
level. They can be preventative or detective in nature and are designed to ensure the integrity of the
accounting records. Accordingly, they relate to procedures used to initiate, record, process and report
transactions or other financial data.
4.1 General controls

GENERAL CONTROLS EXAMPLES
Development of computer Standards over systems design, programming and documentation
applications Full testing procedures using test data
Approval by computer users and management
Segregation of duties so that those responsible for design are not
responsible for testing
Installation procedures so that data is not corrupted in transition
Training of staff in new procedures and availability of adequate
documentation
Prevention or detection of Segregation of duties
unauthorised changes to Full records of program changes
programs
Password protection of programs so that access is limited to
computer operations staff.
Restricted access to central computer by locked doors, keypads
Maintenance of programs logs
Virus checks on software: use of anti-virus software and policy
prohibiting use of non-authorised programs or files
Back-up copies of programs being taken and stored in other locations
Control copies of programs being preserved and regularly compared
with actual programs
Stricter controls over certain programs (utility programs) by use of
read-only memory
Testing and documentation of Complete testing procedures
program changes Documentation standards
Approval of changes by computer users and management
Training of staff using programs

GENERAL CONTROLS EXAMPLES
Controls to prevent wrong Operation controls over programs
programs or files being used Libraries of programs
Proper job scheduling
Controls to prevent unauthorised Password protection
amendments to data files Restricted access to authorised users only
Controls to ensure continuity of Storing extra copies of programs and data files off-site
operation Protection of equipment against fire and other hazards
Back-up power sources
Disaster recovery procedures eg availability of back-up computer
facilities.
Maintenance agreements and insurance
The auditors will wish to test some or all of the above general IT controls, having considered how they
affect the computer applications significant to the audit.
General IT controls that relate to some or all applications are usually interdependent controls, ie their
operation is often essential to the effectiveness of application controls. As application controls may be
useless when general controls are ineffective, it will be more efficient to review the design of general IT
controls first, before reviewing the application controls.
4.2 Application controls

The purpose of application controls is to establish specific control procedures over the accounting
applications in order to provide reasonable assurance that all transactions are authorised and recorded,
and are processed completely, accurately and on a timely basis. Application controls include the following.
APPLICATION CONTROLS EXAMPLES
Controls over input: Manual or programmed agreement of control totals
completeness Document counts
One-for-one checking of processed output to source documents
Programmed matching of input to an expected input control file
Procedures over resubmission of rejected controls
Controls over input: accuracy Programmes to check data fields (for example value, reference
number, date) on input transactions for plausibility:
x Digit verification (eg reference numbers are as expected)
x Reasonableness test (eg sales tax to total value)
x Existence checks (eg customer name)
x Character checks (no unexpected characters used in reference)
x Necessary information (no transaction passed with gaps)
x Permitted range (no transaction processed over a certain value)
Manual scrutiny of output and reconciliation to source
Agreement of control totals (manual/programmed)
Controls over input Manual checks to ensure information input was:
authorisation: x Authorised
x Input by authorised personnel
Controls over processing Similar controls to input must be in place when input is completed, for
example, batch reconciliations.
Screen warnings can prevent people logging out before processing is
complete

APPLICATION CONTROLS EXAMPLES
Controls over master files and One-to-one checking
standing data Cyclical reviews of all master files and standing data
Record counts (number of documents processed) and hash totals
(for example, the total of all the payroll numbers) used when master
files are used to ensure no deletions
Controls over the deletion of accounts that have no current balance
Controls over input, processing, data files and output may be carried out by IT personnel, users of the
system, a separate control group and may be programmed into application software. The auditors may
wish to test the following application controls.
TESTING OF APPLICATION CONTROLS

Manual controls exercised by the If manual controls exercised by the user of the application system are
user capable of providing reasonable assurance that the system's output is
complete, accurate and authorised, the auditors may decide to limit
tests of control to these manual controls.
TESTING OF APPLICATION CONTROLS
Controls over system output If, in addition to manual controls exercised by the user, the controls to
be tested use information produced by the computer or are contained
within computer programs, such controls may be tested by examining
the system's output using either manual procedures or computers.
Such output may be in the form of magnetic media, microfilm or
printouts. Alternatively, the auditor may test the control by performing
it with the use of computers.
Programmed control procedures In the case of certain computer systems, the auditor may find that it is
not possible or, in some cases, not practical to test controls by
examining only user controls or the system's output. The auditor may
consider performing tests of control by using computers,
reprocessing transaction data or, in unusual situations, examining the
coding of the application program.
As we have already noted, general IT controls may have a pervasive effect on the processing of
transactions in application systems. If these general controls are not effective, there may be a risk that
misstatements occur and go undetected in the application systems. Although weaknesses in general IT
controls may preclude testing certain IT application controls, it is possible that manual procedures
exercised by users may provide effective control at the application level.
Exam focus The examiner expects you to be comfortable with a computerised scenario so it’s important that you
point understand the use of IT controls within an organisation. The August 2009 edition of Student Accountant
contains a very useful article on auditing in a computerised environment. You can also access this article
on the ACCA's website in the students' area.

Chapter Roundup
x The auditors must understand the accounting system and control environment in order to determine
their audit approach.
x The auditors shall assess the adequacy of the systems as a basis for the financial statements and shall
identify risks of material misstatements to provide a basis for designing and performing further audit
procedures.
x The auditors must keep a record of the client's systems which must be updated each year. This can be
done through the use of narrative notes, flowcharts, questionnaires or checklists.
x If the auditors believe the system of controls is strong, they may choose to test controls to assess whether
they can rely on the controls having operated effectively.
x There are special considerations for auditors when a system is computerised. IT controls comprise
general and application controls.

Quick Quiz
1 Complete the definition taking the words given below.
The …………. …………………. includes the governance and management functions and
the…………….., ………………… and …………. of those charged with …………… and management
concerning the entity's internal ……… and its ………………. in the entity.
attitudes importance control environment awareness governance actions control
2 Name two key inherent limitations of an internal control system

1 ………………………………………………
2 ………………………………………………
3 Put the controls below in the correct category
Application controls General controls
One-to-one checking Virus checks Hash totals

Segregation of duties Passwords Program libraries
Review of master files Training Controls over account deletions
Back-up copies Record counts Back-up power source
4 Which of the following is not a test of control?

A Inspection of documents
B Reperformance of control procedures
C Observation of controls
D Verification of value to invoice
5 After the controls have been assessed, the audit plan may be modified.
True
False

1 control environment, attitudes, awareness, actions, governance, control, importance
2 Human error
Possibility of staff colluding in fraud
3
Application controls General controls
One-to-one checking Virus checks
Hash totals Program libraries
Review of master files Segregation of duties
Record counts Passwords
Controls over account deletion
Training
Back-up power source
Back-up copies
4 D
5 True


Tests of controls

1 The sales system D3, D4
2 The purchases system D3, D4
3 The inventory system D3, D4
4 The cash system D3, D4
5 The payroll system D3, D4
6 Revenue and capital expenditure D3, D4
Introduction
We discussed tests of controls in the last chapter. In this chapter we will look
at how tests of controls might be applied in practice. We will examine each
major component of a typical accounting system.
We have already stated that the auditors must establish what the accounting
system and the system of internal control consist of. The auditors will then
decide which controls, if any, they wish to rely on and plan tests of controls to
obtain the audit evidence as to whether such reliance can be warranted. For
each of the major transaction systems we will look at the system objectives the
auditors will bear in mind while assessing the internal controls and give
examples of common controls. We shall then go on to look at a 'standard'
programme of tests of controls.
159
Study guide
Intellectual level
D3 Transaction cycles
(a) Explain, analyse and provide examples of internal control procedures and 2
control activities
D4 Tests of control
(a) Explain and tabulate tests of control suitable for inclusion in audit working 2
papers
Exam guide
Questions on tests of control are likely to come up in scenario-based situations. You might be asked to
describe controls that should be in place over a particular system or explain the control objectives for a given
system.
For example, a question in the pilot paper asked for control weaknesses in a wages system together with
recommendations to overcome the weaknesses identified, in the style of a report to management. The
December 2007 paper asked for the weaknesses in a company’s control system for counting inventory
and recommendations to mitigate them. There was also a similar requirement in this paper in relation to a
company’s petty cash system, worth 20 marks. The June 2008 paper had a 12 mark part on tests of
control on a sales system. The December 2008 paper had 16 marks on a wages system. This type of
question is therefore very common and highly likely to come up. You need to be familiar with the major
transaction cycles so that you can answer such questions competently. The June 2009 paper had a
question on the cash sales system of an entity (question 1).
1 The sales system June 08, June 09

FAST FORWARD
The tests of controls in the sales system will be based around:
x Selling (authorisation)
x Goods outwards (custody)
x Accounting (recording)
Take
orders
Receive
payment Document
order
Chase
payment
Despatch Send
invoice statement Make
order
Account
for invoice
Despatch
order
Raise
invoice
Raise goods
despatch note
160 10: Tests of controls ~ Part D Internal control

1.1 Sales system: Control objectives, controls and tests of controls
Assertion Control objectives Controls Tests of controls
Occurrence and x One person is not x Segregation of duties x Observe and
existence responsible for taking evaluate whether
orders, recording proper segregation
sales and receiving of duties is
payment. operating.
x Recorded sales x Sales recorded only x Test a sample of
transactions with approved sales sales invoices for
represent goods order form and authorised sales
shipped. shipping order form and
documentation. shipping
documentation.
x Examine application
controls for
authorisation.
x Accounting for x Review and test

numerical sequences entity’s procedures
of invoices. for accounting for
numerical
sequences of
invoices.
x Monthly customer x Review entity’s
statements sent out and procedures for
customer queries and sending out monthly
complaints handled statements and
independently. dealing with
customer queries
and complaints.
x Goods and services x Authorisation of credit x Review entity’s
are only supplied to terms to customers procedures for
customers with good (senior staff granting credit to
credit ratings. authorisation, customers.
references/credit
checks for new
customers, regular
review of credit limits)
x Authorisation by senior x Examine a sample of
staff required for sales orders for
changes in other evidence of proper
customer data such as credit approval by
address etc. the appropriate
senior staff
member.
x Orders not accepted x Examine application
unless credit limits controls for credit
reviewed first. limits.
Part D Internal control ~ 10: Tests of controls 161

x Review all new
customer files to
ensure satisfactory
credit references
have been obtained.
x Goods and services x Authorised price lists x Compare prices and
are provided at and specified terms of terms on a sample
authorised prices and trade in place. of sales invoices to
on authorised terms. the authorised price
x Customers are list and terms of
encouraged to pay trade.
promptly. x Examine application
controls for
authorised prices
and terms.
Completeness x All revenue relating to x Accounting for x Review and test
goods dispatched is numerical sequences of entity’s procedures
recorded. invoices. for accounting for
numerical
sequences of
invoices.
x All goods and x Shipping x Trace a sample of
services sold are documentation is shipping documents
correctly invoiced. matched to sales to the sales invoices
invoices. and ledger.
x Sales invoices are x Review a sample of
reconciled to the daily reconciliations
sales report. performed.
x An open-order file is x Inspect the open-
maintained and order file for unfilled
reviewed regularly. orders.
Accuracy x All sales and x Sales invoices and x Vouch recorded
adjustments are matching documents sales to supporting
correctly journalised, required for all entries. documents.
summarised and
posted to the correct
accounts.
Cut-off x Transactions have x All shipping x Compare dates on
been recorded in the documentation is sales invoices with
correct period. forwarded to the dates of
invoicing section on a corresponding
daily basis. shipping
documentation.
x Daily invoicing of goods x Compare dates on
shipped. sales invoices with
dates recorded in
the sales ledger.

Classification x All transactions are x Chart of accounts in x Review sales ledger
properly classified in place. for proper
accounts. x Codes in place for classification.
different types of x Examine a sample of
products or services. sales invoices for
proper
classification.
x Test application
controls for proper
codes.
Question Sales system
You are the auditor of Arcidiacono Stationery, and you have been asked to suggest how audit work should
be carried out on the sales system.
Arcidiacono Stationery Ltd sells stationery to shops. Most sales are to small customers who do not have a
sales ledger account. They can collect their purchases and pay by cash. For cash sales:
(a) The customer orders the stationery from the sales department, which raises a pre-numbered multi-
copy order form.
(b) The dispatch department make up the order and give it to the customer with a copy of the order
form.
(c) The customer gives the order form to the cashier who prepares a hand-written sales invoice.
(d) The customer pays the cashier for the goods by cheque or in cash.
(e) The cashier records and banks the cash.
Required
(a) State the deficiencies in the cash sales system.
(b) Describe the systems-based tests you would carry out to audit the controls over the system.
Answer
(a) Deficiencies in the cash sales system
(i) The physical location of the dispatch department and the cashier are not mentioned here,
but there is a risk of the customer taking the goods without paying. The customer should
pay the cashier on the advice note and return for the goods, which should only be released
on sight of the paid invoice.
(ii) There is a failure in segregation of duties in allowing the cashier to both complete the sales
invoice and receive the cash as he could perpetrate a fraud by replacing the original invoice
with one of lower value and keeping the difference.
(iii) No-one checks the invoices to make sure that the cashier has completed them correctly, for
example by using the correct prices and performing calculations correctly.
(iv) The completeness of the sequence of sales invoices cannot be checked unless they are pre-
numbered sequentially and the presence of all the invoices is checked by another person.
The order forms should also be pre-numbered sequentially.
(v) There is no check that the cashier banks all cash received, and this is a further failure of
segregation of duties.

If the sales department prepared and posted the invoices and also posted the cash for cash sales to
a sundry sales account, this would solve some of the internal control problems mentioned above.
In addition, the sales department could run a weekly check on the account to look for invoices for
which no cash had been received. These could then be investigated.
All of these deficiences, and possible remedies, should be reported to management.
(b) Tests
(i) Select a sample of order forms issued to customers during the year. Trace the related sales
invoice and check that the details correlate (date, unit amounts etc). The customer should
have signed for the goods and this copy should be retained by the dispatch department.
(ii) For the sales invoices discovered in the above test, I would check that the correct order
form number is recorded on the invoice, that the prices used are correct (by reference to the
prevailing price list) and that the castings and cross-castings are correct.
(iii) I would then trace the value of the sales invoices to the cash book and from the cash book
that the total receipts for the day have been banked and appear promptly on the bank
statement.
(iv) I would check that the sales invoices have been correctly posted to a cash or sundry sales
account. For any sales invoices missing from this account (assuming they are sequentially
numbered), I would trace the cancelled invoice and check that the cancelled invoice was
initialled by the customer and replaced by the next invoice in sequence.
(v) Because of the weaknesses in the system I would carry out the following sequence checks
on large blocks of order forms/invoices, eg four blocks of 100 order forms/invoices.
(1) Inspect all order forms to ensure all present; investigate those missing
(2) Match sales invoices to order forms
(3) Check all sales invoices in a sequence have been used; investigate any
missing
(4) Cash for each sales invoice has been entered into the cash book
Using the results of the above tests I would decide whether the system for cash sales has operated
without material fraud or error. If I am not satisfied that it has then this may impact on the audit
report.
2 The purchases system Pilot paper

FAST FORWARD
The tests of controls in the purchases system will be based around:
x Buying (authorisation)
x Goods inwards (custody)
x Accounting (recording)

2.1 Control objectives, controls and tests of controls
Occurrence and x Recorded x Authorisation x Inspect policies and
existence purchases procedures and policies procedures and
represent goods in place for ordering inquire about them.
and services goods and services.
received. x Segregation of duties. x Observe and evaluate
segregation of duties.
x Purchase orders raised x Examine a sample of
for each purchase purchase orders to
and authorised by ensure they have been
appropriate senior appropriately
personnel. authorised.
x Review the
delegated list of
authority for
purchases.
x Approved purchase x For a sample of
order for each receipt of orders, examine the
goods. goods received note
(GRN) and match it to
the order.
x Staff receiving goods x Observe receipt of
check them to the goods by staff to
purchase order. confirm whether the
check is done.
x Stores clerks sign for x Inspect a sample to
goods received. confirm whether
stores staff undertake
this check.

x Purchase orders and x Examine supporting
GRNs are matched with documentation for a
the suppliers’ invoices. sample of invoices.
Completeness x All purchase x Purchase orders and x Examine supporting
transactions that GRNs are matched with documentation for a
occurred have been the suppliers’ invoices. sample of invoices.
recorded.
x Periodic accounting for x Review entity’s
prenumbered GRNs and procedures for
purchase orders. accounting for
prenumbered
documents.
x Independent check of x Examine application
amount recorded in the controls.
purchase journal. x Examine
documentation for
evidence of this check.
Rights and x Recorded x Purchase orders and x Examine supporting
obligations purchases GRNs are matched with documentation for a
represent the the suppliers’ invoices. sample of invoices.
liabilities of the
entity.
Accuracy, x Purchase x Purchase orders and x Examine supporting
classification and transactions are GRNs are matched with documentation for a
valuation correctly recorded the suppliers’ invoices. sample of invoices.
in the accounting x Mathematical accuracy x Recalculate the
system. of the supplier’s invoice mathematical accuracy
is verified. of a sample of
suppliers’ invoices.
x Amount posted to x Review reconciliations
general ledger is for evidence of this
reconciled to the check.
purchases ledger.
x Chart of accounts in x Review purchases
place. journal and general
ledger for
reasonableness.
Cut-off x Purchase x All goods received x Compare dates on
transactions are reports forwarded to reports to dates on
recorded in the accounts payable relevant vouchers.
correct accounting department daily.
period. x Procedures in place that x Compare dates on
require recording of vouchers with dates
purchases as soon as they were recorded in
possible after the purchases journal.
goods/services
received.

Question Purchase controls
Derek, a limited liability company, operates a computerised purchase system. Invoices and credit notes
are posted to the purchases ledger by the purchases ledger department. The computer subsequently
raises a cheque when the invoice has to be paid.
Required
List the controls that should be in operation:
(a) Over the addition, amendment and deletion of suppliers, ensuring that the standing data only
includes suppliers from the company's list of authorised suppliers
(b) Over purchase invoices and credit notes, to ensure only authorised purchase invoices and credit
notes are posted to the purchase ledger
Answer
(a) Controls over the standing data file containing suppliers' details will include the following.
(i) All amendments/additions/deletions to the data should be authorised by a responsible
official. A standard form should be used for such changes.
(ii) The amendment forms should be input in batches (with different types of change in
different batches), sequentially numbered and recorded in a batch control book so that any
gaps in the batch numbers can be investigated. The output produced by the computer
should be checked to the input.
(iii) A listing of all such adjustments should automatically be produced by the computer and
reviewed by a responsible official, who should also check authorisation.
(iv) A listing of suppliers' accounts on which there has been no movement for a specified period
should be produced to allow decisions to be made about possible deletions, thus ensuring
that the standing data is current. The buying department manager might also recommend
account closures on a periodic basis.
(v) Users should be controlled by use of passwords. This can also be used as a method of
controlling those who can amend data.
(vi) Periodic listings of standing data should be produced in order to verify details (for example
addresses) with suppliers' documents (invoices/ statements).
(b) The input of authorised purchase invoices and credit notes should be controlled in the following
ways.
(i) Authorisation should be evidenced by the signature of the responsible official such as the
Chief Accountant. In addition, the invoice or credit note should show initials to demonstrate
that the details have been agreed: to a signed GRN; to a purchase order; to a price list; for
additions and extensions.
(ii) There should be adequate segregation of responsibilities between the posting function,
inventory custody and receipt, payment of suppliers and changes to standing data.
(iii) Input should be restricted by use of passwords linked to the relevant site number.
(iv) A batch control book should be maintained, recording batches in number sequence.
Invoices should be input in batches using pre-numbered batch control sheets. The manually
produced invoice total on the batch control sheet should be agreed to the computer
generated total. Credit notes and invoices should be input in separate batches to avoid one
being posted as the other.
(v) A program should check calculation of sales tax at standard rate and total of invoice. Non-
standard sales tax rates should be highlighted.

(vi) The input of the supplier code should bring up the supplier name for checking by the
operator against the invoice.
(vii) Invoices for suppliers which do not have an account should be prevented from being input.
Any sundry suppliers account should be very tightly controlled and all entries reviewed in
full each month.
(viii) An exception report showing unusual expense allocation (by size or account) should be
produced and reviewed by a responsible official. Expenses should be compared to budget
and previous years.
(ix) There should be monthly reconciliations of purchase ledger balances to suppliers'
statements by someone outside the purchasing (accounting) function.
3 The inventory system Dec 07

FAST FORWARD
Inventory controls are designed to ensure safe custody. Such controls include restriction of access,
documentation and authorisation of movements, regular independent inventory counting and review of
inventory condition.
3.1 Introduction
The inventory system can be very important in an audit because of the high value of inventory or the
complexity of its audit. It is closely connected with the sales and purchases systems covered in the
previous sections.
There are three possible approaches to the audit of inventory and the approach chosen depends on the
control in system in place over inventory.
(a) If the entity has a perpetual inventory system in place where inventory is counted continuously
throughout the year, and therefore a year-end count is not undertaken, a controls-based approach
can be taken if control risk has been assessed as low.
(b) If an inventory count is to be undertaken near the year-end and adjusted by perpetual inventory
records for the year-end value, this approach also requires control risk to be assessed as low.
(c) If inventory quantities will be determined by an inventory count at the year-end date, a substantive
approach is taken and no reliance is placed on controls. This substantive approach is covered in
Chapter 13.

Most of the controls testing relating to inventory has been covered in the purchase and sales testing
outlined in sections 1 and 2. Auditors will primarily be concerned at this stage with ensuring that the
business keeps track of inventory. To confirm this, tests must be undertaken on how inventory
movements are recorded and how inventory is secured. Auditors will carry out extensive tests on the
valuation of inventory at the substantive testing stage (see Chapter 13).

Occurrence and x All inventory x Prenumbered x Review
existence movements are documentation such documentation in
authorised and as GDNs and GRNs in use.
recorded. use.
x Reconciliations of x Review a sample of
inventory records with reconciliations to
general ledger. confirm they are
performed and then
reviewed by an
independent person.
x Observe and evaluate
x Segregation of duties
proper segregation of
duties.
x Inventory included x Physical safeguards in x Review security

on the statement of place to ensure systems in place (eg
financial position inventory is not stolen. locked warehouses,
physically exists. CCTV etc).
x Separate x Review policies and

responsibilities for procedures in place;
maintenance of records discuss procedures
and custodianship. with relevant staff.
x Review procedures for
x Inventory counted
counting inventory.
regularly.
x Attend inventory
count.
Completeness x All purchases and x Procedures in place to x Review entity’s
sales of inventory include inventory held procedures relating to
have been recorded at third parties and consignment
in the accounting exclude inventory held inventory.
system. on consignment for
third parties.
x Reconciliations of x Review reconciliations
accounting records with performed and
physical inventory. whether reviewed by
independent person.
Rights and x Inventory records x Procedures in place to x Review entity’s
obligations only include items include inventory held procedures relating to
that belong to the at third parties and consignment
entity. exclude inventory held inventory.
on consignment for
third parties.
Accuracy, x Inventory quantities x Periodic or annual x Review and test
classification and have been comparison of entity’s procedures for
valuation accurately inventory with amounts taking physical
determined. shown in continuous inventory.
(perpetual) inventory
records.

x Standard costs x Review and test
reviewed by entity’s procedures for
management. developing standard
costs.
x Review of cost x Inspect variance

accumulation and reports produced.
variance reports.
x Inventory is x Inventory managers x Discuss with inventory
properly stated at review inventory managers how this is
the lower of cost regularly to identify done.
and net realisable slow-moving, obsolete x Observe the procedure
value. and excess inventory. being performed.
Cut-off x All purchases and x All dispatch documents x Inspect
sales of inventory processed daily to documentation to
are recorded in the record the dispatch of confirm daily
correct accounting finished goods. processing.
period. x All goods inwards x Inspect
reports processed daily documentation to
to record the receipt of confirm daily
inventory. processing.
x Reconciliations of x Review reconciliations
inventory records with performed.
general ledger.
Presentation and x Inventory x Orders for materials x Review entity’s
disclosure transactions and and production data procedures and
assertions balances are forms used to process documentation used
properly identified goods through to classify inventory.
and classified in the manufacturing.
financial
statements.
x Disclosures relating x Approval by Finance x Review entity’s
to classification and Director working papers for
valuation are evidence of review.
sufficient.
4 The cash system Dec 07

FAST FORWARD
Controls over cash receipts and payments should prevent fraud or theft.

The following table sets out the control objectives, controls and possible tests of controls over cash
payments.

Occurrence x Only valid cash x Segregation of duties x Observe and
payments are made. evaluate proper
segregation of
duties.
x Supplier statements x Review procedures
independently for reconciling
reviewed and supplier statements.
reconciled to trade
payable records.
x Review
x Monthly bank
reconciliations to
reconciliations
confirm whether
prepared and
undertaken and
reviewed.
reviewed.
x Review delegated
x Only authorised staff
list of authority for
can make electronic
cash payments.
cash payments and
issue cheques.
x Electronic cash x Inspect relevant
payments and cheques documentation for
prepared only after all evidence of approval
source documents by senior personnel.
have been independently
approved.
Completeness x All cash payments x Segregation of duties x Observe and
that occurred are evaluate proper
recorded. segregation of
duties.
x Supplier statements x Review procedures

independently reviewed for reconciling
and reconciled to trade supplier statements.
payable records.
x Monthly bank x Review
reconciliations prepared reconciliations to
and reviewed. confirm whether
undertaken and
independently
reviewed.
x Review of cash x Inspect sample of
payments by manager listings for evidence
before release. of senior review.
x Daily cash payments x Review a sample of
reconciled to posting to reconciliations for
payable accounts. evidence that they
have been done.
x Use of prenumbered x Examine evidence of
cheques. use of prenumbered
cheques.

Accuracy, x Cash payments x Reconciliation of daily x Review
classification and recorded correctly in payments report to reconciliation, to
valuation the ledger. electronic cash payment ensure performed,
transfers and cheques reviewed and any
issued. discrepancies
x Supplier statements followed up on a
reconciled to payable timely basis.
accounts regularly. x Review
x Monthly bank reconciliations for a
reconciliations of bank sample of accounts.
statements to ledger x Review bank
account. reconciliation for
evidence it was
done and
independently
reviewed.
x Cash payments x Supplier statements x Review
posted to correct reconciled to payable reconciliations for a
payable accounts and accounts regularly. sample of accounts.
to the general x Agreement of monthly x Review postings
ledger. cash payments journal from journal to
to general ledger general ledger.
posting.
x Payable accounts x Review
reconciled to general reconciliation, to
ledger control account. ensure performed,
reviewed and any
discrepancies
followed up on a
timely basis.
Cut-off x Cash payments are x Reconciliation of x Review
recorded in the electronic funds reconciliation and
correct accounting transfers and cheques check it is carried
period. issued with postings to out regularly.
cash payments journal
and payable accounts.
Presentation and x Cash payments are x Chart of accounts x Review cash
disclosure charged to the payments journal to
assertions correct accounts. assess
reasonableness of
charging of
accounts.
x Independent approval x Review assignment

and review of general of general ledger
ledger account account.
assignment.

The following table sets out the control objectives, controls and possible tests of controls over cash
receipts.

Occurrence x All valid cash receipts x Segregation of duties x Observe and
are received and evaluate proper
deposited. segregation of
duties.
x Use of electronic cash x Examine application

receipts transfer not controls for
received or deposited. electronic cash
receipts transfer.
x Review monthly
x Monthly bank
bank reconciliations
reconciliations
to confirm
performed and
performed and
independently
reviewed.
reviewed.
x Observe cash sales
x Use of cash registers
procedures.
or point-of-sale
devices.
x Periodic inspections of x Inquire of managers
cash sales procedures. about results of
inspections.
x Restrictive x Observe mail

endorsement of opening, including
cheques immediately endorsement of
on receipt. cheques.
x Mail opened by two x Observe mail

staff members. opening procedures.
x Immediate preparation x Observe preparation

of cash book or list of of cash receipts’
mail receipts. records.
x Independent check of x Review

agreement of documentation for
cash/cheques to be evidence of
deposited at bank with independent check.
register totals and
receipts listing.
x Independent check of x Review
agreement of bank documentation for
deposit slip with daily evidence of
cash summary. independent check.

Completeness x All cash receipts are x Segregation of duties x Observe and
recorded. evaluate proper
segregation of
duties.
x Use of electronic cash x Examine application
receipts transfer not controls for
received or deposited. electronic cash
receipts transfer.
x Monthly bank x Review monthly

reconciliations bank reconciliations
performed and to confirm
independently performed and
reviewed. reviewed.
x Daily cash receipts x Review

listing reconciled with reconciliation.
posting to customer
accounts.
x Customer statements x Inquire of
prepared and sent out management about
on a regular basis. handling of
customer
statements.
x Examine a sample
of customers and
note frequency of
statements.
Accuracy, x Cash receipts recorded x Daily remittance report x Review
classification and at correct amounts. reconciled to control reconciliations.
valuation listing of remittance
advices.
x Monthly bank x Review
statement performed reconciliations for
and reviewed evidence they were
independently. performed and
independently
reviewed.
x Cash receipts posted x Daily remittance report x Review
to correct receivables reconciled daily with reconciliations.
accounts and to the postings to cash
general ledger. receipts journal and
customer accounts.
x Monthly customer x Review entity’s
statements sent out. procedures for
sending out
customer
statements.
x Monthly cash receipts x Review journal and
journal agreed to posting to general
general ledger posting. ledger.

x Receivables’ ledger x Review
reconciled to control reconciliations.
account.
Cut-off x Cash receipts are x Bank reconciliation at x Review and test
recorded in the correct period-end. reconciliation.
accounting period.
Presentation and x Cash receipts are x Chart of accounts. x Review cash
disclosure charged to the correct receipts journal for
assertions accounts. unusual items.
x Trace cash receipts
from listing to cash
receipts journal for
proper
classification.
5 The payroll system Pilot paper, Dec 08

FAST FORWARD
Key controls over payroll cover:
x Documentation and authorisation of staff changes
x Calculation of wages and salaries
x Payment of wages
x Authorisation of deductions

Occurrence and x Payment is made only x Segregation of duties x Observe and
existence to bona fide employees between HR and evaluate proper
of the entity. payroll functions segregation of
duties.
x Personnel files held for x Review a sample of
all employees. starters and leavers
in the year to ensure
correct
documentation is in
place.
x Authorisation x Review and test
procedures for hiring, authorisation
terminating, time procedures in place.
worked, wage rates, x Review policies and
overtime, benefits etc. procedures in place
for changing status
and consider
whether adequate.
x Review personnel
x Any changes in files for a sample of
employment status of employees whose
employees (eg status changed in
maternity, special the year.
leave etc) informed to
x Observe employees’
Human Resources
use of time clocks.
department.
x Inspect a sample of
x Use of time clocks to
record time worked. clock cards for
evidence of approval
by appropriate level
of management.
x Clock cards approved x Review and test
by supervisor. procedures for
entering and
removing employee
numbers from the
payroll master file.
x Only employees with x Review budgeting
valid employee procedures.
numbers are paid.
x Payroll budgets in
place and reviewed by
management.

Completeness x All payroll costs are x Prenumbered clock x Review numerical
recorded for work cards in use. sequence of clock
done by employees. x Segregation of duties cards.
x Observe and
x Authorisation of wage evaluate proper
cheque cashed segregation of
duties.
x Custody of cash
– Encashment of If wages are paid in
cheque cash
– Security of pay x Attend the pay-out
packets of wages to confirm
– Security of transit that the official
– Security and procedures are
prompt banking of being followed.
unclaimed wages x Before the wages
x Verification of identity are paid compare
payroll with wage
x Recording of packets to ensure all
distributions employees have a
x Preparation and wage packet.
authorisation of x Examine receipts
cheques and bank given by employees;
transfer lists check unclaimed
x Comparison of wages are recorded
cheques and bank in unclaimed wages
transfer list with book.
payroll
x Observe whether
x Maintenance and any employee
reconciliation of wages receives more than
and salaries bank one wage packet.
account
x Inspect the
x Preparation and unclaimed wages
authorisation of book entries with
cheques and bank the entries on the
transfer lists payroll to ensure
x Comparison of they agree.
cheques and bank x Check that
transfer list with unclaimed wages
payroll are banked regularly
x Maintenance and by inspection of
reconciliation of wages bank statements
and salaries bank and supporting
account documentation.
x Inspect that
unclaimed wages
books to check it
shows reasons why
wages are
unclaimed.

x Review pattern of
unclaimed wages in
unclaimed wages
book; variations
may indicate failure
to record.
Holiday pay
x Verify a sample of
payments with the
underlying records
and check the
calculation of the
amounts paid by
recalculation.
x For salaries, review
whether
comparisons are
being made between
payment records.
x Examine paid
cheques or a
certified copy of the
bank list for
employees paid by
cheque or bank
transfer.
Accuracy, x All benefits and x Verification of payroll x Recalculate benefits
classification and deductions (tax, amounts and benefit and deductions for a
valuation pension etc) are calculations. sample of employees.
computed correctly. x Payroll budgets in x Review budgeting
place and reviewed by procedures.
management. x Inspect
x Agreement of gross documentation for
earnings and total tax evidence of
deducted with taxation management's
returns. review.
x Payroll transactions x Changes to master x Review reconciliation o
correctly recorded in payroll file verified ‘before and after’
the accounting system. through ‘before and reports to payroll
after’ reports. master file.
x Review reconciliation o
x Payroll master file payroll master file to
reconciled to general general ledger.
ledger. Confirm whether
discrepancies are
followed-up
promptly and
resolved.

Cut-off x Payroll transactions x All starters, leavers, x Review entity’s
are recorded in the changes to salaries procedures for
correct accounting and deductions are reporting changes
period. reported promptly to to the payroll
payroll department and department.
changes are updated x Check sample of
to the payroll master starters and leavers.
file promptly.
Presentation and x Payroll transactions x Chart of accounts x Review chart of
disclosure are properly classified accounts.
assertions in the financial x Review procedures
x Independent approval
statements. for classifying
and review of accounts
charged to payroll. payroll costs.
x Payroll budgets in x Review budgeting

place and reviewed by procedures.
management.
6 Revenue and capital expenditure

FAST FORWARD
Most of the key controls over capital and revenue expenditure are the general purchase controls.
The nature of a statement of financial position and statement of comprehensive income means that it is
important to classify capital and revenue expenditure correctly, or profit will be over or understated. You
should know the distinction between them from your financial reporting knowledge.
The controls and tests outlined below are often considered and performed during the audit of non-current
assets (see Chapter 12) as this is where the main issue of capitalisation occurs.
6.1 Control objectives and objectives

Assertion Controls Tests of control
Authorisation x All expenditure is authorised. x Review policies and
x Orders for capital items should be procedures in place.
authorised by appropriate levels of x Examine a sample of orders
management. for appropriate authorisation.
x Order should be requisitioned on
appropriate (different to revenue)
documentation.
x Invoices should be approved by the
person who authorised the order.
x Invoices should be marked with the
appropriate general ledger code.
Classification x All expenditure is classified correctly in the x See section 2

financial statements as capital or revenue
expenditure.
x All the standard controls over purchases
are relevant here (see Section 2).

Assertion Controls Tests of control
Completeness x All non-current assets are correctly x Review reconciliation to
recorded in the accounting system. ensure it is regularly carried out,
reviewed by a more senior
person, and that all discrepancies
are followed up and resolved on a
timely basis.
x Capital items should be written up in the
non-current asset register.
x The non-current asset register should be
reconciled regularly to the general ledger
and any differences investigated and
resolved promptly.
6.2 Tests of controls

If the ordering documentation is different for capital purchases, all the standard purchase control tests
should be carried out. If the documentation is not different, the auditor should also enquire as to the
client's system for recording and filing capital invoices.
It is likely that the number of capital purchases in the year will be less than the number of standard
purchases in the year and if the invoices are not segregated it may not be cost-efficient to test the controls
over this area in which case substantive testing would have to be undertaken.
These substantive tests are often carried out as part of the substantive audit of non-current assets, which
is covered in Chapter 12.
The auditor should be aware of the risks attaching to the audit of this area. As tests of controls might not
be cost-effective, control risk in this area is higher than it would have been if they were tested.
Inherent risk can also be high in this area. Capital and revenue expenditure is treated differently for the
purposes of tax, and if the client is sensitive to the tax bill, there may be an incentive to account creatively.
Question System control weaknesses
Jonathan is the sole shareholder of Furry Lion Stores, a company which owns five stores in the west of
England. The stores sell mainly food and groceries.
Each store is run by a full-time manager and three or four part-time assistants. Jonathan spends on
average ½ a day a week at each store, and spends the rest of his time at home, dealing with his other
business interests.
All sales are for cash and are recorded on till rolls which the manager retains. Shop managers' wages are
paid monthly by cheque by Jonathan. Wages of shop assistants are paid in cash out of the takings.
Most purchases are made from local wholesalers and are paid for in cash out of the takings. Large
purchases (over $250) must be made by cheques signed by the shop manager and countersigned by
Jonathan.
Shop managers bank surplus cash once a week, apart from a float in the till.
All accounting records including the cash book, wages and sales tax records are maintained by the
manager. Jonathan reviews the weekly bank statements when he visits the shops. He also has a look at
inventory to see if inventory levels appear to be about right. All invoices are also kept in a drawer by a
manager and marked with a cash book reference, and where appropriate a cheque number when paid.
Required
Discuss the deficiencies in the control systems of Furry Lion Stores, and how the weaknesses can be
remedied.

Answer
Deficiencies in the system, and their remedies, are as follows.
Inventory
The shops do not appear to have any inventory movement records. Jonathan has also only a very
approximate indication of inventory levels. Hence it will be difficult to detect whether inventory levels are
too high, or too low with a risk of running out of inventory. Theft of inventory would also be difficult to
detect. The company should therefore introduce inventory movement records, detailing values and
volumes.
In addition regular inventory counts should be made either by Jonathan or by staff from another shop.
Discrepancies between the inventory records and the actual inventory counted should be investigated.
Cash controls
Too much cash appears to be held on site. In addition the fact that most payments appear to be for cash
may mean inadequate documentation is kept. The level of cash on site can be decreased by daily rather
than weekly bankings. In addition the need for cash on site can be decreased by paying wages by cheque,
and by paying all but the smallest payments by cheque.
The cash book should obviously still be maintained but cheque stubs should also show details of amounts
paid. The cash book should be supported by invoices and other supporting documentation, and should be
cross-referenced to the general ledger (see below).
Cash reconciliations
There is no indication of the till-rolls that are kept being reconciled to cash takings.
There should be a daily reconciliation of cash takings and till rolls; this should be reviewed if not
performed by the shop manager.
Bank reconciliations
There is no mention of bank reconciliations taking place.
Bank reconciliations should be carried out at least monthly by the shop manager, and reviewed by the
owner.
Purchases
There is no formal system for recording purchases. Invoices do not appear to be filed in any particular
way. It would be difficult to see whether accounting records were complete, and hence it would be difficult
to prepare a set of accounts from the accounting records available.
In addition the way records are maintained means that accounts would have to be prepared on a cash
basis, and not on an accruals basis.
A purchase day book should be introduced. Invoices should be recorded in the purchase day book, and
filed in a logical order, either by date received or by supplier.
General ledger
There is no general ledger, and again this means that annual accounts cannot easily be prepared (and also
management accounts).
A general ledger should be maintained with entries made from the cash book, wages records and
purchase day book. This will enable accounts to be prepared on an accruals basis.
Supervision
Jonathan does not take a very active part in the business, only signing cheques over $250, and visiting the
shops only half a day each week. This may mean that assets can easily go missing, and Jonathan cannot
readily see whether the business is performing as he would wish.

Jonathan should review wage/sales tax/cash book reconciliations. Management accounts should also be
prepared by shop managers for Jonathan.
Tutorial note. This question deals with controls that are possible given the circumstances of the business.
Greater segregation of duties does not appear to be possible as the shops are small, and Jonathan cannot
spend more time at the shops (although he can use his time more productively by reviewing
reconciliations).
Exam focus In the exam you may be asked for deficiencies in a system, and the consequences of those deficiencies, or
point you could be asked for tests of controls.
If you are asked about appropriate controls or deficiencies, remember the control objectives for the
accounting area. Controls should be in place to fulfil the objectives given, deficiencies will mean that the
objectives are not fulfilled. You should give enough detail about the controls you suggest to enable a non-
accountant to implement the controls.
You should use a similar thought process when deciding how to test the controls. Think of the objectives
of the system; assess how the controls given fulfil those objectives; and set out tests which demonstrate
whether the controls are working. Remember that different types of test can be used to test different
controls. For example, inspection can be used to test whether different documents are being compared or
documents are being properly authorised. Recalculation and reperformance can be used to test that
invoices have been properly completed or reconciliations correctly performed.

Chapter Roundup
x The tests of controls in the sales system will be based around:
– Selling (authorisation)
– Goods outwards (custody)
– Accounting (recording)
x The tests of controls in the purchases system will be based around:
– Buying (authorisation)
– Goods inwards (custody)
– Accounting (recording)
x Inventory controls are designed to ensure safe custody. Such controls include restriction of access,
documentation and authorisation of movements, regular independent inventory counting and review of
inventory condition.
x Controls over cash receipts and payments should prevent fraud or theft.
x Key controls over payroll cover:
– Documentation and authorisation of staff changes
– Calculation of wages and salaries
– Payment of wages
– Authorisation of deductions
x Most of the key controls over capital and revenue expenditure are the general purchase controls.

Quick Quiz
1 Complete the table, putting the sales system control considerations under the correct headings.
Ordering/credit approval Dispatch/invoicing Recording/accounting
(a) All sales that have been invoiced have been put in the general ledger
(b) Orders are fulfilled
(c) Cut-off is correct
(d) Goods are only supplied to good credit risks
(e) Goods are correctly invoiced
(f) Customers are encouraged to pay promptly
2 State five controls relating to the ordering and granting of credit process.
1 ……………………………………………………..
2 ……………………………………………………..
3 ……………………………………………………..
4 ……………………………………………………..
5 ……………………………………………………..
3 Complete the table, putting the purchase system control considerations under the correct headings.
Ordering Receipts/invoices Accounting
(a) Orders are only made to authorised suppliers

(b) Liabilities are recognised for all goods and services received
(c) Orders are made at competitive prices
(d) All expenditure is authorised
(e) Cut-off is correctly applied
(f) Goods and services are only accepted if there is an authorised order
4 (a) State four examples of purchase documentation on which numerical sequence should be checked.
1 ……………………………………………….
2 ……………………………………………….
3 ……………………………………………….
4 ……………………………………………….
(b) Why is numerical sequence checked?

5 State five control objectives relating to inventory.
1 ……………………………………………….
2 ……………………………………………….
3 ……………………………………………….
4 ……………………………………………….
5 ……………………………………………….
6 List the five key aims of controls in the cash system.
1 …………………………………………………………..
2 …………………………………………………………..
3 …………………………………………………………..
4 …………………………………………………………..
5 …………………………………………………………..
7 Give five examples of tests to be performed on the cash payments book.
1 …………………………………………………………..
2 …………………………………………………………..
3 …………………………………………………………..
4 …………………………………………………………..
5 …………………………………………………………..
8 Describe six procedures auditors should carry out if wages are paid in cash.
1 ……………………………………………………..
2 ……………………………………………………..
3 ……………………………………………………..
4 ……………………………………………………..
5 ……………………………………………………..
6 ……………………………………………………..

1
Ordering/credit approval Dispatch/invoicing Recording/accounting
(b) (d) (f) (e) (a) (c)
2 x Segregation of duties; credit control, invoicing and inventory dispatch

x Authorisation of credit terms to customers
– References/credit checks obtained
– Authorisation by senior staff
– Regular review
x Authorisation for changes in other customer data
– Change of address supported by letterhead
– Deletion requests supported by evidence balances cleared/customer in liquidation
x Orders only accepted from customers who have no credit problems
x Sequential numbering of blank pre-printed order documents
x Correct prices quoted to customers
x Matching of customer orders with production orders and dispatch notes and querying of orders
not matched
x Dealing with customer queries
3
Ordering Receipts/invoices Accounting
(a) (c) (b) (f) (d) (e)
4 (a) (1) purchase requisitions, (2) purchase orders, (3) goods received notes, (4) goods returned notes,
(5) suppliers invoices
(b) Sequence provides a control that sales are complete. Missing documents should be explained, or
cancelled copies available.
5 x To ensure that all inventory movements are authorised and recorded
x To ensure that inventory records only include items that belong to the client
x To ensure that inventory records include inventory that exists and is held by the client
x To ensure that inventory quantities have been recorded correctly
x To ensure that cut-off procedures are properly applied to inventory
x To ensure that inventory is safeguarded against loss, pilferage or damage
x To ensure that the costing system values inventory correctly
x To ensure that allowance is made for slow-moving, obsolete or damaged inventory
x To ensure that levels of inventory held are reasonable
6 x All monies received are recorded.
x All monies received are banked.
x Cash and cheques are safeguarded against loss or theft.
x All payments are authorised, made to the correct payees and recorded.
x Payments are not made twice for the same liability.

7 For a sample of payments:
x Compare with paid cheques to ensure payee agrees.
x Observe whether cheques are signed by the persons authorised to do so within their authority
limits.
x Match to suppliers' invoices for goods and services. Verify that supporting documents are signed
as having been checked and passed for payment and have been stamped 'paid'.
x Match to suppliers' statements.
x Agree to other documentary evidence, as appropriate (agreements, authorised expense vouchers,
wages/salaries records, petty cash books etc).
8 x Arrange to attend the pay-out of wages to confirm that the official procedures are being followed.
x Before the wages are paid compare payroll with wage packets to ensure all employees have a wage
packet.
x Examine receipts given by employees; confirm that unclaimed wages are recorded by inspecting
the unclaimed wages book.
x Confirm that no employee receives more than one wage packet by attending the pay-out.
x Agree entries in the unclaimed wages book with the entries on the payroll.
x Confirm that unclaimed wages are banked regularly by scrutinising bank statements and matching
to amounts in the unclaimed wages book.
x Confirm that unclaimed wages books shows reasons why wages are unclaimed by reviewing it.
x Review the pattern of unclaimed wages in unclaimed wages book; variations may indicate failure to
record.
x Verify a sample of holiday pay payments with the underlying records and confirm the accuracy of
the calculation of the amounts paid by recalculation.


P
A
R
T
Audit
evidence
189
190
Audit procedures and
sampling

1 Substantive procedures E2
2 Accounting estimates E2
3 Audit sampling E4
4 Computer-assisted audit techniques E5
5 Using the work of others C7
Introduction
In this chapter we look at various audit procedures and the use of audit
sampling.
Firstly we consider substantive testing which encompasses tests of detail and
the use of analytical procedures as substantive tests. These methods form the
basis for the next five chapters which examine the detailed testing for various
financial statement account areas such as cash and inventory.
We also examine the audit of accounting estimates. We have mentioned in
previous chapters that judgement has to be used in accounting for some of the
figures in the accounts. Examples of accounting estimates include depreciation
and provisions.
We will look in detail at audit sampling, which is an important aspect of the
audit. We consider different types of audit sampling and the evaluation of
errors.
Computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) are an important tool in the audit
and we examine the two main types of CAATs, audit software and test data.
Finally in this chapter we will look at how the auditor can make use of the work
of others as a source of audit evidence. We consider the use of auditor's
experts, the work of internal audit and the use of service organisations in this
regard.
191
Study guide
Intellectual level
E2 Audit procedures
(b) Discuss and provide examples of how analytical procedures are used as 2
substantive procedures
(c) Discuss the problems associated with the audit and review of accounting 2
estimates
E4 Audit sampling and other means of testing
(a) Define audit sampling and explain the need for sampling 1
(b) Identify and discuss the differences between statistical and non-statistical 2
sampling
(c) Discuss and provide relevant examples of the application of the basic 2
principles of statistical sampling and other selective testing procedures
(d) Discuss the results of statistical sampling, including consideration of 2
whether additional testing is required
E5 Computer-assisted audit techniques
(a) Explain the use of computer-assisted audit techniques in the context of an 1
audit
(b) Discuss and provide relevant examples of the use of test data and audit 2
software for the transaction cycles and balances mentioned in sub-capability
3
(c) Discuss the use of computers in relation to the administration of the audit 2
C7 The work of others
(a) Discuss the extent to which auditors are able to rely on the work of experts 2
(b) Discuss the extent to which external auditors are able to rely on the work of 2
internal audit
(c) Discuss the audit considerations relating to entities using service 2
organisations
(d) Discuss why auditors rely on the work of others 2
(e) Explain the extent to which reference to the work of others can be made in 1
audit reports
Exam guide
This chapter forms a basis for the next five chapters in terms of substantive audit procedures to carry out
during an audit. It also covers analytical procedures, sampling and the use of computer-assisted audit
techniques (CAATs) which could come up in the knowledge-based section of a question. The extent to
which external auditors can place reliance on the work done by internal auditors could come up in a
question on audit evidence or in one on internal audit.
CAATs were tested in both the pilot paper and December 2007. The pilot paper also had a six mark part on
the factors to consider when appointing an external consultant. The June 2008 paper had an eight mark
knowledge-based question on analytical procedures in question 3. The December 2008 paper had a six
mark part in question 1 on substantive analytical procedures in a scenario context. Question 2 of this
paper had a three mark part on the use of an expert.
The June 2009 paper had 12 marks (question 1) on substantive analytical procedures relating to income.
There were four marks in question 2 of this paper for explaining sampling methods. The same paper had a
question on the use of audit software.
192 11: Audit procedures and sampling ~ Part E Audit evidence

1 Substantive procedures June 08, Dec 08, June 09
FAST FORWARD
Auditors need to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to support the financial statement
assertions. Substantive procedures can be used to obtain that evidence.
1.1 Types of audit tests

To recap, substantive procedures are tests to obtain audit evidence to detect material misstatements in
the financial statements. They are generally of two types:
x Analytical procedures
x Tests of detail of transactions, account balances and disclosures
The types of substantive tests carried out to obtain evidence about various financial statement assertions
are outlined in the table below.
Audit assertion Type of assertion Typical audit tests

Completeness Classes of transactions (a) Review of post year-end items
Account balances (b) Cut-off testing
Presentation and (c) Analytical review
disclosure (d) Confirmations
(e) Reconciliations to control accounts
Rights and Account balances (a) Reviewing invoices for proof that item belongs to the
obligations Presentation and company
disclosure (b) Confirmations with third parties
Valuation and Account balances (a) Matching amounts to invoices
allocation Presentation and (b) Recalculation
disclosure (c) Confirming accounting policy consistent and
reasonable
(d) Review of post year-end payments and invoices
(e) Expert valuation
Existence Account balances (a) Physical verification
(b) Third party confirmations
(c) Cut-off testing
Occurrence Classes of transactions (a) Inspection of supporting documentation
Presentation and (b) Confirmation from directors that transactions relate to
disclosure business
(c) Inspection of items purchased
Accuracy Classes of transactions (a) Recalculation of correct amounts
Presentation and (b) Third party confirmation
disclosure (c) Analytical review
Classification Classes of transactions (a) Confirming compliance with law and accounting
and Presentation and standards
understandability disclosure (b) Reviewing notes for understandability
Cut-off Classes of transactions (a) Cut-off testing
(b) Analytical review
Use the following model for drawing up an audit plan:

x Agree opening balances with previous year's working papers
x Review general ledger for unusual records
x Agree client schedules to/from accounting records to ensure completeness
Part E Audit evidence ~ 11: Audit procedures and sampling 193

x Carry out analytical review
x Test transactions in detail
x Test balances in detail
x Review presentation and disclosure in accounts
Exam focus Auditing exams require a good knowledge of how the financial statement assertions determine audit
point objectives, and the procedures for obtaining audit evidence. Students should be aiming to produce a
description of procedures that could be followed by an inexperienced staff member.
1.2 Directional testing

FAST FORWARD
Substantive tests are designed to discover errors or omissions.
Broadly speaking, substantive procedures can be said to fall into two categories:
x Tests to discover errors (resulting in over or understatement)
x Tests to discover omissions (resulting in understatement)
1.2.1 Tests designed to discover errors

These tests will start with the accounting records in which the transactions are recorded to supporting
documents or other evidence. Such tests should detect any overstatement and also any understatement
through causes other than omission. For example, if a test is designed to ensure that sales are priced
correctly, it would begin with a sales invoice selected from the sales ledger. Prices would then be checked
to the official price list.
1.2.2 Tests designed to discover omissions

These tests must start from outside the accounting records and then matched back to those records.
Understatements through omission will never be revealed by starting with the account itself as there is
clearly no chance of selecting items that have been omitted from the account. For example, if a test is
designed to discover whether all raw material purchases have been properly processed, it would start with
goods received notes to be agreed to the inventory records or purchase ledger.
1.2.3 Directional testing

For most systems auditors would include tests designed to discover both errors and omissions. The type
of test, and direction of the test, should be recognised before selecting the test sample. If the sample
which tested the accuracy and validity of the sales ledger were chosen from a file of sales invoices then it
would not substantiate the fact that there were no errors in the sales ledger.
Directional testing is particularly appropriate when testing the financial statement assertions of existence,
completeness, rights and obligations, and valuation.
The concept of directional testing derives from the principle of double-entry bookkeeping, in that for every
debit there should be a corresponding credit. Therefore, any misstatement of a debit entry will result in
either a corresponding misstatement of a credit entry or a misstatement in the opposite direction, of
another debit entry.
By designing audit tests carefully the auditors are able to use this principle in drawing audit conclusions,
not only about the debit or credit entries that they have directly tested, but also about the corresponding
credit or debit entries that are necessary to balance the books.

Tests are therefore designed in the following way.
Test item Example

Test debit items (expenditure or If a non-current asset entry in the nominal ledger of $1,000 is
assets) for overstatement by selected, it would be overstated if it should have been recorded at
selecting debit entries recorded in anything less than $1,000 or if the company did not own it, or
the nominal ledger and checking indeed if it did not exist (eg it had been sold or the amount of
value, existence and ownership $1,000 in fact represented a revenue expense).
Test credit items (income or Select a goods dispatched note and agree that the resultant sale
liabilities) for understatement by has been recorded in the nominal ledger sales account. Sales
selecting items from appropriate would be understated if the nominal ledger did not reflect the
sources independent of the nominal transaction at all (completeness) or reflected it at less than full
ledger and ensuring that they result value (say if goods valued at $1,000 were recorded in the sales
in the correct nominal ledger entry account at $900, there would be an understatement of $100).
A test for the overstatement of an asset simultaneously gives comfort on understatement of other assets,
overstatement of liabilities, overstatement of income and understatement of expenses.
So, by performing the primary tests, the auditors obtain audit assurance in other audit areas. Successful
completion of the primary tests will therefore result in them having tested all account areas both for
overstatement and understatement.
1.3 Analytical procedures

FAST FORWARD
Analytical procedures are used at all stages of the audit, including as substantive procedures. When using
analytical procedures as substantive tests, auditors must consider the information available, assessing its
availability, relevance and comparability.
We introduced analytical procedures in Chapter 6 where they were used at the planning stage of an audit.
They can also be used as substantive procedures to obtain audit evidence directly.
ISA 520 Analytical procedures provides guidance to auditors on the use of analytical procedures as
substantive procedures. Remember from chapter 6 that analytical procedures include:
(a) The consideration of comparisons with:
x Comparable information for prior periods
x Anticipated results of the entity, from budgets or forecasts
x Expectations prepared by the auditors (e.g. estimation of depreciation)
x Industry information
(b) Those between elements of financial information that are expected to conform to a predicted
pattern based on the entity's experience, such as the relationship of gross profit to sales
(c) Those between financial information and relevant non-financial information, such as the
relationship of payroll costs to number of employees
ISA 520 states that when using analytical procedures as substantive tests, the auditor must:
x Determine the suitability of particular analytical procedures for given assertions.
x Evaluate the reliability of data from which the auditor’s expectation of recorded amounts or ratios
is developed.
x Develop an expectation of recorded amounts or ratios and evaluate whether this is sufficiently
precise to identify a misstatement that may cause the financial statements to be materially
misstated.
x Determine the amount of any difference that is acceptable without further investigation.

1.3.1 Suitability of analytical procedures
Substantive analytical procedures are usually more applicable to large volumes of transactions that tend to
be predictable over time. The suitability of a particular analytical procedure will depend on the auditor’s
assessment of how effective it will be in detecting material misstatements. Determining the suitability will
be influenced by the nature of the assertion and the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material
misstatement.
1.3.2 Reliability of data
The ISA sets out factors which influence the reliability of data which are set out in the following table, with
examples.
Reliability factors Example

Source of the information Information may be more reliable when obtained from independent
sources outside the entity.
Comparability of information Broad industry data may need to be supplemented so it is comparable
available to that of an entity that produces and sells specialised products.
Nature and relevance of the Whether budgets have been set up as results to be expected rather
information available than goals to be achieved
Controls over the preparation of Controls over the preparation, review and maintenance of budgets
the information to ensure its
completeness, accuracy and
validity
The auditor will need to consider testing the controls, if any, over the preparation of information used in
applying analytical procedures. When such controls are effective, the auditor will have greater confidence
in the reliability of the information, and therefore in the results of analytical procedures.
The controls over non-financial information can often be tested in conjunction with tests of accounting-
related controls. For example, in establishing controls over the processing of sales invoices, a business
may include controls over unit sales recording. The auditor could therefore test the controls over the
recording of unit sales in conjunction with tests of controls over the processing of sales invoices.
Alternatively the auditor may consider whether the information was subjected to audit testing. ISA 500
contains guidance in determining the audit procedures to be performed on information to be used for
substantive analytical procedures.
1.3.3 Evaluation of whether the expectation is sufficiently precise

The factors to consider when evaluating whether the expectation can be developed sufficiently precisely to
identify a misstatement that may cause the financial statements to be materially misstated are set out in
the following table.
Factors to consider Example

The accuracy with which the The auditor may expect greater consistency in comparing the
expected results of analytical relationship of gross profit to sales from one period to another than in
procedures can be predicted comparing discretionary expenses, such as research or advertising.
The degree to which Analytical procedures may be more effective when applied to financial
information can be information on individual sections of an operation or to the financial
disaggregated statements of components of a diversified entity than when applied to
the financial statements as a whole.
The availability of the The auditor may consider whether financial information (e.g. budgets
information or forecasts) and non-financial information (e.g. number of units
produced or sold) is available.

1.3.4 Acceptable differences
The amount of the difference of recorded amounts from the expected value that is acceptable depends on
materiality and consistency with the desired level of assurance, having taken into account that a
misstatement may cause the financial statements to be materially misstated. Therefore as the assessed
risk increases, the amount of the difference that is acceptable without further investigation decreases.
1.3.5 Practical techniques

Analytical procedures can be performed using various techniques, ranging from simple comparisons to
complex analyses using advanced statistical techniques. In this section we look at some of the techniques
that can be used to carry out analytical procedures.
Ratio analysis can be a useful technique. However ratios mean very little when used in isolation. They
should be calculated for previous periods and for comparable companies. This may involve a certain
amount of initial research, but subsequently it is just a matter of adding new statistics to the existing
information each year. The permanent file should contain a section with summarised accounts and the
chosen ratios for prior years.
In addition to looking at the more usual ratios the auditors should consider examining other ratios that
may be relevant to the particular clients' business.
Other analytical techniques include:
(a) Examining related accounts in conjunction with each other. Often revenue and expense accounts
are related to accounts in the statement of financial position and comparisons should be made to
ensure relationships are reasonable.
(b) Trend analysis. Sophisticated statistical techniques can be used to compare this period with
previous periods.
(c) Reasonableness test. This involves calculating the expected value of an item and comparing it
with its actual value, for example, for straight-line depreciation.
(Cost + Additions – Disposals) u Depreciation % = Charge in statement of comprehensive income
Important x Gross profit margins, in total and by product, area and months/quarter (if possible)
accounting x Receivables' ratio (average collection period)
ratios x Inventory revenue ratio (revenue divided into cost of sales)
x Current ratio (current assets to current liabilities)
x Quick or acid test ratio (liquid assets to current liabilities)
x Gearing ratio (debt capital to equity capital)
x Return on capital employed (profit before tax to total assets less current liabilities)
Related items x Payables and purchases
x Inventories and cost of sales
x Non-current assets and depreciation, repairs and maintenance expense
x Intangible assets and amortisation
x Loans and interest expense
x Investments and investment income
x Receivables and bad debt expense
x Receivables and sales
Other areas for consideration

x Examine changes in products, customers and levels of returns
x Assess the effect of price and mix changes on the cost of sales
x Consider the effect of inflation, industrial disputes, changes in production methods and changes
in activity on the charge for wages

Other areas for consideration
x Obtain explanations for all major variances analysed using a standard costing system. Particular
attention should be paid to those relating to the over or under absorption of overheads since these
may, inter alia, affect inventory valuations
x Compare trends in production and sales and assess the effect on any provisions for obsolete
inventory
x Ensure that changes in the percentage labour or overhead content of production costs are also
reflected in the inventory valuation
x Review other expenditure, comparing:
– Rent with annual rent per rental agreement
– Rates with previous year and known rates increases
– Interest payable on loans with outstanding balance and interest rate per loan agreement
– Hire or leasing charges with annual rate per agreements
– Vehicle running expenses to vehicles
– Other items related to activity level with general price increase and change in relevant level of
activity (for example telephone expenditure will increase disproportionately if export or import
business increases)
– Other items not related to activity level with general price increases (or specific increases if
known)
x Review statement of comprehensive income for items which may have been omitted (eg scrap sales,
training levy, special contributions to pension fund, provisions for dilapidation etc)
x Ensure expected variations arising from the following have occurred:
– Industry or local trends
– Known disturbances of the trading pattern (for example strikes, depot closures, failure of
suppliers)
Some comparisons and ratios measuring liquidity and longer-term capital structure will assist in
evaluating whether the company is a going concern, in addition to contributing to the overall view of the
accounts. We shall see in Chapter 18 however, that there are factors other than declining ratios that may
indicate going concern problems.
The working papers must contain the completed results of analytical procedures. They should include:
x The outline programme of the work
x The summary of significant figures and relationships for the period
x A summary of comparisons made with budgets and with previous years
x Details of all significant fluctuations or unexpected relationships considered
x Details of the results of investigations into such fluctuations/relationships
x The audit conclusions reached
x Information considered necessary for assisting in the planning of subsequent audits
1.3.6 Investigating the results of analytical procedures

ISA 520 states that where analytical procedures identify fluctuations or relationships that are inconsistent
with other relevant information or that differ significantly from the expected results, the auditor shall
investigate by:
x Inquiries of management and obtaining appropriate audit evidence relevant to management’s
responses
x Performing other audit procedures if necessary (e.g. if management cannot provide an explanation
or the explanation is not adequate)

Question Analytical procedures
You are part of the audit team auditing the financial statements of Sweep Co, a small office supplies
business, for the year ended 31 March 20X9. The company employed the following staff at the start of the
financial year: 7 office and warehouse managers, 20 warehouse staff and 25 office staff.
The pay ranges for each category of staff is shown below:
Office and warehouse managers: $35-$50k per year
Warehouse and office staff: $18-$25k per year
You have been asked to audit the wages and salaries expense for the year. All staff were given a 4% pay
rise in the year, backdated to the start of the year. One of the office managers left the company part-way
through the year. There were two new members of warehouse staff and three new members of office staff.
The expense for the year is shown in the draft income statement as $1,249,450.
Required
Using analytical procedures, perform a proof in total on the wages and salaries expense for the year.
Answer
An expectation of the charge for the year can be developed using the information provided and compared
to the charge in the draft income statement to assess its reasonableness.
Managers
Based on salary range, average annual salary: $42,500
Applying the 4% rise: $44,200
Total average salary for year (i.e. u 7): $309,400

Assume leaver left half-way through year: ($22,100)
Total for managers: $287,300
Office and warehouse staff

Based on salary range, average annual salary: $21,500
Applying the 4% rise: $22,360
Total average salary for year (i.e. u 40, exclude starters): $1,006,200
Assume starters started half-way through year: $55,900
Total for office and warehouse staff: $1,062,100
Expected total expense for wages and salaries: $1,349,400

Expense per draft income statement: $1,249,450
Difference: 8%
The difference between the expected total and the expense in the draft income statement is 8%. The
auditor needs to consider whether this is acceptable in light of materiality for the financial statements as a
whole and performance materiality and the risk of material misstatement and whether further explanations
from management may be necessary.
Exam focus
point Mention of analytical procedures will generally be worth a couple of marks in any question on substantive
testing. However you will not get any marks just for saying 'perform analytical procedures' – you will need
to give details of the specific procedures that should be performed.

2 Accounting estimates
FAST FORWARD
When auditing accounting estimates auditors must:
x Test the management process
x Use an independent estimate
x Review subsequent events
in order to assess whether the estimates are reasonable.
2.1 The nature of accounting estimates

ISA 540 Auditing accounting estimates, including fair value accounting estimates, and related disclosures
provides guidance on the audit of accounting estimates contained in financial statements. The auditor's
objective is to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether accounting estimates are
reasonable and related disclosures are adequate.
Key terms An accounting estimate is an approximation of a monetary amount in the absence of a precise means of
measurement.
Estimation uncertainty is the susceptibility of an accounting estimate and related disclosures to an
inherent lack of precision in its measurement.
Management's point estimate is the amount selected by management for recognition or disclosure in the
financial statements as an accounting estimate.
Auditor's point estimate or auditor's range is the amount, or range of amounts, respectively, derived
from audit evidence for use in evaluating management's point estimate.
Examples of accounting estimates include:

x Allowance for doubtful accounts
x Inventory obsolescence
x Warranty obligations
x Depreciation method or asset useful life
x Outcome of long-term contracts
x Costs arising from litigation settlements and judgements
x Provision against the carrying amount of an investment where there is uncertainty regarding its
recoverability
Some financial statement items cannot be measured precisely, only estimated. The nature and reliability
of information available to management to support accounting estimates can vary enormously and this
therefore affects the degree of uncertainty associated with accounting estimates, which in turn affects the
risk of material misstatement of accounting estimates.
2.2 Risk assessment procedures

ISA 540 states that the auditor shall obtain an understanding of the following to provide a basis for the
identification and assessment of the risks of material misstatement for accounting estimates:
x The requirements of the applicable financial reporting framework
x How management identifies those transactions, events and conditions that may give rise to the
need for accounting estimates
x How management makes the accounting estimates and an understanding of the data on which they
are based including:
– Method
– Relevant controls
– Assumptions

– Whether change from prior period in method used
– Whether management has assessed the effect of estimation uncertainty
The ISA also states that the auditor shall review the outcome of accounting estimates included in the prior
period.
2.3 Risk identification and assessment

The auditor shall also evaluate the degree of estimation uncertainty associated with an accounting
estimate. Where estimation uncertainty is assessed as high, the auditor shall determine whether these give
rise to significant risks.
2.4 Responding to the assessed risks

The ISA requires the auditor to perform one or more of the following:
x Determine whether events occurring up to the date of the auditor’s report provide audit evidence
regarding the accounting estimate.
x Test how management made the accounting estimate and the data on which it is based.
x Test the operating effectiveness of controls over how the accounting estimate was made.
x Develop a point estimate or a range to evaluate management’s point estimate.
2.5 Substantive procedures in response to significant risks

Where the auditor judges that the accounting estimate gives rise to a significant risk, he shall evaluate the
following in accordance with ISA 540:
x How management has considered alternative assumptions and why these have been rejected
x Whether the assumptions used are reasonable
x Management’s intent to carry out specific courses of action and its ability to do so
If the auditor considers that management has not adequately addressed the effects of estimation
uncertainty on accounting estimates that give rise to significant risks, he shall, if necessary, develop a
range with which to evaluate the reasonableness of the accounting estimate.
2.6 Other audit procedures

ISA 540 requires the auditor to do the following:
x Evaluate whether the accounting estimates are either reasonable or misstated.
x Obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether disclosures are correct.
x For accounting estimates that give rise to significant risks, evaluate the adequacy of disclosure of
their estimation uncertainty.
x Review the judgements and decisions of management in making the accounting estimates to
identify if there are indications of possible management bias.
x Obtain written representations from management whether management believes significant
assumptions used are reasonable.
3 Audit sampling June 09

FAST FORWARD
Auditors usually seek evidence from less than 100% of items of the balance or transaction being tested by
using sampling techniques.

3.1 Introduction to audit sampling
Key terms Audit sampling is the application of audit procedures to less than 100% of items within a population of
audit relevance such that all sampling units have a chance of selection. This will enable the auditor to
obtain and evaluate audit evidence about some characteristic of the items selected in order to provide the
auditor with a reasonable basis on which to draw conclusions about the entire population. Audit sampling
can be applied using either statistical or non-statistical approaches.
The population is the entire set of data from which a sample is selected and about which the auditor
wishes to draw conclusions.
Auditors do not normally examine all the information available to them as it would be impractical to do so
and using audit sampling will produce valid conclusions. ISA 530 Audit sampling provides guidance to
auditors.
Some testing procedures do not involve sampling, such as:
x Testing 100% of items in a population
x Testing all items with a certain characteristic as selection is not representative
Auditors are unlikely to test 100% of items when carrying out tests of controls, but 100% testing may be
appropriate for certain substantive procedures. For example, if the population is made up of a small
number of high value items, there is a high risk of material misstatement and other means do not provide
sufficient appropriate audit evidence, then 100% examination may be appropriate.
Audit sampling can be done using either statistical sampling or non-statistical sampling methods.
Key terms Statistical sampling is an approach to sampling that involves random selection of the sample items, and
the use of probability theory to evaluate sample results, including measurement of sampling risk.
Non-statistical sampling is a sampling approach that does not have these characteristics.
The auditor may alternatively select certain items from a population because of specific characteristics
they possess. The results of items selected in this way cannot be projected onto the whole population but
may be used in conjunction with other audit evidence concerning the rest of the population.
x High value or key items. The auditor may select high value items or items that are suspicious,
unusual or prone to error.
x All items over a certain amount. Selecting items this way may mean a large proportion of the
population can be verified by testing a few items.
x Items to obtain information about the client's business, the nature of transactions, or the client's
accounting and control systems.
x Items to test procedures, to see whether particular procedures are being performed.
3.2 Design of the sample

Key terms Sampling risk arises from the possibility that the auditor's conclusion, based on a sample of a certain
size, may be different from the conclusion that would be reached if the entire population were subjected to
the same audit procedure.
Non-sampling risk arises from factors that cause the auditor to reach an erroneous conclusion for any
reason not related to the size of the sample. For example, the use of inappropriate audit procedures, or
misinterpretation of audit evidence and failure to recognise a misstatement or deviation.
Sampling unit is the individual items constituting a population. It may be a physical item (e.g. credit
entries on bank statements, sales invoices, receivables’ balances) or a monetary unit.
Stratification is the process of dividing a population into sub-populations, each of which is a group of
sampling units which have similar characteristics, often monetary value.

The auditor must consider the purpose of the audit procedure when designing an audit sample. The
auditor must also consider the characteristics of the population. When considering the characteristics of
the population, the auditor might determine that stratification or value-weighted selection is appropriate.
The auditor must design a sample size sufficient to reduce sampling risk to an acceptably low level.
Sampling risk can lead to two types of erroneous conclusions: for tests of controls, that they are more
effective that they actually are or for tests of details, that a material misstatement does not exist when it
actually does; and for tests of controls, that controls are less effective than they actually are or for tests of
details, that a material misstatement exists when it actually does not. The lower the risk the auditor is
willing to accept, the greater the sample size will need to be. Sample size can be determined using a
statistically-based formula or through the use of judgement.
ISA 530 also requires the auditor to select items for the sample in such a way that each sampling unit in
the population has a chance of selection. When statistical sampling is used, each sampling unit has a
known probability of being selected. When non-statistical sampling is used, judgement is applied.
However, it is important that the auditor selects a representative sample, free from bias, by choosing
sample items that have characteristics typical of the population. The main methods of selecting samples
are random selection, systematic selection and haphazard selection. We discuss these and other
methods below.
(a) Random selection ensures that all items in the population have an equal chance of selection, eg by
use of random number tables or random number generators.
(b) Systematic selection involves selecting items using a constant interval between selections, the
first interval having a random start. When using systematic selection auditors must ensure that the
population is not structured in such a manner that the sampling interval corresponds with a
particular pattern in the population.
(c) Haphazard selection may be an alternative to random selection provided auditors are satisfied that
the sample is representative of the entire population. This method requires care to guard against
making a selection which is biased, for example towards items which are easily located, as they
may not be representative. It should not be used if auditors are carrying out statistical sampling.
(d) Block selection may be used to check whether certain items have particular characteristics. For
example an auditor may use a sample of 50 consecutive cheques to test whether cheques are
signed by authorised signatories rather than picking 50 single cheques throughout the year. Block
sampling may however produce samples that are not representative of the population as a whole,
particularly if errors only occurred during a certain part of the period, and hence the errors found
cannot be projected onto the rest of the population.
(e) Monetary Unit Sampling is a type of value-weighted selection in which sample size, selection and
evaluation results in a conclusion in monetary amounts.
3.3 Performing audit procedures

Once the sample has been selected, the auditor must perform appropriate audit procedures on each item
in the sample. If the audit procedure is not applicable to the selected item, the test must be performed on
a replacement item. This could happen if, for example, a voided check is selected when testing for
evidence of authorisation of payment.
If the auditor cannot apply the designed audit procedures (e.g. if documentation relating to the item has
been lost), or suitable alternative audit procedures, to the selected item, that item must be treated as a
deviation from the prescribed control (for tests of controls) or a misstatement (for tests of details).
3.4 Deviations and misstatements

Key term An anomaly is a misstatement or deviation that is demonstrably not representative of misstatements or
deviations in a population.

Once the sample has been tested, the auditor must investigate the nature and cause of any deviations or
misstatements found and evaluate their possible effect on the purpose of the audit procedure and on other
areas of the audit.
In rare cases, a deviation or misstatement may be considered an anomaly, in which case the auditor must
obtain a high degree of certainty that this is not representative of the population, by carrying out additional
audit procedures.
3.5 Projection of misstatements

For tests of details, the auditor shall project misstatements found in the sample to the population to
obtain a broad view of the scale of the misstatement but this may not be enough to determine an amount
to be recorded.
Misstatements established as anomalies can be excluded when projecting sample errors to the
population. However, note that the effect of any uncorrected anomalies still needs to be considered.
Projected errors and anomalies are combined together when considering the possible effect of errors on
the total class of transactions or account balance. Where the audited entity has corrected specific errors
found in the sample, the projected error may be reduced by the amount of these corrections.
ISA 530 states that for tests of controls, no explicit projection of errors is necessary because the sample
deviation rate is also the projected deviation rate for the population as a whole. So for example, if in
sample of 75, four errors are discovered, the projected deviation rate is 4/75, i.e. 5%.
3.6 Evaluating the results

Key terms Tolerable misstatement is a monetary amount set by the auditor in respect of which the auditor seeks to
obtain an appropriate level of assurance that the monetary amount set by the auditor is not exceeded by
the actual misstatement in the population.
Tolerable rate of deviation is a rate of deviation from prescribed internal control procedures set by the
auditor in respect of which the auditor seeks to obtain an appropriate level of assurance that the rate of
deviation set by the auditor is not exceeded by the actual rate of deviation in the population.
ISA 530 requires the auditor to evaluate the results of the sample.
For tests of controls, an unexpectedly high deviation rate in the sample may result in an increase in the
assessed risk of material misstatement, unless further audit evidence to substantiate the initial
assessment of risk is obtained.
For tests of details, an unexpectedly high misstatement amount in the sample may lead the auditor to
conclude that a class of transactions or account balance is materially misstated, in the absence of further
audit evidence that no misstatement exists.
For tests of details, the total of the projected misstatement and anomalous misstatement is the auditor’s
best estimate of misstatement in the population. If the total exceeds tolerable misstatement, the sample
does not provide a reasonable basis for conclusions about the population. The closer the total figure is to
tolerable misstatement, the more likely it is that actual misstatement in the population could exceed
tolerable misstatement. The auditor must therefore also consider the results of other audit procedures to
assist in determining the risk that actual misstatement in the population exceeds tolerable misstatement.
The risk may be reduced if additional audit evidence is obtained.
The auditor must also evaluate whether the use of sampling has provided a reasonable basis for
conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn. If the conclusion is that sampling
has not provided this, the auditor may request management to investigate misstatements that have been
identified and make any necessary adjustments, or tailor the nature, timing and extent of further audit
procedures to best achieve the assurance required.

3.7 Summary
Key stages in the sampling process are as follows.
x Determining objectives and characteristics of the population
x Determining sample size
x Choosing method of sample selection
x Projecting errors and evaluating the results
Being able to apply the techniques of audit sampling discussed in this section will assist you in achieving
PER objective 17 on preparing for and collecting evidence for audit.
4 Computer-assisted audit techniques Pilot paper, Dec 07,

June 09
FAST FORWARD CAATs are the use of computers for audit work. The two most commonly used CAATs are audit software
and test data.
Key term Computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) are the applications of auditing procedures using the
computer as an audit tool.
The overall objectives and scope of an audit do not change when an audit is conducted in a computerised
environment. However, the application of auditing procedures may require auditors to consider techniques
that use the computer as an audit tool. These uses of the computer for audit work are known as
computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs).
CAATs may be used in performing various auditing procedures, including the following.
x Tests of details of transactions and balances
x Analytical review procedures
x Tests of computer information system controls
The advantages of using CAATs are:
x Auditors can test programme controls as well as general internal controls associated with
computers.
x Auditors can test a greater number of items more quickly and accurately than would be the case
otherwise.
x Auditors can test transactions rather than paper records of transactions that could be incorrect.
x CAATs are cost-effective in the long-term if the client does not change its systems.
x Results from CAATs can be compared with results from traditional testing – if the results correlate,
overall confidence is increased.
The major steps to be undertaken by the auditors in the application of a CAAT are as follows.
x Set the objective of the CAAT application
x Determine the content and accessibility of the entity's files
x Define the transaction types to be tested
x Define the procedures to be performed on the data
x Define the output requirements
x Identify the audit and computer personnel who may participate in the design and application of the
CAAT
x Refine the estimates of costs and benefits
x Ensure that the use of the CAAT is properly controlled and documented
x Arrange the administrative activities, including the necessary skills and computer facilities
x Execute the CAAT application
x Evaluate the results

There are two particularly common types of CAAT, audit software and test data.
Exam focus Use of computers on audits is common practice. The examiner expects you to consider the computer
point aspects of auditing as a matter of course. Therefore in answering questions on obtaining evidence,
remember to include reference to CAATs if they seem relevant. There is a very useful article on auditing in
a computerised environment in the August 2009 edition of Student Accountant which you should read (it
is also accessible on the ACCA's website).
4.1 Audit software

Key term
Audit software consists of computer programs used by the auditors, as part of their auditing procedures,
to process data of audit significance from the entity’s accounting system. It may consist of generalised
audit software or custom audit software. Audit software is used for substantive procedures.
Generalised audit software allows auditors to perform tests on computer files and databases, such as
reading and extracting data from a client's systems for further testing, selecting data that meets certain
criteria, performing arithmetic calculations on data, facilitating audit sampling and producing documents
and reports. Examples of generalised audit software are ACT and IDEA.
Custom audit software is written by auditors for specific tasks when generalised audit software cannot be
used.
The following table provides some examples of the use of audit software in the course of an audit.
Audit software: examples of use

x Perform calculations and comparisons in analytical procedures
x Sampling programs to extract data for audit testing, e.g. select a sample of receivables for
confirmation
x Scan a file to ensure that all documents in a series have been accounted for or to search for large
and unusual items
x Compare data elements in different files for agreement (e.g. prices on sales invoices to authorised
prices in master file)
x Reperform calculations e.g. totalling sales ledger
x Prepare documents and reports e.g. produce receivables’ confirmation letters and monthly
statements
4.2 Test data

Key term
Test data techniques are used in conducting audit procedures by entering data (eg a sample of
transactions) into an entity’s computer system, and comparing the results obtained with pre-determined
results. Test data is used for tests of controls.
Examples include:
(a) Test data used to test specific controls in computer programs such as on-line password and data
access controls.
(b) Test transactions selected from previously processed transactions or created by the auditors to test
specific processing characteristics of an entity’s computer system. Such transactions are
generally processed separately from the entity’s normal processing. Test data can for example be
used to check the controls that prevent the processing of invalid data by entering data with say a
non-existent customer code or worth an unreasonable amount, or a transaction which may if
processed break customer credit limits.
(c) Test transactions used in an integrated test facility. This is where a ‘dummy’ unit (eg a department
or employee) is established, and to which test transactions are posted during the normal
processing cycle.

A significant problem with test data is that any resulting corruption of data files has to be corrected. This
is difficult with modern real-time systems, which often have built-in (and highly desirable) controls to
ensure that data entered cannot be easily removed without leaving a mark.
Other problems with test data are that it only tests the operation of the system at a single point of time,
and auditors are only testing controls in the programs being run and controls which they know about. The
problems involved mean that test data is being used less as a CAAT.
One of the PER performance objectives is to use information and communications technology (objective
6). The use of CAATs by you during an audit assignment will help to achieve this objective.
5 Using the work of others Pilot paper, Dec 08

FAST FORWARD
External auditors may make use of the work of an auditor’s expert, internal auditors and service
organisations and their auditors when carrying out audit procedures.
5.1 Using the work of an expert

Key terms An auditor’s expert is an individual or organisation who has expertise in a field other than auditing or
accounting, whose work in that field is used by the auditor to assist the auditor in obtaining sufficient
appropriate audit evidence. An auditor’s expert may be an auditor’s internal expert (partner or staff,
including temporary staff, of the auditor’s firm or network firm) or an auditor’s external expert.
Management’s expert is an individual or organisation having expertise in a field other than auditing or
accounting, whose work in that field is used by the entity to assist the entity in preparing the financial
statements.
Professional audit staff are highly trained and educated, but their experience and training is limited to
accountancy and audit matters. In certain situations it will therefore be necessary to employ an auditor’s
expert. Guidance on this area is provided by ISA 620 Using the work of an auditor’s expert. An auditor’s
expert could be employed by the auditor to assist in the following areas:
x Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment, including its internal control
x Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement
x Determining and implementing overall responses to assessed risks at the financial statement level
x Designing and performing further audit procedures to respond to assessed risks at the assertion
level
x Evaluating the sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence obtained in forming an opinion on
5.1.1 Competence, capabilities and objectivity of the auditor’s expert

ISA 620 requires the auditor to evaluate whether the auditor’s expert has the necessary competence,
capabilities and objectivity. Where the auditor’s expert is external, the evaluation of objectivity will include
inquiry of interests and relationships that could create a threat to objectivity.
Information on these areas may come from the following sources:
x Personal experience with previous work done by the expert
x Discussions with the expert
x Discussions with other people who are familiar with the expert’s work
x Knowledge of the expert’s qualifications, membership of a professional body or industry
association, licence to practise etc
x Published papers or books by the expert
x The auditor’s firm’s quality control policies and procedures

5.1.2 Obtaining an understanding of the field of expertise
The auditor shall obtain a sufficient understanding of the auditor’s expert’s field of expertise to allow the
auditor to determine the nature, scope and objectives of the work and to evaluate the adequacy of the work
done.
5.1.3 Agreement
ISA 620 requires the auditor to agree in writing the following with the auditor’s expert:
x Nature, scope and objectives of the work
x Respective roles and responsibilities of the auditor and the auditor’s expert
x Nature, timing and extent of communication between auditor and auditor’s expert, including the
form of any report
x Confidentiality requirements
The agreement between the auditor and the auditor’s expert is often in the form of an engagement letter.
The Appendix to ISA 620 lists matters to consider for inclusion in the engagement letter
5.1.4 Evaluating the work of the auditor’s expert

The auditor shall evaluate the adequacy of the auditor’s expert’s work, which will include the following:
x The relevance and reasonableness of the expert’s work and consistency with other audit evidence
x The relevance and reasonableness of any assumptions and methods used
x The relevance, completeness and accuracy of any source data used
If the auditor’s evaluation results in a conclusion that the expert’s work is not adequate, the auditor must
agree on the nature and extent of further work to be done by the expert, and perform additional audit
procedures that may be necessary in the circumstances.
5.1.5 Reference to the auditor’s expert in the auditor’s report

The auditor must not refer to the work of an auditor’s expert in the auditor’s report containing an
unmodified opinion (unless required by law or regulation). If the auditor makes reference to the work of an
auditor’s expert in the auditor’s report because it is relevant to understanding a modification to the
opinion, the auditor must state in the auditor’s report that this reference does not reduce the auditor’s
responsibility for the opinion.
5.2 Using the work of internal audit

ISA 610 Using the work of internal auditors provides guidance to the external auditor when the external
auditor has determined that the internal audit function is likely to be relevant to the audit. The objectives of
the auditor are to determine whether and to what extent the work of internal auditors can be used, and if
so, whether the work is adequate for the audit. Although the work of internal audit may be used for the
purposes of the external audit, it is important to note that the external auditor has sole responsibility for
the audit opinion expressed on the financial statements.
5.2.1 Scope and objectives of internal auditing

As we discussed in Chapter 5, the scope and objectives of internal auditing vary widely. Normally however,
internal audit operates in one or more of the following broad areas.
x Monitoring of internal control
x Examination of financial and operating information
x Review of operating activities
x Review of compliance with laws and regulations
x Risk management
x Governance

5.2.2 Understanding and preliminary assessment of the role and scope of internal audit
An effective internal audit function may reduce, modify or alter the timing of external audit procedures, but
it can never eliminate them entirely. Even where the internal audit function is deemed ineffective, it may
still be useful to be aware of the conclusions formed. The effectiveness of internal audit will have a great
impact on how the external auditors assess the whole control system and the assessment of audit risk.
The external auditor shall determine whether the work of internal auditors is likely to be adequate for the
audit and if so, the planned effect of this work on the nature, timing or extent of the external auditor’s
procedures.
The following important criteria will be considered by the external auditors when determining if the work
of internal auditors is likely to be adequate.
ASSESSMENT OF INTERNAL AUDIT

Objectivity of Consider the status of the internal audit function, to whom it reports, any
function conflicting responsibilities, any constraints or restrictions, whether those
charged with governance oversee employment decisions regarding internal
auditors, whether management acts on recommendations made
Technical Consider whether internal auditors are members of relevant professional bodies,
competence have adequate technical training and proficiency, whether there are established
policies for hiring and training
Due professional Consider whether internal audit activities are properly planned, supervised,
care reviewed and documented, the existence of audit manuals, work programs and
internal audit documentation
Effective Communication will be most effective when internal auditors are free to
communication communicate openly with external auditors and meetings are held regularly, the
external auditor has access to relevant internal audit reports and is informed of any
significant matters, and the external auditor informs the internal auditors of any
significant matters.
When determining the planned effect of the work of the internal auditors on the nature, timing or extent of
the external auditor’s procedures, the external auditor must consider the following:
x Nature and scope of specific work performed or to be performed
x Assessed risks of material misstatement at assertion level
x Degree of subjectivity involved in evaluation of audit evidence gathered by internal auditors
5.2.3 Using the work of internal audit

The external auditors need to evaluate and perform audit procedures on the work done by internal
auditors that they might be able to use, in order to determine its adequacy.
The evaluation includes the following:
x Whether the work was done by internal auditors having adequate technical training and
proficiency
x Whether the work was properly supervised, reviewed and documented
x Whether adequate audit evidence was obtained to allow the internal auditors to draw reasonable
conclusions
x Whether the conclusions reached are appropriate and any reports are consistent with the results
of the work done
x Whether any exceptions or unusual matters disclosed are properly resolved
The nature, timing and extent of the audit procedures performed on specific work of the internal auditors
will depend upon the external auditor's assessment of the risk of material misstatement of the area
concerned, the evaluation of internal audit and the evaluation of the specific work of the internal auditors.
Audit procedures might include:

x Examination of items already examined by the internal auditors
x Examination of other similar items
x Observation of procedures performed by the internal auditors
5.2.4 Documentation of work

ISA 610 requires the external auditors to document conclusions about the evaluation of the adequacy of
the work of the internal auditors and any audit procedures performed by the external auditors on that
work.
5.3 Service organisations

FAST FORWARD
A service organisation provides services to user entities. There may be special considerations for the
auditor of a user entity when that entity makes use of a service organisation.
Key terms
A service organisation is a third party organisation that provides services to user entities that are part of
those entities’ information systems relevant to financial reporting.
A user entity is an entity that uses a service organisation and whose financial statements are being
audited.
A user auditor is an auditor who audits and reports on the financial statements of a user entity.
A service auditor is an auditor who, at the request of the service organisation, provides an assurance
report on the controls of a service organisation.
ISA 402 Audit considerations relating to an entity using a service organisation provides guidance to
auditors whose clients uses such an organisation. It expands on how the user auditor obtains an
understanding of the user entity, including internal control sufficient to identify and assess the risks of
material misstatement and in designing and performing further audit procedures responsive to those
risks.
A client may use a service organisation such as one that executes transactions and maintains related
accountability or records transactions and processes related data. Many companies now outsource some
aspects of their business activities to external service organisations. Examples relevant to the independent
auditors include:
x Payroll processing
x Maintenance of accounting records
5.3.1 Understanding the services provided

User auditors must obtain an understanding of the services provided by the service organisation in
accordance with ISA 315. This understanding must include the following:
x Nature of services provided and the significance of these to the user entity, including effect on user
entity’s internal control
x Nature and materiality of transactions processed or financial reporting processes affected
x Degree of interaction
x Nature of relationship including contractual terms
When obtaining an understanding of the internal control relevant to the audit, the user auditor must
evaluate the design and implementation of relevant controls at the user entity that relate to the services
provided by the service organisation.
The user auditor needs to determine whether a sufficient understanding of the nature and significance of
the services provided and their effect on internal control has been obtained to allow for the identification
and assessment of risks of material misstatement in the financial statements.

If the user auditor cannot get this understanding from the user entity, the understanding needs to be
obtained from one or more of the following procedures:
x Obtaining a type 1 report (report on description and design of controls at a service organisation) or
type 2 report (report on the description, design and operating effectiveness of controls at a service
organisation) from a service auditor, if available
x Contacting the service organisation through the user entity
x Visiting the service organisation and performing necessary procedures
x Using another auditor to perform necessary procedures
If the user auditor uses a type 1 or type 2 report to obtain an understanding of the services, the auditor
must be satisfied as to the service auditor’s professional competence and independence, and the adequacy
of standards used.
5.3.2 Responding to the assessed risks of material misstatement

In responding to the assessed risks in accordance with ISA 330, the user auditor must:
(a) Determine whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence concerning the relevant financial
statement assertions is available from records held at the user entity; and if not
(b) Perform further audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence or use another
auditor to perform those procedures at the service organisation on the user auditor’s behalf.
5.3.3 Reporting by the user auditor

The user auditor is always solely responsible for the auditor’s opinion. He must be assured that he has
gained sufficient appropriate audit evidence to form an opinion on the financial statements and he must
then express his opinion in the auditor’s report. The user auditor must therefore not refer to the work of a
service auditor in the user auditor’s report if it contains an unmodified opinion (unless required by law or
regulation). If the user auditor makes reference to the work of a service auditor in the user auditor’s report
because it is relevant to understanding a modification to the opinion, the user auditor must state in the
user auditor’s report that this reference does not reduce the user auditor’s responsibility for the opinion.

Chapter Roundup
x Auditors need to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to support the financial statement
assertions. Substantive procedures aim to obtain that evidence.
x Substantive tests are designed to discover errors or omissions.
x Analytical procedures are used at all stages of the audit, including as substantive procedures. When using
analytical procedures as substantive tests, auditors must consider the information available, assessing its
availability, relevance and comparability.
x When auditing accounting estimates auditors must:
– Test the management process
– Use an independent estimate
– Review subsequent events
in order to assess whether the estimates are reasonable.
x Auditors usually seek evidence from less than 100% of items of the balance or transaction being tested by
using sampling techniques.
x CAATs are the use of computers for audit work. The two most commonly used CAATs are audit software
and test data.
x External auditors may make use of the work of an auditor’s expert, internal auditors and service
organisations and their auditors when carrying out audit procedures.
x A service organisation provides services to user entities. There may be special considerations for the
auditor of a user entity when that entity makes use of a service organisation.

Quick Quiz
1 Link the type of account with the purpose of the primary test in directional testing.
(a) Assets (i) Overstatement
(b) Liabilities (ii) Overstatement
(c) Income (iii) Understatement
(d) Expense (iv) Understatement
2 Identify the significant relationships in the list of items below.
(a) payables (b) interest (c) purchases (d) sales
(e) amortisation (f) loans (g) receivables (h) intangibles
3 Complete the definition.
An accounting estimate is an ……………………………………. of the …………………. of an item in
the absence of a ……………………. ………………… of measurement.
4 Give three examples of sample selection methods that can be used in audit sampling.
(1) ……………………………………….
(2) ……………………………………….
(3) ……………………………………….
5 Name two types of CAAT that are commonly used.
(1) ……………………………………….
(2) ……………………………………….
6 There are four criteria for evaluating the internal audit function. State these criteria.
(1) ……………………………………………
(2) ……………………………………………
(3) ……………………………………………
(4) ……………………………………………
7 If the auditor relies on the work of an auditor’s expert or service organisation, he may refer to that
individual or organisation in the auditor’s report and share responsibility with them.
True
False

1 (a) (i)
(b) (iii)
(c) (ii)
(d) (iv)
2 (a) (c)
(b) (f)
(d) (g)
(e) (h)
3 approximation, amount, precise means
4 From:
x Random
x Systematic
x Haphazard
x Block
x Monetary unit sampling
5 (1) Audit software
(2) Test data
6 (1) Objectivity of function
(2) Technical competence
(3) Due professional care
(4) Effective communication
7 False


Non-current assets

1 Tangible non-current assets E3
2 Intangible non-current assets E3
Introduction
This chapter covers the audit of non-current assets, a key area of the statement
of financial position.
It highlights the key objectives for each major component of non-current
assets. You must understand what objectives the various audit tests are
designed to achieve in relation to the financial statement assertions. Objectives
of particular significance for tangible non-current assets are rights and
obligations (ownership), existence and valuation.
Valuation is the other important assertion. The auditors will concentrate on
testing any external valuations made during the year, and also whether other
values appear reasonable given asset usage and condition. A very important
aspect of testing valuation is reviewing depreciation rates. A topic we covered
in chapter 11, using the work of an expert, may well be important in the audit of
non-current assets in respect of valuation.
215
Study guide
Intellectual level
E3 The audit of specific items: (e) non-current assets
(i) Evidence in relation to non-current assets, and
(iii) The related income statement entries
x Explain the purpose of substantive procedures in relation to financial 2
statement assertions
x Explain the substantive procedures used in auditing each balance 2
x Tabulate those substantive procedures in a work program 2
Exam guide
In the audit of non-current assets you may be asked to list and explain audit procedures you would
perform to confirm specific assertions set out in the question. When doing so, you must explain why you
are carrying out that procedure.
The December 2008 paper had a four mark part in question 2 on four assertions relevant to the audit of
tangible non-current assets and an audit procedure for each assertion listed.
1 Tangible non-current assets Dec 08

FAST FORWARD
Key areas when testing tangible non-current assets are:
x Confirmation of ownership
x Inspection of non-current assets
x Valuation by third parties
x Adequacy of depreciation rates
1.1 Audit objectives for tangible non-current assets

Financial statement assertion Audit objective
Existence and occurrence – Additions represent assets acquired in the year and disposal
represent assets sold o scrapped in the year
– Recorded assets represent those in use at the year-end
Completeness – All additions and disposals that occurred in the year have been
recorded
– Balances represent assets in use at the year-end
Rights and obligations – The entity has rights to the assets purchased and those recorded
at the year-end
Accuracy, classification and – Non-current assets are correctly stated at cost less accumulated
valuation depreciation
– Additions and disposals are correctly recorded
Assertions relating to -– Disclosures relating to cost, additions and disposals, depreciation
presentation and disclosure policies, useful lives and assets held under finance leases are
(occurrence and rights and adequate and in accordance with accounting standards
obligations, completeness,
classification and
understandability, accuracy and
valuation)
216 12: Non-current assets ~ Part E Audit evidence

1.2 Internal control considerations
The non-current asset register is a very important aspect of the internal control system. It enables assets
to be identified, and comparisons between the general ledger, non-current asset register and the assets
themselves provide evidence that the assets are completely recorded.
Another significant control is procedures over acquisitions and disposals, that acquisitions are properly
authorised, disposals are authorised and proceeds accounted for.
Other significant aspects are whether:
x Security arrangements over non-current assets are sufficient.
x Non-current assets are maintained properly.
x Depreciation is reviewed every year.
x All income is collected from income-yielding assets.
1.3 Audit procedures for tangible non-current assets

AUDIT PLAN: TANGIBLE NON-CURRENT ASSETS
COMPLETENESS x Obtain or prepare a summary of tangible non-current assets showing how:
– Gross book value
– Accumulated depreciation
– Net book value
reconcile with the opening position.
x Compare non-current assets in the general ledger with the non-current assets
register and obtain explanations for differences.
x For a sample of assets which physically exist agree that they are recorded in the
non-current asset register.
x If a non-current asset register is not kept, obtain a schedule showing the original
costs and present depreciated value of major non-current assets.
x Reconcile the schedule of non-current assets with the general ledger.
EXISTENCE x Confirm that the company physically inspects all items in the non-current asset
register each year.
x Inspect assets, concentrating on high value items and additions in-year. Confirm
that items inspected:
– Exist
– Are in use
– Are in good condition
– Have correct serial numbers
x Review records of income-yielding assets.
x Reconcile opening and closing vehicles by numbers as well as amounts.
VALUATION x Verify valuation to valuation certificate.
x Consider reasonableness of valuation, reviewing:
– Experience of valuer
– Scope of work
– Methods and assumptions used
– Valuation bases are in line with accounting standards
x Reperform calculation of revaluation surplus.
Part E Audit evidence ~ 12: Non-current assets 217

x Confirm whether valuations of all assets that have been revalued have been
updated regularly (full valuation every five years and an interim valuation in year
three generally) by inquiries of Finance Director and inspection of previous financial
statements.
x Inspect draft accounts to check that client has recognised in the statement of
comprehensive income revaluation losses unless there is a credit balance in
respect of that asset in equity, in which case it should be debited to equity to cancel
the credit. All revaluation gains should be credited to equity.
x Review depreciation rates applied in relation to:
– Asset lives
– Residual values
– Replacement policy
– Past experience of gains and losses on disposal
– Consistency with prior years and accounting policy
– Possible obsolescence
x Review non-current assets register to ensure that depreciation has been charged
on all assets with a limited useful life.
x For revalued assets, ensure that the charge for depreciation is based on the
revalued amount by recalculating it for a sample of revalued assets.
x Reperform calculation of depreciation rates to ensure it is correct.
x Compare ratios of depreciation to non-current assets (by category) with:
– Previous years
– Depreciation policy rates
x Scrutinise draft accounts to ensure that depreciation policies and rates are
disclosed in the accounts.
x Review insurance policies in force for all categories of tangible non-current assets
and consider the adequacy of their insured values and check expiry dates.
RIGHTS AND x Verify title to land and buildings by inspection of:
OBLIGATIONS – Title deeds
– Land registry certificates
– Leases
x Obtain a certificate from solicitors/bankers:
– Stating purpose for which the deeds are being held (custody only)
– Stating deeds are free from mortgage or lien.
x Inspect registration documents for vehicles held, confirming that they are in client's
name.
x Confirm all vehicles are used for the client's business.
x Examine documents of title for other assets (including purchase invoices,
architects' certificates, contracts, hire purchase or lease agreements).
x Review for evidence of charges in statutory books and by company search.
x Review leases of leasehold properties to ensure that company has fulfilled
covenants therein.
x Examine invoices received after year-end, orders and minutes for evidence of
capital commitments.

ADDITIONS These tests are to confirm rights and obligations, valuation and completeness.
x Verify additions by inspection of architects' certificates, solicitors' completion
statements, suppliers' invoices etc.
x Review capitalisation of expenditure by examining for non-current assets
additions and items in relevant expense categories (repairs, motor expenses,
sundry expenses) to ensure that:
– Capital/revenue distinction is correctly drawn
– Capitalisation is in line with consistently applied company policy
x Inspect non-current asset accounts for a sample of purchases to ensure they
have been properly allocated.
x Check purchases have been authorised by directors/senior management by
reviewing board minutes.
x Ensure that appropriate claims have been made for grants, and grants received
and receivable have been received, by inspecting claims documentations and
bank statements.
x Check additions have been recorded by scrutinising the non-current asset
register and general ledger.
SELF- These tests are to confirm valuation and completeness.
CONSTRUCTED x Verify material and labour costs and overheads to invoices, wage records etc.
ASSETS x Ensure expenditure has been analysed correctly and properly charged to capital.
x Expenditure should be capitalised if it:
– Enhances the economic benefits of the asset in excess of its previously
assessed standard of performance
– Replaces or restores a component of the asset that has been treated
separately for depreciation purposes, and depreciated over its useful
economic life
– Relates to a major inspection or overhaul that restores the economic
benefits of the asset that have been consumed by the entity, and have already
been reflected in depreciation
x Review costs to ensure that no profit element has been included.
x Review accounts to ensure that finance costs have been capitalised or not
capitalised on a consistent basis, and costs capitalised in period do not exceed
total finance costs for period.
DISPOSALS These tests are to confirm rights and obligations, completeness, occurrence and
accuracy.
x Verify disposals with supporting documentation, checking transfer of title, sales
price and dates of completion and payment.
x Recalculate profit or loss on disposal.
x Check that disposals have been authorised by reviewing boards minutes.
x Consider whether proceeds are reasonable.
x If the asset was used as security, ensure release from security has been
correctly made.
CLASSIFICATION x Review non-current asset disclosures in the financial statements to ensure they
AND meet IAS 16 criteria.
UNDERSTAND- x For a sample of fully depreciated assets, inspect the register to ensure no
ABILITY further depreciation is charged.
x Inspect draft accounts to ensure that depreciation policies and rates are
correctly disclosed.

Question Non-current assets
You are the manager in charge of the audit of Puppy, a building and construction company, and you are
reviewing the non-current asset section of the current audit file for the year ended 30 September 20X5.
You find the following five matters which the audit senior has identified as problem areas. He is reviewing
the company's proposed treatment of the five transactions in the accounts and is not sure that he has yet
carried out sufficient audit work.
(a) During the year Puppy built a new canteen for its own staff at a cost of $450,000. This amount has
been included in buildings as at 30 September 20X5.
(b) Loose tools included in the financial statements at a total cost of $166,000 are tools used on two of
the construction sites on which Puppy operates. They are classified as non-current assets and
depreciated over two years.
(c) A dumper truck, previously written-off in the company's accounting records has been refurbished
at a cost of $46,000 and this amount included in plant and machinery as at 30 September 20X5.
(d) The company's main office block has been revalued from $216,000 to $266,000 and this amount
included in the statement of financial position as at 30 September 20X5.
(e) A deposit of $20,000 for new equipment has been included under the heading ‘plant and
machinery’ although the final instalment of $35,000 was not paid over until 31 October 20X5,
which was the date of delivery of the plant.
You are required, for each of the above matters, to:
(a) Comment on the acceptability of the accounting treatment and disclosure as indicated above.
(b) Outline the audit work and evidence required to substantiate the assets.
Answer
(a) Acceptability of accounting treatment and disclosure
(i) New staff canteen. The costs of building a new staff canteen can quite properly be
capitalised and treated as part of buildings in the balance sheet as work has produced future
economic benefits (IAS 16). The company's normal depreciation policy should be applied,
subject only to the canteen being completed and in use at the year-end.
(ii) Loose tools. Loose tools tend to have a very limited life and to be immaterial in value
individually. For these reasons any capitalisation policy must be extremely prudent. The
acceptability of this accounting treatment would depend on the policy in previous years and
normal practice within the industry.
(iii) Dumper truck. The refurbishment costs have obviously extended the useful life of this asset
and it therefore seems reasonable to capitalise the expenditure. Depreciation should be
charged on the refurbishment costs over the estimated remaining useful life.
(iv) Revaluation of office block. The revaluation of property is acceptable, but the auditors will
need to ensure that the company complies with a number of disclosure requirements. A
note to the accounts should give details of the revaluation and the name of the valuer. The
surplus on revaluation should be transferred to a separate non-distributable reserve in the
statement of financial position as part of shareholders' funds. Furthermore, any other assets
of a similar nature to this should also be revalued.
(v) Deposit for new equipment. As the equipment was not actually in the company's
possession and use at the year-end, the deposit should not have been shown as plant and
machinery, but rather as a payment on account. If the amount was considered to be
material a note to the accounts should give details of this prepayment.

(b) The audit work and evidence required to substantiate each of the assets referred to in (a) above
would be as follows.
(i) New staff canteen
(1) Physically confirm existence of the asset.
(2) Confirm title to building by reference to central registry certificate.
(3) Ascertain and confirm the details of any security granted over the asset, ensuring
that this is properly recorded and disclosed.
(4) Review the detailed costings of the building and obtain explanations for any material
variances from the original budget. Particular care should be taken in assessing the
reasonableness of any overheads included as an element of cost.
(5) Review the depreciation policy for adequacy and consistency.
(ii) Loose tools
(1) Visit the two sites where the loose tools are used to confirm the existence and
condition of a sample of them.
(2) Vouch the cost and ownership of the loose tools to purchase invoices and the
company's asset register.
(3) Confirm the company's estimate of a two year life for these assets.
(4) Review control procedures for safe custody of the loose tools.
(5) Review the company's policy with regard to scrapping and/or sale of tools no longer
required to ensure that any proceeds are properly recorded and the assets register
appropriately updated and tools are completely recorded.
(iii) Dumper truck
(1) Inspect the truck to confirm its existence and to gain evidence of its valuation by
reviewing its condition and the fact that it is still being used.
(2) If the vehicle is used at all on public roads then the vehicle registration document
should be inspected as some evidence of title.
(3) Inspect the insurance policy for the truck as evidence of valuation.
(4) Vouch the expenditure on refurbishment to suppliers' invoices or company's payroll
records where any of the work has been done by the client's own staff.
(5) Review the depreciation policy and assess for reasonableness by discussion with
management and past experience of similar vehicles.
(iv) Revaluation of office block
(1) Inspect the building to confirm its existence and state of repair.
(2) Examine documents of title to confirm ownership.
(3) Enquire about any charges on the building and confirm that these have been
properly recorded and disclosed.
(4) Review the valuer's certificate and agree to the amount used in the financial
statements, with consideration also being given to his qualifications, experience and
reputation.
(5) Assess the reasonableness of the valuation by comparison with any similar
properties which may have recently changed hands on the open market.
(v) Deposit for new equipment
(1) Agree the payment of the deposit to the contract for purchase of the equipment.

(2) Confirm the existence of the plant following its delivery on 31 October 20X5 as it is
unlikely that the audit work will have been completed by that date.
Exam focus Note that inspection of a building's title deeds does not give audit evidence about existence and if there is
point doubt that a building actually exists, the auditors should physically inspect it.
2 Intangible non-current assets

FAST FORWARD
Key assertions for intangible non-current assets are existence and valuation.
The key assertions relating to intangibles are existence (not so much 'do they exist?', but 'are they
genuinely assets?') and valuation. They will therefore be audited with reference to criteria laid down in the
financial reporting standards. As only purchased goodwill or intangibles with a readily ascertainable
market value can be capitalised, audit evidence should be available (purchase invoices or specialist
valuations). The audit of amortisation will be similar to the audit of depreciation.
AUDIT PLAN: OTHER NON-CURRENT ASSETS

Goodwill x Agree the consideration to sales agreement by inspection.
x Consider whether asset valuation is reasonable.
x Agree that the calculation is correct by recalculation.
x Review the impairment review and discuss with management.
x Ensure valuation of goodwill is reasonable/there has been no impairment not
adjusted through discussion with management.
Research and x Confirm that capitalised development costs conform to IAS 38 criteria by
development inspecting details of projects and discussions with technical managers.
costs x Confirm feasibility and viability by inspection of budgets.
x Recalculate amortisation calculation, to ensure it commences with production/is
reasonable.
x Inspect invoices to verify expenditure incurred on R&D projects.
Other x Agree purchased intangibles to purchase documentation agreement by inspection.
intangibles x Inspect specialist valuation of intangibles and ensure it is reasonable.
x Review amortisation calculations and ensure they are correct by recalculation.

Chapter Roundup
x Key areas when testing tangible non-current assets are:
– Confirmation of ownership
– Inspection of non-current assets
– Valuation by third parties
– Adequacy of depreciation rates
x Key assertions for intangible non-current assets are existence and valuation.
Quick Quiz
1 State the key financial statement assertions for tangible non-current assets.
2 Complete the table, showing which tests are designed to provide evidence over which financial statement
assertion.
Completeness Existence
Valuation Rights and obligations
(a) Inspect assets. (e) Review depreciation rates.

(b) Verify to valuation certificate. (f) Verify material on self-constructed asset to
invoices.
(c) Inspect title deeds.
(g) Examine invoices after the year-end.
(d) Compare assets in ledger to non-current
asset register. (h) Review repairs in general ledger.
3 Which of the following tests would provide audit evidence as to the existence of a tangible non-current
asset?
(a) Inspecting board minutes approving authorisation of the asset
(b) Physically inspecting the asset
(c) Reviewing the non-current asset register for inclusion of the asset
(d) Inspecting the invoice and purchase order documentation of the asset
4 Inspecting the title deeds of a building provides audit evidence concerning which one of the following
financial statement assertions?
(a) Existence
(b) Valuation
(c) Rights and obligations
(d) Completeness
5 What are the key financial statement assertions for other non-current assets?

1 Rights and obligations, existence, valuation, completeness
2
Completeness Existence
(d) Compare assets in ledger to register. (a) Inspect assets.
(h) Review repairs in general ledger.
Valuation Rights and obligations

(b) Verify to valuation certificate . (c) Inspect title deeds.
(g) Examine invoices after the year-end.
(e) Review valuation rates.
(f) Verify material on self-constructed assets to
invoice.
3 (b) Physically inspecting the asset

4 (c) Rights and obligations
5 Existence, valuation


Inventory

1 Introduction to auditing inventory E3
2 Accounting for inventory E3
3 Audit procedures for inventory E3
4 The physical inventory count E3
5 Cut-off E3
6 Valuation E3
Introduction
No area of the statement of financial position creates more potential problems
for the auditors than that of inventory.
Closing inventory does not normally form an integrated part of the double entry
bookkeeping system and hence a misstatement (under or overstatement) may
not be detected from tests in other audit areas.
The four main assertions relating to the substantive audit of inventory
(completeness, existence, rights and obligations, and valuation) require careful
consideration.
The auditor's attendance at the inventory count is a particularly important part
of the audit of inventory. This is because the inventory count gives evidence
about the existence and completeness of inventory, and a review of the
condition of the inventory is an important part of assessing whether it has been
correctly valued.
225
Study guide
Intellectual level
E3 The audit of specific items: (b) inventory
(i) Inventory counting procedures in relation to year-end and continuous
inventory systems
(ii) Cut-off
(iii) Auditor’s attendance at inventory counting
(iv) Direct confirmation of inventory held by third parties
(v) Other evidence in relation to inventory
Exam guide
You may be asked to list and explain audit procedures you would perform to confirm specific assertions
relating to inventory. As inventory is often the most difficult area in practice for auditors it is also very
important in the syllabus. The December 2007 paper had two marks in question 1 on audit procedures to
perform before attending the inventory count and two marks for stating a substantive audit procedure at
the inventory count.
1 Introduction to auditing inventory

FAST FORWARD
The key assertions relating to inventory are:
x Existence
x Completeness
x Rights and obligations
x Valuation
x Cut-off
The audit of inventory can pose problems for auditors as a result of its nature and potential material value
on the statement of financial position. The audit approach taken depends on the auditor's assessment of
the controls in place. In this chapter we focus on the substantive audit of inventory.
The following table demonstrates the audit objectives for inventory and the related financial statement
assertions. The audit procedures described in the remainder of this chapter are undertaken to provide
audit evidence to support these assertions.

Existence and occurrence – Recorded purchases and sales represent inventories bought and
sold.
– Inventory on the statement of financial position physically exists.
Completeness – All purchases and sales are recorded.
– All inventory at year-end is included on the statement of financial
position.
Rights and obligations – The entity has rights to inventory recorded in the period and at the
year-end.
226 13: Inventory ~ Part E Audit evidence

Accuracy, classification and – Costs are accurately determined in accordance with accounting
valuation standards.
– Inventory is recorded at year-end at the lower of cost and net
realisable value.
Cut-off – All purchases and sales of inventories are recorded in the correct
period.
Assertions relating to – Inventory is properly classified in the accounts.
presentation and disclosure – Disclosures relating to classification and valuation are adequate
(classification and and in accordance with accounting standards.
understandability, completeness,
accuracy and valuation)
2 Accounting for inventory

FAST FORWARD
The valuation and disclosure rules for inventory are laid down in IAS 2 Inventories. Inventory should be
valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value.
Key terms Cost is defined by IAS 2 as comprising all costs of purchase and other costs incurred in bringing inventory
to its present location and condition.
Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business, less the estimated
costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.
Production costs (costs of conversion) include:

(a) Costs specifically attributable to units of production
(b) Production overheads
(c) Other overheads attributable to bringing the product or service to its present location and condition
3 Audit procedures for inventory

The following table sets out audit procedures to test year-end inventory. The physical inventory count is
discussed in detail in section 4 of this chapter, and cut-off and valuation are expanded upon in sections 5
and 6.
AUDIT PLAN: INVENTORY
COMPLETENESS x Complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the disclosures
relevant to inventory have been made.
x Trace test counts to the detailed inventory listing.
x Where inventory is held in third party locations, physically inspect
this inventory or review confirmations received from the third party
and match to the general ledger.
x Compare the gross profit % to the previous year or industry data.
EXISTENCE x Observe the physical inventory count (see section 4 for details of
attendance at the inventory count).
RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS x Verify that any inventory held for third parties is not included in the
year-end inventory figure by being appropriately segregated during
the inventory count.
x For any ‘bill-and-hold’ inventory (i.e. where the inventory has been
sold but is being held by the entity until the customer requires it),
identify such inventory and ensure that it is segregated during the
inventory count so that it is not included in the year-end inventory
figure.
Part E Audit evidence ~ 13: Inventory 227

AUDIT PLAN: INVENTORY
x Confirm that any inventory held at third party locations is included in
the year-end inventory figure by reviewing the inventory listing.
VALUATION AND ALLOCATION x Obtain a copy of the inventory listing and agree the totals to the
general ledger.
x Cast the inventory listing to ensure it is mathematically correct.
x Vouch a sample of inventory items to suppliers’ invoices to ensure it
is correctly valued.
x Where standard costing is used, test a sample of inventory to ensure
it is correctly valued.
x For materials, agree the valuation of raw materials to invoices and
price lists.
x Confirm that an appropriate basis of valuation (eg FIFO) is being
used by discussing with management.
x For labour costs, agree costs to wage records.
x Review standard labour costs in the light of actual costs and
production.
x Reconcile labour hours to time summaries.
x Make inquiries of management to ascertain any slow-moving or
obsolete inventory that should be written down.
x Examine prices at which finished goods have been sold after the
year-end to ascertain whether any finished goods need to be written
down.
x If significant levels of finished goods remain unsold for an unusual
period of time, discuss with management and consider the need to
make allowance.
x Compare the gross profit % to the previous year or industry data.
x Compare raw material, finished goods and total inventory turnover
to the previous year and industry averages.
x Compare inventory days to the previous year and industry average.
x Compare the current year standard costs to the previous year after
considering current conditions.
x Compare actual manufacturing overhead costs with budgeted or
standard manufacturing overhead costs.
CUT-OFF x Note the numbers of the last GDNs and GRNs before the year-end
and the first GDNs and GRNs after the year-end and check that these
have been included in the correct financial year.
ACCURACY x Obtain a copy of the inventory listing and cast it, and test the
mathematical extensions of quantity multiplied by price.
x Trace test counts back to the inventory listing.
x If the entity has adjusted the general ledger to agree with the
physical inventory count amounts, agree the two amounts.
x Where a continuous (perpetual) inventory system is maintained,
agree the total on the inventory listing to the continuous inventory
records, using CAATs.
OCCURRENCE AND RIGHTS x Inquire of management and review any loan agreements and board
AND OBLIGATIONS minutes for evidence that inventory has been pledged or assigned.
x Inquire of management about warranty obligation issues.

CLASSIFICATION AND x Review the inventory listing to ensure that inventory has been
UNDERSTANDABILITY properly classified between raw materials, work-in-progress and
finished goods.
x Read the notes to the accounts relating to inventory to ensure they
are understandable.
ACCURACY AND VALUATION x Review the financial statements to confirm whether the cost method
used to value inventory is accurately disclosed.
x Read the notes to the accounts to ensure that the information is
accurate and properly presented at the appropriate amounts.
4 The physical inventory count Dec 07

FAST FORWARD
Physical inventory count procedures are vital as they provide evidence which cannot be obtained
elsewhere or at any other time about the quantities and conditions of inventories and work-in-progress.
ISA 501 Audit evidence – specific considerations for selected items provides guidance to auditors on
attending the physical inventory count to obtain evidence regarding the existence and condition of
inventory.
It states that where inventory is material, auditors shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding its existence and condition by attending the physical inventory count (unless this is
impracticable) to do the following:
x Evaluate management’s instructions and procedures for recording and controlling the result of the
physical inventory count.
x Observe the performance of the count procedures.
x Inspect the inventory.
x Perform test counts.
The auditor shall also perform audit procedures over the entity’s final inventory records to determine
whether they accurately reflect the count results.
Attendance at the inventory count can serve as either substantive procedures or tests of controls,
depending on the auditor’s risk assessment, planned approach and specific procedures carried out.
Factors to consider when planning attendance at the inventory count include the following:
x The risks of material misstatement of inventory
x Internal controls related to inventory
x Whether adequate procedures are expected to be established and proper instructions issued for
counting
x The timing of the count
x Whether the entity maintains a perpetual inventory system
x Locations at which inventory is held (including materiality at different locations)
x Whether the assistance of an auditor’s expert is required
4.1 The inventory count

A business may count inventory by one or a combination of the following methods.
(a) Physical inventory counts at the year-end
From the viewpoint of the auditor this is often the best method.

(b) Physical inventory counts before or after the year-end
This will provide audit evidence of varying reliability depending on:
(i) The length of time between the physical inventory count and the year-end (the greater the
time period, the less the value of audit evidence)
(ii) The business's system of internal controls
(iii) The quality of records of inventory movements in the period between the physical
inventory count and the year-end
(c) Perpetual (or continuous) inventory where management has a programme of inventory-counting
throughout the year
If perpetual inventory counting is used, auditors will verify that management:
(a) Ensures that all inventory lines are counted at least once a year
(b) Maintains adequate inventory records that are kept up-to-date. Auditors may compare sales and
purchase transactions with inventory movements, and carry out other tests on the inventory
records, for example, checking casts and classification of inventory.
(c) Has satisfactory procedures for inventory counts and test-counting. Auditors should confirm the
inventory count arrangements and instructions are as rigorous as those for a year-end inventory
count by reviewing instructions and observing counts. Auditors will be particularly concerned with
cut-off, that there are no inventory movements whilst the count is taking place, and inventory
records are updated up until the time of the inventory count.
(d) Investigates and corrects all material differences. Reasons for differences should be recorded
and any necessary corrective action taken. All corrections to inventory movements should be
authorised by a manager who has not been involved in the detailed work. These procedures are
necessary to guard against the possibility that inventory records may be adjusted to conceal
shortages. Auditors should check that the procedures are being operated.
AUDIT PLAN: PERPETUAL INVENTORY COUNT

x Attend one of the inventory counts (to observe and confirm that instructions are being adhered to).
x Follow-up the inventory counts attended to compare quantities counted by the auditors with the
inventory records, obtaining and verifying explanations for any differences, and checking that the client
has reconciled count records with book inventory records.
x Review the year's inventory counts to confirm the extent of counting, the treatment of discrepancies
and the overall accuracy of records (if matters are not satisfactory, auditors will only be able to gain
sufficient assurance by a full count at the year-end).
x Assuming a full count is not necessary at the year-end, compare the listing of inventory with the
detailed inventory records, and carry out other procedures (cut-off, analytical review) to gain further
comfort.
The audit work when perpetual inventory counting is used focuses on tests of controls rather than
substantive audit work. Nevertheless, the auditor will also need to do some further substantive audit work
on completeness and existence at the year-end.
Attendance at an inventory count gives evidence of the existence and apparent ownership of inventory. It
also gives evidence of the completeness of inventory, as do the follow-up tests to ensure all inventory
sheets were included in the final count.
4.2 Planning attendance at inventory count

Before the physical inventory count the auditors should ensure audit coverage of the count is appropriate,
and that the client's count instructions have been reviewed.

AUDIT PLAN: PLANNING INVENTORY COUNT
Gain x Review previous year's arrangements.
knowledge x Discuss with management inventory count arrangements and significant changes.
Assess key x The nature and volume of the inventory
factors x Risks relating to inventory
x Identification of high value items
x Method of accounting for inventory
x Location of inventory and how it affects inventory control and recording
x Internal control and accounting systems to identify potential areas of difficulty
Plan x Ensure a representative selection of locations, inventory and procedures are covered.
procedures x Ensure sufficient attention is given to high value items.
x Arrange to obtain from any third parties’ confirmation of inventory they hold.
x Consider the need for expert help.
REVIEW OF INVENTORY COUNT INSTRUCTIONS
Organisation x Supervision by senior staff including senior staff not normally involved with inventory
of count x Tidying and marking inventory to help counting
x Restriction and control of the production process and inventory movements during the
count
x Identification of damaged, obsolete, slow-moving, third party and returnable
inventory
Counting x Systematic counting to ensure all inventory is counted
x Teams of two counters, with one counting and the other checking or two independent
counts
Recording x Serial numbering, control and return of all inventory sheets
x Inventory sheets being completed in ink and signed
x Information to be recorded on the count records (location and identity, count units,
quantity counted, conditions of items, stage reached in production process)
x Recording of quantity, conditions and stage of production of work-in-progress
x Recording of last numbers of goods inwards and outwards records and of internal
transfer records
x Reconciliation with inventory records and investigation and correction of any
differences
4.3 Attendance at inventory count

During the count the auditors should observe whether the count is being carried out according to
instructions, carry out test counts, and watch out for third party inventory and slow moving inventory
and cut-off problems.
AUDIT PLAN: ATTENDANCE AT INVENTORY COUNT

x Observe whether the client's staff are following instructions as this will help to ensure the count is
complete and accurate.
x Perform test counts to ensure procedures and internal controls are working properly.
x Ensure that the procedures for identifying damaged, obsolete and slow-moving inventory operate
properly; the auditors should obtain information about the inventory's condition, age, usage and in the case
of work-in-progress, its stage of completion to ensure that it is later valued appropriately.
x Confirm that inventory held on behalf of third parties is separately identified and accounted for so that
inventory is not overstated.
x Conclude whether the count has been properly carried out and is sufficiently reliable as a basis for
determining the existence of inventories.
x Consider whether any amendment is necessary to subsequent audit procedures.
x Gain an overall impression of the levels and values of inventories held so that the auditors may, in
due course, judge whether the figure for inventory appearing in the financial statements is reasonable.

When carrying out test counts the auditors should select items from the count records and from the
physical inventory and check one to the other, to confirm the accuracy of the count records. These two-
way tests provide evidence for completeness and existence. The auditors should concentrate on high value
inventory. If the results of the test counts are not satisfactory, the auditors may request that inventory is
recounted.
The auditors' working papers should include:
x Details of their observations and tests
x The manner in which points that are relevant and material to the inventory being counted or
measured have been dealt with by the client
x Instances where the client's procedures have not been satisfactorily carried out
x Items for subsequent testing, such as photocopies of (or extracts from) rough inventory sheets
x Details of the sequence of inventory sheets
x The auditors' conclusions
4.4 After the inventory count

After the count the auditors should check that final inventory sheets have been properly compiled from
count records and that book inventory has been appropriately adjusted.
After the count, the matters recorded in the auditors' working papers at the time of the count or
measurement should be followed up. Key tests include the following.
AUDIT PLAN: FOLLOWING UP THE INVENTORY COUNT

x Trace items that were test counted to final inventory sheets.
x Observe whether all count records have been included in final inventory sheets.
x Inspect final inventory sheets to ensure they are supported by count records.
x Ensure that continuous inventory records have been adjusted to the amounts physically counted or
measured, and that differences have been investigated.
x Confirm cut-off by using details of the last serial number of goods inwards and outwards notes and of
movements during the count.
x Review replies from third parties about inventory held by or for them.
x Confirm the client's final valuation of inventory has been calculated correctly.
x Follow up queries and notify problems to management.
4.5 Inventory held by third parties

Where the entity has inventory that is held by third parties and which is material to the financial
statements, the auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence by performing one or both of the
following:
x Direct confirmation from the third party regarding quantities and condition (in accordance with
ISA 505 External confirmations)
x Inspection or other appropriate audit procedures (if third party’s integrity and objectivity are
doubtful, for example)
The other appropriate audit procedures referred to above could include the following:
x Attending, or arranging for another auditor to attend, the third party’s inventory count
x Obtaining another auditor’s report on the adequacy of the third party’s internal control for ensuring
that inventory is properly counted and adequately safeguarded
x Inspecting documentation in respect of third party inventory (e.g. warehouse receipts)
x Requesting confirmation from other parties when inventory has been pledged as collateral

Question Inventory count
In connection with your examination of the financial statements of Camry Products Co, a limited liability
company, for the year ended 31 March 20X9, you are reviewing the plans for a physical inventory count at
the company's warehouse on 31 March 20X9. The company assembles domestic appliances, and
inventory of finished appliances, unassembled parts and sundry inventory are stored in the warehouse
which is adjacent to the company's assembly plant. The plant will continue to produce goods during the
inventory count until 5pm on 31 March 20X9. On 30 March 20X9, the warehouse staff will deliver the
estimated quantities of unassembled parts and sundry inventory which will be required for production for
31 March 20X9; however, emergency requisitions by the factory will be filled on 31 March. During the
inventory count, the warehouse staff will continue to receive parts and sundry inventory, and to dispatch
finished appliances. Appliances which are completed on 31 March 20X9 will remain in the assembly plant
until after the count has been completed.
Required
(a) List the principal procedures which the auditors should carry out when planning attendance at a
company's physical inventory count.
(b) Describe the procedures which Camry Products should establish in order to ensure that all
inventory items are counted and that no item is counted twice.
Answer
(a) In planning attendance at a physical inventory count the auditors should:
(i) Review previous year's audit working papers and discuss any developments in the year with
management.
(ii) Obtain and review a copy of the company's count instructions.
(iii) Arrange attendance at count planning meetings, with the consent of management.
(iv) Gain an understanding of the nature of the inventory and of any special problems this is
likely to present, for example liquid in tanks, scrap in piles.
(v) Consider whether expert involvement is likely to be required as a result of any
circumstances noted in (iv) above.
(vi) Obtain a full list of all locations at which inventories are held, including an estimate of the
amount and value of inventories held at different locations.
(vii) Using the results of the above steps, plan for audit attendance by appropriately experienced
audit staff at all locations where material inventories are held, subject to other factors (for
example rotational auditing, reliance on internal controls).
(viii) Consider the impact of internal controls upon the nature and timing of attendance at the
count.
(ix) Ascertain whether inventories are held by third parties and if so make arrangements to
obtain written confirmation of them or, if necessary, to attend the count.
(b) Procedures to ensure a complete count and to prevent double-counting are particularly important
in this case because movements will continue throughout the count.
(i) Clear instructions should be given as to procedures, and an official, preferably not someone
normally responsible for inventories, should be given responsibility for organising the count
and dealing with queries.
(ii) Before the count, all locations should be tidied and inventory should be laid out in an
orderly manner.
(iii) All inventory should be clearly identified and should be marked after being counted by a tag
or indelible mark, so that it is evident that it has been counted.

(iv) Pre-numbered sheets should be issued to counters and should be accounted for at the end
of the count.
(v) Counters should be given responsibility for specific areas of the warehouse. Each area
should be subject to a recount.
(vi) A separate record should be kept of all goods received or issued during the day (for
example by noting the goods received note or dispatch note numbers involved).
(vii) Goods received on the day should be physically segregated until the count has been
completed.
(viii) Similarly, goods due to be dispatched on the day should be identified in advance and moved
to a special area or clearly marked so that they are not inadvertently counted in inventory as
well as being included in sales.
Exam focus You must have a thorough knowledge of audit procedures before, during and after the physical inventory
point count.
5 Cut-off
FAST FORWARD
Auditors should test cut-off by noting the serial numbers of GDNs and GRNs received and dispatched just
before and after the year-end, and subsequently testing that they have been included in the correct period.
5.1 The importance of cut-off

Cut-off is most critical to the accurate recording of transactions in a manufacturing enterprise at particular
points in the accounting cycle as follows:
x The point of purchase and receipt of goods and services
x The requisitioning of raw materials for production
x The transfer of completed work-in-progress to finished goods
x The sale and dispatch of finished goods
5.2 Audit procedures

The auditors should consider whether management has implemented adequate cut-off procedures:
procedures intended to ensure that movements into, within and out of inventories are properly identified
and reflected in the accounting records.
Purchase invoices should be recorded as liabilities only if the goods were received prior to the count. A
schedule of 'goods received not invoiced' should be prepared, and items on the list should be accrued for
in the accounts.
Sales cut-off is generally more straightforward to achieve correctly than purchases cut-off. Invoices for
goods dispatched after the count should not appear in the income statement for the period.
Prior to the physical inventory count, management should make arrangements for cut-off to be properly
applied.
(a) Appropriate systems of recording of receipts and dispatches of goods are in place, and also a
system for documenting materials requisitions. Goods received notes (GRNs) and goods
dispatched notes (GDNs) should be sequentially pre-numbered.
(b) Final GRN and GDN and materials requisition numbers are noted. These numbers can then be used
to check subsequently that purchases and sales have been recorded in the current period.
(c) Arrangements should be made to ensure that the cut-off arrangement for inventories held by third
parties are satisfactory.

There should ideally be no movement of inventory during the count. Preferably, receipts and dispatches
should be suspended for the full period of the count. It may not be practicable to suspend all deliveries, in
which case any deliveries which are received during the count should be segregated from other inventory
and carefully documented.
6 Valuation
FAST FORWARD
Auditing the valuation of inventory includes:
x Testing the allocation of overheads is appropriate
x Confirming inventory is carried at the lower of cost and net realisable value
6.1 Assessment of cost and net realisable value

Auditors must understand how the company determines the cost of an item for inventory valuation
purposes. Cost should include an appropriate proportion of overheads, in accordance with IAS 2.
There are several ways of determining cost. Auditors must ensure that the company is applying the
method consistently and that each year the method used gives a fair approximation to cost. They may
need to support this by additional procedures:
x Reviewing price changes near the year-end

x Ageing the inventory held
x Checking gross profit margins to reliable management accounts
6.1.1 Valuation of raw materials and brought-in components

The auditors should perform work to test whether the correct prices have been used to value raw materials and
brought-in components valued at actual costs by referring to suppliers' invoices. The valuation may include
unrealised profit if inventory is valued at the latest invoice price. Reference to suppliers' invoice will also provide
the auditors with assurance as regards ownership.
If standard costs are used, auditors should check the basis of the standards, compare standard costs
with actual costs and confirm that variances are being treated appropriately.
6.1.2 Valuation of work-in-progress and finished goods

'Cost' comprises the cost of purchase plus the costs of conversion. The cost of conversion comprises:
x Costs specifically attributable to units of production
x Production overheads
x Other overheads attributable to bringing the product or service to its present location and condition
(Work-in-progress relating to construction contracts is outside the scope of the F8 syllabus.)

The audit procedures will depend on the methods used by the client to value work-in-progress and
finished goods, and on the adequacy of the system of internal control.
The auditors should consider what tests they can carry out to check the reasonableness of the valuation of
finished goods and work-in-progress. Analytical procedures may assist comparisons being made with
items and categories from the previous year's summaries. If the client has a computerised accounting
system, the auditors may be able to request an exception report listing, for example, all items whose value
has changed by more than a specified amount. A reasonableness check will also provide the auditors with
assurance regarding completeness.

6.2.1 Cost
The auditors should ensure that the client includes a proportion of overheads appropriate to bringing the
inventory to its present location and condition. The basis of overhead allocation should be:
x Consistent with prior years
x Calculated on the normal level of production activity
Thus, overheads arising from reduced levels of activity, idle time or inefficient production should be
written-off to the income statement, rather than being included in inventory.
Difficulty may be experienced if the client operates a system of total overhead absorption. It will be
necessary for those overheads that are of a general, non-productive nature to be identified and excluded
from the valuation.
6.2.2 Cost vs NRV

Auditors should compare cost and net realisable value for each item of inventory. Where this is
impracticable, the comparison may be done by group or category.
Net realisable value is likely to be less than cost when there has been:
x An increase in costs or a fall in selling price
x Physical deterioration
x Obsolescence of products
x A marketing decision to manufacture and sell products at a loss
x Errors in production or purchasing
For work-in-progress, the ultimate selling price should be compared with the carrying value at the year-
end plus costs to be incurred after the year-end to bring work-in-progress to a finished state.
Question Cost v NRV
Your firm is the auditor of Arnold Electrical, a limited liability company, and you have been asked to audit
the valuation of the company's inventory at 31 May 20X1 in accordance with IAS 2. Arnold Electrical
operates from a single store and purchases domestic electrical equipment from wholesalers and
manufacturers and sells them to the general public. These products include video and audio equipment,
washing machines, refrigerators and freezers. In addition, it sells small items such as electrical plugs,
tapes for video recorders, records and compact discs.
A full physical inventory count was carried out at the year-end, and you are satisfied that the inventory was
counted accurately and there are no cut-off errors. Because of the limited time available between the year-
end and the completion of the audit, the company has valued the inventory at cost by recording the selling
price and deducting the normal gross profit margin. Inventory which the company believes to be worth
less than cost has been valued at net realisable value. The selling price used is that on the item in the store
when it was counted.
The inventory has been divided into three categories.
(a) Video and audio equipment: televisions, video recorders, video cameras and audio equipment
(b) Domestic equipment: washing machines, refrigerators and freezers
(c) Sundry inventory: electrical plugs, magnetic tapes and compact discs
The normal gross profit margin for each of these categories has been determined and this figure has been
used to calculate the cost of the inventory (by deducting the gross profit margin from the selling price). In
answering the question you should assume there are no sales taxes.

Required
(a) List and describe the audit work you will carry out to check that inventory has been correctly valued
at cost.
(b) List and describe the audit work you will carry out to:
(i) Find inventory which should be valued at net realisable value
(ii) Check that the net realisable value is correct
(c) List and describe the other work you will perform to check that the inventory value is accurate.
Note. In answering the question you are only required to check that the price per unit of the inventory is
correct. You should assume that the inventory quantities are accurate and there are no purchases or sales
cut-off errors.
Answer
(a) This method of valuation at cost is permitted by IAS 2, but it is usually applied to large retail
concerns which inventory thousands of low value items, for example supermarket chains. This
method is only permitted when it can be shown that it gives a reasonable approximation of the
actual cost.
The following tests should be performed to ensure that the inventory is correctly valued at cost.
(i) Obtain a schedule of the client’s calculations of the gross profit margins. Check the
mathematical accuracy and consider the reliability of all sources of information used in the
calculation.
(ii) Where the normal overall gross margin has been used, check the reasonableness of the
figure by comparing it to the monthly management accounts for the year and last year's
published accounts.
(iii) Test a sample of items to make sure that gross profit does not vary too much across all
items of inventory (which is unlikely for Arnold Electrical). The test will compare selling
price to purchase price.
(iv) If a weighted average gross margin has been used, check that the weighting is correct in
terms of the proportion of each type of product in closing inventory.
(v) Select a sample of high value lines and check the reasonableness of the gross profit
estimate by calculating the gross profit for each of those lines. Sales price will be compared
to inventory sheets and to sales prices in the shop at the year-end. Cost will be checked by
examining purchase invoices. The weighted average profit margin for the selected lines can
then be calculated and compared to the gross margin applied to the whole inventory.
(vi) Overvaluation of slow moving inventory is possible when the prices of those items are
affected by inflation. To check this, examine the inventory sheets for any slow moving items
(or ask the management of the company or use own observation). Compare the value of the
inventory at the end of the accounting period to cost according to purchase invoices. If an
overvaluation has occurred it should be quantified.
(vii) Check whether any goods were being offered for sale at reduced prices at the year-end. If
the reduced price is greater than cost, the use of an average gross profit percentage will
cause inventory to be undervalued. This undervaluation must be quantified. If full selling
price was used in the calculation then the problem will not arise. Check a sample of
inventory items to sales invoices issued around the year-end to make sure that the correct
price was used in the costing calculation.

(b) (i) Inventory which may be worth less than cost will include:
– Slow moving inventory
– Obsolete or superseded inventory
– Seconds and items that have been damaged
– Inventories which are being, or are soon likely to be, sold at reduced prices
– Discontinued lines
Finished goods where the selling price is less than cost will be valued at net realisable value.
This is defined as the actual or estimated selling price less costs to completion and
marketing, selling and distribution expenses.
To identify inventories which may be worth less than cost the following work will be carried
out.
x Examine the computerised inventory control system and list items showing an
unacceptably low turnover rate. An unacceptable rate of turnover may be different
for different items, but inventory representing more than six months' sales is likely
to qualify.
x Review the inventory printout for items already described as seconds or recorded as
damaged.
x Discuss with management the current position regarding slow moving inventories
and their plans and expectations in respect of products that may be discontinued.
The standard system must be carefully considered and estimates obtained of the
likely selling price of existing inventories. The most likely outcome regarding the use
and value of discontinued components must be decided.
x At the physical inventory count, look for inventory which is dusty, inaccessible and
in general not moving and mark on the inventory sheets.
x Find out whether any lines are unreliable and therefore frequently returned for
repairs as these may be unpopular.
x Review the trade press or other sources to see whether any of the equipment is out
of date.
(ii) Determining the net realisable value of inventory involves management judging how much
inventory can be sold and at what price, together with deciding whether to sell off raw
materials and components separately or to assemble them into finished products. Each
separate type of inventory item should be considered individually in deciding on the level of
prudent provision.
The following tests should be carried out.
x Find the actual selling prices from the latest sales invoice. For items still selling,
invoices will be very recent, but for slow moving and obsolete items the invoiced
prices will be out of date and allowance will have to be made for this.
x Estimate the value of marketing, selling and distribution expenses using past figures
for the types of finished goods concerned as a base. Update and review for
reasonableness against the most recent accounting records.
x Discuss with management what selling prices are likely to be where there is little
past evidence. Costs to completion will be questioned where these are difficult to
estimate and where there are any unusual assembly, selling or distribution
problems.

(c) The following procedures would also be performed to check the value of inventory at the year-end.
(i) Compare current results with prior year(s). This would include gross profit margins, sales
and turnover. Marked variations from the current year's results should be investigated.
(ii) Consider the effects of new technology and new fashions. The electrical appliance business
will be exposed to obsolescence problems. Quantify any necessary write-down.
(iii) Compare selling prices to those charged elsewhere. If the prices elsewhere are lower, than
the distortion in selling price might affect the value of the inventory of Arnold Electrical.
Alternatively, if prices elsewhere are higher, then the company's prices may occasionally fall
below cost. Again, any adjustment discovered to be necessary must be quantified.
(iv) Compare the valuation of inventory this year to that at the end of last year. This will be
particularly useful for lines held at both dates. If the values are comparable, taking account
of inflation, then the current valuation is more likely to be correct.
(v) Sale prices should be monitored as long after the year-end as possible, to make sure that
prices were not kept artificially high over the year-end and then reduced at a later date.
Inventory turnover should also be examined on the same basis.

Chapter Roundup
x The key assertions relating to inventory are:
– Existence
– Completeness
– Rights and obligations
– Valuation
– Cut-off
x The valuation and disclosure rules for inventory are laid down in IAS 2 Inventories. Inventory should be
valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value.
x Physical inventory count procedures are vital as they provide evidence which cannot be obtained
elsewhere or at any other time about the quantities and conditions of inventory and work-in-progress.
x Auditors should test cut-off by noting the serial numbers of GDNs and GRNs received and dispatched just
before and after the year-end, and subsequently testing that they have been included in the correct period.
x Auditing the valuation of inventory includes:
– Testing the allocation of overheads is appropriate
– Confirming inventory is carried at the lower of cost and net realisable value

Quick Quiz
1 Complete the definition, using the words given below.
……………………. is defined by IAS 2 as comprising all costs of …………. and other costs incurred in
bringing the inventory to its …………… …………….. and …………….. .
purchase condition present cost location
2 List three methods of inventory counting

(1) ……………………………………………………………
(2) ……………………………………………………………
(3) ……………………………………………………………
3 When should the following inventory counting tests take place?
(a) Observe whether client staff are following instructions.
(b) Review previous year's inventory count arrangements.
(c) Assess method of accounting for inventories.
(d) Trace counted items to final inventory sheets.
(e) Review replies from third parties about inventory held for them.
(f) Conclude as to whether inventory count has been properly carried out.
(g) Gain an overall impression of levels and values of inventory.
(h) Consider the need for expert help.
BEFORE DURING AFTER
4 State four points in the accounting cycle when cut-off is critical.

(1) ……………………………………………………
(2) ……………………………………………………
(3) ……………………………………………………
(4) ……………………………………………………
5 Give four occasions when the net realisable value of inventory is likely to fall below cost.
(1) ……………………………………………………
(2) ……………………………………………………
(3) ……………………………………………………
(4) ……………………………………………………

1 Cost, purchase, present location, condition
2 (1) Year-end
(2) Pre/post year-end
(3) Continuous
3 (a) DURING (b) BEFORE (c) BEFORE (d) AFTER
(e) AFTER (f) DURING (g) DURING (h) BEFORE
4 (1) The point of purchase and receipt of goods and services
(2) The requisitioning of raw materials for production
(3) The transfer of completed work-in-progress to finished goods
(4) The sale and dispatch of finished goods
5 From:
x An increase in costs or a fall in selling price
x Physical deterioration
x Obsolescence of products
x A marketing decision to manufacture and sell products at a loss
x Errors in production or purchasing


Receivables

1 Introduction E3
2 Audit procedures for receivables E3
3 The receivables' confirmation E3
4 Sales E3
Introduction
Receivables will generally be a material figure on a company's statement of
financial position. You must ensure that you are fully conversant with the
'standard' procedures such as the confirmation of receivables. The receivables'
confirmation is primarily designed to test the client's entitlement to receive the
debt, not the customer's ability to pay.
Auditors also need to consider cut-off for receivables. Sales testing is often
carried out in conjunction with the audit of receivables as the two are linked.
We also briefly consider the audit of prepayments which is normally carried out
using analytical procedures.
243
Study guide
Intellectual level
E3 The audit of specific items: (a) receivables
(i) Direct confirmation of accounts receivables
(ii) Other evidence in relation to receivables and prepayments
(iii)The related income statement entries
Exam guide
relating to receivables. In June 2008, question 1 had 14 marks worth relating to the confirmation of
receivables, in terms of financial statement assertions and choosing a sample for confirmation. The June
2009 paper had four marks in question 1 on audit procedures for receivables.
1 Introduction
FAST FORWARD
Receivables are usually audited using a combination of tests of details and analytical procedures.
The audit of receivables is important as this is likely to be a material area. A combination of analytical
procedures and tests of details are used, with sales also being tested in conjunction with trade receivables.
The following table sets out the assertions that apply to receivables. The audit procedures in the remainder
of this chapter are used to provide evidence for these assertions.
Assertions about classes of – All sales transactions recorded have occurred and relate to the
transactions entity (occurrence)
– All sales transactions that should have been recorded have been
recorded (completeness)
– Amounts relating to transactions have been recorded
appropriately (accuracy)
– All transactions have been recorded in the correct period (cut-off)
– All transactions are recorded properly (classification)
Assertions about account – Recorded receivables exist (existence)
balances at the period-end – The entity controls the rights to receivables and related accounts
(rights and obligations)
– All receivables that should have been recorded have been
recorded (completeness)
– Receivables are included in the accounts at the correct amounts
(valuation and allocation)
Assertions about presentation – All disclosed events and transactions relating to receivables have
and disclosure occurred and pertain to the entity (occurrence, rights and
obligations)
– All disclosures required have been included (completeness)
– Financial information is appropriately presented and described
and disclosures clearly expressed (classification and
understandability)
– Financial and other information is disclosed fairly and at
appropriate amounts (accuracy and valuation)
244 14: Receivables ~ Part E Audit evidence

2 Audit procedures for receivables
FAST FORWARD
Existence, completeness and valuation are key assertions relating to the audit of receivables.
Audit procedures for receivables are set out in the table below. This covers the audit of sales and
prepayments as well as trade receivables. Receivables are often tested in conjunction with sales. The key
assertions for sales are occurrence, completeness and accuracy. The receivables’ confirmation is used as
an audit procedure in the table below and is described in more detail in section 3. Section 4 contains
additional information on the audit of sales.
AUDIT PLAN: RECEIVABLES

COMPLETENESS x Agree the balance from the individual sales ledger accounts to the
aged receivables’ listing and vice versa.
x Match the total of the aged receivables’ listing to the sales ledger
control account.
x Cast and cross-cast the aged trial balance before selecting any
samples to test.
x Trace a sample of shipping documentation to sales invoices and
into the sales and receivables’ ledger.
x Complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the
disclosures relevant to receivables have been made.
x Compare the gross profit % by product line with the previous year
and industry data.
x Compare the level of prepayments to the previous year to ensure
the figure is materially correct and complete.
x Review detailed statement of financial position to ensure all
likely prepayments have been included.
EXISTENCE x Perform a receivables’ circularisation on a sample of year-end
trade receivables (see section 3 for details of how to undertake the
receivables’ circularisation).
x Follow up all balance disagreements and non-replies to the
receivables’ confirmation.
x Perform alternative procedures for any exceptions and non-
replies to the receivables’ confirmation, such as:
x Review after-date cash receipts by inspecting bank statements
and cash receipts documentation.
x Examine the customer’s account and customer correspondence to
assess whether the balance outstanding represents specific
invoices and confirm their validity.
x Examine the underlying documentation (purchase order, dispatch
documentation, duplicate sales invoice etc).
x Inquire from management explanations for invoices remaining
unpaid after subsequent ones have been paid.
x Observe whether the balance on the account is growing and if so,
find out why by discussing with management.
RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS x Review bank confirmation for any liens on receivables.
x Make inquiries of management, review loan agreements and
review board minutes for any evidence of receivables being sold
(eg to factors).
Part E Audit evidence ~ 14: Receivables 245

AUDIT PLAN: RECEIVABLES
VALUATION AND ALLOCATION x Compare receivables’ turnover and receivables’ days to the
previous year and/or to industry data.
x Compare the aged analysis of receivables from the aged trial
balance to the previous year.
x Review the adequacy of the allowance for uncollectable accounts
through discussion with management.
x Compare the bad debt expense as a % of sales to the previous year
and/or to industry data
x Compare the allowance for uncollectable accounts as a % of
receivables or credit sales to the previous year and/or to industry
data.
x Confirm adequacy of allowance by reviewing correspondence with
customers and solicitors.
x Examine credit notes issued after year-end for allowances that
should be made against current period balances.
x Examine large customer accounts individually and compare to the
previous year’s balances.
x For a sample of old debts on the aged trial balance, obtain further
information regarding their recoverability by discussions with
management and review of customer correspondence.
x For a sample of prepayments from the prepayments’ listing,
recalculate the amount prepaid to ensure that it has been
accurately calculated.
CUT-OFF x For a sample of sales invoices around the year-end, inspect the
dates and compare with the dates of dispatch and the dates
recorded in the ledger for application of correct cut-off.
x For sales returns, select a sample of returns documentation
around the year-end and trace to the related credit entries.
x Perform analytical procedures on sales returns, comparing the
ratio of sales returns to sales.
x Review material after-date invoices, credit notes and adjustments
and ensure that they are recorded correctly in the relevant financial
period.
CLASSIFICATION x Take a sample of sales invoices and examine for proper
classification into revenue accounts.
ACCURACY x For a sample of sales invoices, compare the prices and terms to
the authorised price list and terms of trade documentation.
x Test whether discounts have been properly applied by
recalculating them for a sample of invoices.
x Test the correct calculation of tax on a sample of invoices.
OCCURRENCE x For a sample of sales transactions recorded in the ledger, vouch
the sales invoice back to customer orders and dispatch
documentation.
OCCURRENCE AND RIGHTS x Determine, through discussion with management, whether any
AND OBLIGATIONS receivables have been pledged, assigned or discounted and
whether such items require disclosure in the financial statements.
CLASSIFICATION AND x Review the aged analysis of receivables for any large credits, non-
UNDERSTANDABILITY trade receivables and long-term receivables and consider whether
such items require separate disclosure.
x Read the disclosure notes relevant to receivables in the draft
financial statements and review for understandability.
ACCURACY AND VALUATION x Read the disclosure notes to ensure the information is accurate
and properly presented at the appropriate amounts.

3 The receivables' confirmation June 08
FAST FORWARD
A confirmation of receivables is a major procedure, usually achieved by direct contact with customers.
There are two methods of confirmation: positive and negative.
3.1 Objectives of confirmation

Key term External confirmations are audit evidence obtained as a direct written response to the auditor from a third
party in paper form or by electronic or other medium.
ISA 505 External confirmations covers the confirmation of amounts by third parties, including the
confirmation of amounts by receivables.
The verification of trade receivables by direct confirmation is the normal means of providing audit
evidence to satisfy the objective of testing whether customers exist and owe bona fide amounts to the
company (existence and rights and obligations).
Confirmation will produce for the current audit file a written statement from each respondent that the
amount owed at the date of the confirmation is correct. This is, prima facie, reliable audit evidence, being
from an independent source and in documentary form. The confirmation of receivables on a test basis
should not be regarded as replacing other normal audit tests, such as the testing in-depth of sales
transactions, but the results may influence the scope of such tests.
3.2 Client's mandate

Confirmation is essentially an act of the client, who alone can authorise third parties to divulge
information to the auditors.
The ISA outlines what the auditors' response should be when management refuses permission for the
auditors to contact third parties for evidence. If management asks the auditor not to seek the confirmation,
the auditor shall inquire about management’s reasons for the refusal and seek audit evidence regarding
the validity and reasonableness of the reasons. They shall also evaluate the implications of the refusal on
the assessment of the risk of material misstatement and on the nature, timing and extent of other audit
procedures. The auditor shall perform alternative audit procedures to obtain relevant and reliable audit
evidence. If the auditor concludes that the refusal is unreasonable, or the auditor cannot obtain relevant
and reliable audit evidence elsewhere, the auditor shall communicate with those charged with governance
in accordance with ISA 260 and consider the implications for the auditor’s report.
3.3 Positive v negative confirmation

Key terms A positive confirmation request is one in which the confirming party responds directly to the auditor
indicating whether they agree or disagree with the information in the request or provides the requested
information.
A negative confirmation request is one in which the confirming party responds directly to the auditor only
if they disagree with the information in the request.
When confirmation is undertaken the method of requesting information from the customer may be either
positive or negative.
x Under the positive method the customer is requested to confirm the accuracy of the balance
shown or state in what respect he is in disagreement.
x Under the negative method the customer is requested to reply only if the amount stated is
disputed.
The positive method is generally preferable as it is designed to encourage definite replies from those
contacted.

The negative method provides less persuasive audit evidence and shall not be used as the sole substantive
procedure to audit receivables unless all of the following are present:
x The risk of material misstatement has been assessed as low.
x The auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence on the operating effectiveness of
relevant controls.
x The population consists of a large number of small, homogeneous account balances.
x A very low exception rate is expected.
x The auditor is not aware of circumstances or conditions that would cause customers to disregard
the requests.
A specimen 'positive' confirmation letter is shown below.
The statements will normally be prepared by the client's staff, from which point the auditors, as a
safeguard against the possibility of fraudulent manipulation, must maintain strict control over the
preparation and dispatch of the statements.
Precautions must also be taken to ensure that undelivered items are returned, not to the client, but to the
auditors' own office for follow-up by them.
MANUFACTURING CO LIMITED
15 South Street
London
Date
Messrs (customer)
In accordance with the request of our auditors, ABC Co, we ask that you kindly confirm to them directly
your indebtedness to us at [insert date] which, according to our records, amounted to $.......... as shown
by the enclosed statement.
If the above amount is in agreement with your records, please sign in the space provided below and return
this letter direct to our auditors in the enclosed stamped addressed envelope.
If the amount is not in agreement with your records, please notify our auditors directly of the amount
shown by your records, and if possible detail on the reverse of this letter full particulars of the difference.
Yours faithfully,
For Manufacturing Co Limited
Reference No: ...........................

.............................................................................................................................................................
(Tear-off slip)
The amount shown above is/is not * in agreement with our records as at
Account No .............................. Signature ................................
Date .............................. Title or position ................................
* The position according to our records is shown overleaf.
Notes
x The letter is on the client's paper, signed by the client.
x A copy of the statement is attached.
x The reply is sent directly to the auditor in a pre-paid envelope.

3.4 Sample selection
Auditors will normally only contact a sample of accounts receivable. If this sample is to yield a meaningful
result it must be based upon a complete list of all accounts receivable. In addition, when constructing the
sample, the following classes of account should receive special attention:
x Old, unpaid accounts
x Accounts written-off during the period under review
x Accounts with credit balances
x Accounts settled by round sum payments
x Accounts with nil balances
x Accounts which have been paid by the date of the examination
3.5 Follow-up procedures

ISA 505 states that the auditor may send an additional confirmation request when a reply to a previous
request has not been received within a reasonable time. For example, the auditor may send an additional
or follow-up request having rechecked the accuracy of the original address.
3.5.1 Exceptions and non-responses
Key terms An exception is a response that shows a difference between the information requested to be confirmed, or
contained in the entity’s records, and information provided by the confirming party.
A non-response is a failure of the confirming party to respond, or fully respond, to a positive confirmation
request, or a confirmation request returned undelivered.
Auditors will have to carry out further work in relation to those receivables who:
x Disagree with the balance stated (positive and negative confirmation), resulting in exceptions
x Do not respond, resulting in non-responses
In the case of disagreements, the customer response should have identified specific amounts which are
disputed. These give rise to exceptions and may indicate misstatements or potential misstatements in the
financial statements. When a misstatement is identified, the auditor must evaluate whether this is
indicative of fraud (in accordance with ISA 240). Exceptions might also indicate a deficiency in internal
control. Some exceptions of course do not represent misstatements, as they may be due to timing,
measurement or clerical errors in the confirmation procedures. The table below outlines some reasons for
exceptions occurring.
REASONS FOR EXCEPTIONS

There is a dispute between the client and the customer. The reasons for the dispute would have to be
identified, and provision made if appropriate against the debt.
Cut-off problems exist, because the client records the following year's sales in the current year or because
goods returned by the customer in the current year are not recorded in the current year. Cut-off testing
may have to be extended (see below).
The customer may have sent the monies before the year-end, but the monies were not recorded by the
client as receipts until after the year-end. Detailed cut-off work may be required on receipts.
Monies received may have been posted to the wrong account or a cash-in-transit account. Auditors
should check if there is evidence of other mis-posting. If the monies have been posted to a cash-in-transit
account, auditors should ensure this account has been cleared promptly.
Customers who are also suppliers may net-off balances owed and owing. Auditors should check that this
is allowed.
Teeming and lading, stealing monies and incorrectly posting other receipts so that no particular
customer is seriously in debt is a fraud that can arise in this area. If auditors suspect teeming and lading
has occurred, detailed testing will be required on cash receipts, particularly on prompt posting of cash
receipts.

In the case of non-responses, the ISA states that the auditor shall perform alternative audit procedures
to obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence. These could include reviewing subsequent cash receipts,
shipping documentation and sales near the period-end.
3.6 Reliability of responses

The ISA states that the auditor shall obtain further audit evidence to resolve any doubts about the
reliability of a response to a confirmation request. This could include contacting the confirming party.
If the auditor concludes that a response to a request is not reliable, he shall evaluate the impact of this on
the assessment of the risk of material misstatement (including the risk of fraud), and on the related nature,
timing and extent of other audit procedures.
4 Sales
FAST FORWARD
Sales comprise a material figure in the statement of comprehensive income that is often audited by
analytical review as it should have predictable relationships with other figures in the financial statements.
Accounts' receivable will often be tested in conjunction with sales. Auditors are seeking to obtain evidence
that sales pertain to the entity (occurrence), and are completely and accurately recorded. This will involve
carrying out certain procedures to test for completeness of sales and also testing cut-off.
4.1 Completeness and occurrence of sales

Analytical review is important when testing completeness. A client is likely to have a great deal of
information about company sales and should be able to explain any fluctuations and variances. Auditors
should consider the following.
x The level of sales over the year, compared on a month-by-month basis with the previous year
x The effect on sales value of changes in quantities sold
x The effect on sales value of changes in products or prices
x The level of goods returned, sales allowances and discounts
x The efficiency of labour as expressed in sales or profit per tax per employee
In addition auditors must record reasons for changes in the gross profit margin. Analysis of the gross
profit margin should be as detailed as possible, ideally broken down by product area and month or
quarter.
As well as analytical review, auditors may feel that they need to carry out a directional test on
completeness of recording of individual sales in the accounting records. To do this, auditors should start
with the documents that first record sales (goods dispatched notes or till rolls for example), and trace
sales recorded in these through intermediate documents such as sales summaries to the sales ledger.
Auditors must ensure that the population of documents from which the sample is originally taken is itself
complete, by checking for example the completeness of the sequence of goods dispatched notes.
Exam focus You must remember the direction of this test. Since we are checking the completeness of recording of
point sales in the sales ledger, we cannot take a sample from the ledger because the sample would not include
what has not been recorded.

Question Receivables
Sherwood Textiles, a listed company, manufactures knitted clothes and dyes these clothes and other
textiles. You are carrying out the audit of the accounts of the company for the year ended 30 September
20X6 which show a revenue of about $10 million, and a profit before tax of about $800,000.
You are attending the final audit in December 20X6 and are commencing the audit of trade accounts
receivables, which are shown in the draft accounts at $2,060,000.
The interim audit (tests of control) was carried out in July 20X6 and it showed that there was a good
system of internal control in the sales system and no serious errors were found in the audit tests. The
company's sales ledger is maintained on a computer, which produces at the end of each month:
(i) A list of transactions for the month
(ii) An aged list of balances
(iii) Open item statements which are sent to customers. (Open item statements show all items which
are outstanding on each account, irrespective of their age.)
Required
(a) List and briefly describe the audit tests you would carry out to verify trade accounts receivable at
the year-end. You are not required to describe how you would carry out a direct confirmation of
receivables.
(b) Describe the audit work you would carry out on the following replies to a receivables'
circularisation:
(i) Balance agreed by customer.
(ii) Balance not agreed by customer.
(iii) Customer is unable to confirm the balance because of the form of records kept by the
customer.
(iv) Customer does not reply to the confirmation letter.
Answer
(a) The auditors will carry out the following tests on the list of balances.
(i) Agree the balances from the individual sales ledger accounts to the list of balances and vice
versa.
(ii) Agree the total of the list to the sales ledger control account.
(iii) Cast the list of balances and the sales ledger control account.
Other general tests auditors will carry out will be to:
(i) Agree the opening balance on the sales ledger control account to ensure that last year's
audit adjustments were recorded.
(ii) Inspect ledger balances for unusual entries.
(iii) Perform analytical procedures on trade receivables as follows
– Compare receivables' turnover and receivables' days to the prior year and/or to
industry data.
– Perform an age analysis on trade receivables and compare this to the prior year.
– Compare the bad debt expense as a % of sales to the prior year and/or to industry
data.
– Examine large customer accounts individually and compare them to the prior year.
The determination of whether the company has made reasonable provision for bad and doubtful
debts will be facilitated as the company produces an aged listing of balances.

Auditors will carry out the following procedures to audit bad debts.
(i) Debts against which specific allowance has been made (and debts written-off) should be
examined in conjunction with correspondence, lawyers'/debt collection agencies' letters,
liquidators' statements and so on, and their necessity or adequacy confirmed.
(ii) A general review of relevant correspondence may reveal debts where an allowance is
warranted, but has not been made.
(iii) Where specific and/or general allowances have been determined using the aged analysis,
the auditors should ensure that the analysis has been properly prepared by comparing it
with the dates on invoices and matching cash receipts against outstanding invoices. They
should check the reasonableness and consistency of any formula used to calculate general
allowances.
(iv) Additional tests that should be carried out on individual balances will include ascertaining
the subsequent receipt of cash, paying particular attention to round sum payments on
account, examination of specific invoices and, where appropriate, goods received notes, and
enquiry into any invoices that have not been paid when subsequent invoices have been paid.
(v) Excessive discounts should be examined, as should journal entries transferring balances
from one account to another and journal entries that clear customer balances after the year-
end.
(vi) Credit notes issued after the year-end should be reviewed and allowances checked where
they refer to current period sales.
In order to audit cut-off and hence completeness, the auditors should, during the physical
inventory count, have obtained details of the last serial numbers of goods outwards issued before
the commencement of the count. The following substantive procedures are designed to test that
goods taken into inventory are not also treated as sales in the year under review and, conversely,
goods dispatched are treated as sales in the year under review and not also treated as inventory.
(i) Review goods outwards and returns inwards notes around year-end to ensure that:
(1) Invoices and credit notes are dated in the correct period.
(2) Invoices and credit notes are posted to the sales ledger and nominal ledger in the
correct period.
(ii) Reconcile entries in the sales ledger control around the year-end to daily batch invoice
totals ensuring batches are posted in correct year.
(iii) Review sales ledger control account around year end for unusual items.
(iv) Review material after-date invoices and ensure that they are properly treated as following
year’s sales.
(b) The verification of trade receivables by direct confirmation is the normal means of providing audit
evidence to prove that receivables represent bona fide amounts due to the company (existence and
rights and obligations).
The audit work required on the various replies to a receivables' circularisation would be as follows.
(i) Balances agreed by customer
All that is required would be to ensure that the debt does appear to be collectable, by
reviewing cash received after-date or considering the adequacy of any allowance made for a
long outstanding amount.
(ii) Balances not agreed by customer
All balance disagreements must be followed up and their effect on total receivables
evaluated. Differences arising that merely represent invoices or cash-in-transit generally do
not require adjustment, but disputed amounts, and errors by the client, may indicate that
further substantive work is necessary to determine whether material adjustments are
required.

(iii) Customer is unable to confirm the balance because of the form of records maintained
Certain companies, often computerised, operate systems which make it impossible for them
to confirm the balance on their account. Typically in these circumstances their purchase
ledger is merely a list of unpaid invoices. However, with sufficient information the customer
will be able to confirm that any given invoice is outstanding. Hence the auditors can
circularise such enterprises successfully, but they will need to break down the total on the
account into its constituent outstanding invoices.
(iv) Customer does not reply to confirmation letter
When the positive request method is used the auditors must follow up by all practicable
means those customers who fail to respond. Second requests should be sent out in the
event of no reply being received within two or three weeks and if necessary this may be
followed by telephoning the customer with the client's permission.
After two, or even three attempts to obtain confirmation, a list of the outstanding items will
normally be passed to a responsible independent company official who will arrange for
them to be investigated.
Alternative audit procedures might include the following.
(1) Check receipt of cash after-date by reviewing post year-end bank statements.
(2) Verify valid purchase orders, if any.
(3) Examine the account to see if the balance represents specific outstanding invoices.
(4) Obtain explanations for invoices remaining unpaid after subsequent ones have been
paid.
(5) Observe whether the balance on the account is growing, and if so, find out why by
discussions with management.
(6) Test the company's control over the issue of credit notes and the write-off of bad
debts.
Exam focus
point The receivables' confirmation provides good audit evidence of the existence of receivables, but not
necessarily of their valuation. Therefore, in a question on the audit of receivables, remember to include
other audit procedures such as analytical procedures.

Chapter Roundup
x Receivables are usually audited using a combination of tests of details and analytical procedures.
x Existence, completeness and valuation are key assertions relating to the audit of receivables.
x A confirmation of receivables is a major procedure, usually achieved by direct contact with customers.
There are two methods of confirmation: positive and negative.
x Sales comprise a material figure in the statement of comprehensive income that is often audited by
analytical review as it should have predictable relationships with other figures in the financial statements.

Quick Quiz
1 The negative method of receivables' confirmation should only be used if the client has good internal
controls and a small number of large customer accounts.
True
False
2 State four types of account which should receive special attention when picking a sample for a receivables
confirmation.
(1) ………………………………………………..
(2) ………………………………………………..
(3) ………………………………………………..
(4) ………………………………………………..
3 Complete the following tests which aim to confirm the valuation of bad debts.
(a) Confirm adequacy of allowance by reviewing correspondence with
(i) ………………………………………………..
(ii) ………………………………………………..
(b) Examine ………………. ……………….. issued after the year-end for allowances that should be
made against current period balances.
4 List three things that can be considered when undertaking an analytical review on sales.
(1) ………………………………………………..
(2) ………………………………………………..
(3) ………………………………………………..
5 Give two examples of tests to verify prepayments.
(1) ………………………………………………..
(2) ………………………………………………..

1 False
2 From:
x Old unpaid accounts
x Accounts written-off during the period under review
x Accounts with credit balances
x Accounts settled by round sum payments
x Accounts with nil balances
x Accounts which have been paid by the date of the examination
3 (a) (i) customers, (ii) solicitors
(b) credit notes
4 (1) Level of sales, month by month
(2) Price
(3) Goods returned
5 From:
x Verify by reference to invoices, cash book, correspondence.
x Check calculations by reperformance.
x Review detailed statement of financial position to ensure all likely prepayments have been included.
x Use analytical procedures to review reasonableness.


Cash and bank

1 Introduction E3
2 Bank E3
3 Cash E3
Introduction
Work on cash and bank will concentrate on the completeness and valuation
using the bank reconciliation, bank confirmation letter and counting of cash as
key audit tests.
257
Study guide
Intellectual level
E3 The audit of specific items: (d) bank and cash
(i) Bank confirmation reports used in obtaining evidence in relation to
bank and cash
(ii) Other evidence in relation to bank and cash, and
Exam guide
In the exam you may be asked to list and explain audit procedures you would perform to confirm specific
assertions relating to cash and bank. The June 2008 paper had a three mark part at the end of question 3
on the procedures necessary to obtain a bank confirmation letter.
1 Introduction
‘Cash’ in the financial statements represents cash in-hand and cash on deposit in bank accounts. Most
accounting transactions pass through the cash account so cash is affected by all of the entity’s business
processes, and is particularly impacted by the sales and purchases processes. We looked at the controls
relating to cash in Chapter 10. In this chapter, we will consider the substantive audit testing applied to the
year-end cash figure.
1.1 Audit objectives for cash

The following table demonstrates the audit objectives for cash balances and how these are related to the
financial statement assertions relevant to this account area. The audit procedures described in the
remainder of this chapter are undertaken to provide audit evidence to support these financial statement
assertions.

Existence Recorded cash balances exist at the period-end
Completeness Recorded cash balances include the effects of all
transactions that have occurred
Rights and obligations The entity has legal title to all cash balances shown
at the period-end
Valuation Recorded cash balances are realisable at the
amounts stated
Assertions relating to presentation and Disclosures relating to cash are adequate and in
disclosure (classification and understandability, accordance with accounting standards and
occurrence and rights and obligations, accuracy legislation
and valuation, completeness)
258 15: Cash and bank ~ Part E Audit evidence

2 Bank June 08
FAST FORWARD
Bank balances are usually confirmed directly with the bank in question.
2.1 Bank confirmation procedures

The audit of bank balances will need to cover completeness, existence, rights and obligations and
valuation. All of these assertions can be audited directly by obtaining third party confirmations from the
client's banks and reconciling these with the accounting records, having regard to cut-off.
The audit objectives linking these assertions are as follows:
x Recorded cash balances exist at the year-end (existence)
x Recorded cash balances include the effects of all transactions that occurred (completeness)
x Year-end transfers are recorded in the correct period (cut-off)
x Recorded balances are realisable at the amounts stated (valuation and allocation)
x The entity has legal title to all cash balances shown at the year-end (rights and obligations)
This type of audit evidence is valuable because it comes directly from an independent source and,
therefore, provides greater assurance of reliability than that obtained solely from the client's own records.
The bank letter is mentioned as a source of external third party evidence in ISA 505 External
confirmations, and guidance to auditors is provided in IAPS 1000 Inter-bank confirmation procedures.
2.2 Confirmation requests

FAST FORWARD
The bank confirmation letter can be used to ask a variety of questions, including queries about
outstanding interests, contingent liabilities and guarantees.
The auditors should decide from which bank or banks to request confirmation, having regard to such
matters as size of balance, volume of activity, degree of reliance on internal control, and materiality
within the context of the financial statements.
The auditors should determine which of the following approaches is the most appropriate in seeking
confirmation of balances or other information from the bank:
x Listing balances and other information, and requesting confirmation of their accuracy and
completeness, or
x Requesting details of balances and other information, which can then be compared with the
requesting client's records
In determining which of the above approaches is the most appropriate, the auditors should weigh the
quality of audit evidence they require in the particular circumstances against the practicality of obtaining
a reply from the confirming bank.
Difficulty may be encountered in obtaining a satisfactory response even where the client company submits
information for confirmation to the confirming bank. It is important that a response is sought for all
confirmation requests. Auditors should not usually request a response only if the information submitted is
incorrect or incomplete.
2.2.1 Preparation and dispatch of requests and receipt of replies

Control over the content and dispatch of confirmation requests is the responsibility of the auditors.
However, it will be necessary for the request to be authorised by the client entity. Replies should be
returned directly to the auditors and to facilitate such a reply, a pre-addressed envelope should be
enclosed with the request.
Part E Audit evidence ~ 15: Cash and bank 259

2.2.2 Content of confirmation requests
The form and content of a confirmation request letter will depend on the purpose for which it is required
and on local practices.
The most commonly requested information is in respect of balances due to or from the client entity on
current, deposit, loan and other accounts. The request letter should provide the account description
number and the type of currency for the account.
It may also be advisable to request information about nil balances on accounts, and accounts which were
closed in the 12 months prior to the chosen confirmation date. The client entity may ask for confirmation
not only of the balances on accounts but also, where it may be helpful, other information, such as the
maturity and interest terms on loans and overdrafts, unused facilities, lines of credit/standby facilities, any
offset or other rights or encumbrances, and details of any collateral given or received.
The client entity and its auditors are likely to request confirmation of contingent liabilities, such as those
arising on guarantees, comfort letter, bills and so on.
Banks often hold securities and other items in safe custody on behalf of customers. A request letter may
thus ask for confirmation of such items held by the bank.
The procedure is simple but important, and outlined below.
(a) The banks will require explicit written authority from their client to disclose the information
requested.
(b) The auditors' request must refer to the client's letter of authority and the date thereof.
Alternatively it may be countersigned by the client or it may be accompanied by a specific letter of
authority.
(c) In the case of joint accounts, letters of authority signed by all parties will be necessary.
(d) Such letters of authority may either give permission to the bank to disclose information for a
specific request or grant permission for an indeterminate length of time.
(e) The request should reach the branch manager at least one month in advance of the client's year-
end and should state both that year-end date and the previous year-end date.
(f) The auditors should themselves check that the bank response covers all the information in the
standard and other responses.
2.3 Cut-off
Care must be taken to ensure that there is no window dressing, by auditing cut-off carefully. Window
dressing in this context is usually manifested as an attempt to overstate the liquidity of the company by:
(a) Keeping the cash book open to take credit for remittances actually received after the year-end,
thus enhancing the balance at bank and reducing receivables
(b) Recording cheques paid in the period under review which are not actually dispatched until after
the year-end, thus decreasing the balance at bank and reducing liabilities
A combination of (a) and (b) can contrive to present an artificially healthy looking current ratio.
With the possibility of (a) above in mind, where lodgements have not been cleared by the bank until the
new period, the auditors should examine the paying-in slip to ensure that the amounts were actually paid
into the bank on or before the period-end date.
As regards (b) above, where there appears to be a particularly large number of outstanding cheques at
the year-end, the auditors should check whether these were cleared within a reasonable time in the new
period. If not, this may indicate that dispatch occurred after the year-end.

2.4 Audit plan for bank
AUDIT PLAN: BANK (to confirm completeness, valuation, existence, cut-off and assertions related to
disclosure)
x Obtain standard bank confirmations from each bank with which the client conducted business
during the audit period.
x Reperform arithmetic of bank reconciliation.
x Trace cheques shown as outstanding from the bank reconciliation to the cash book prior to the
year-end and to the after-date bank statements and obtain explanations for any large or unusual
items not cleared at the time of the audit.
x Compare cash book(s) and bank statements in detail for the last month of the year, and match
items outstanding at the reconciliation date to bank statements.
x Review bank reconciliation previous to the year-end bank reconciliation and test whether all items
are cleared in the last period or taken forward to the year-end bank reconciliation.
x Obtain satisfactory explanations for all items in the cash book for which there are no corresponding
entries in the bank statement and vice versa by discussion with finance staff.
x Verify contra items appearing in the cash books or bank statements with original entry.
x Verify by inspecting paying-in slips that uncleared bankings are paid in prior to the year-end.
x Examine all lodgements in respect of which payment has been refused by the bank; ensure that they
are cleared on representation or that other appropriate steps have been taken to effect recovery of
the amount due.
x Verify balances per the cash book according to the bank reconciliation by inspecting cash book,
bank statements and general ledger.
x Verify the bank balances with reply to standard bank letter and with the bank statements.
x Inspect the cash book and bank statements before and after the year-end for exceptional entries or
transfers which have a material effect on the balance shown to be in-hand.
x Identify whether any accounts are secured on the assets of the company by discussion with
management.
x Consider whether there is a legal right of set-off of overdrafts against positive bank balances.
x Determine whether the bank accounts are subject to any restrictions by inquiries with management.
x Review draft accounts to ensure that disclosures for bank are complete and accurate and in
accordance with accounting standards.
Exam focus Remember that the bank confirmation letter contains the balance held by the client at the bank per the
point bank's records. This must be reconciled to the balance held with the bank per the client's records.
Question Bank letter
(a) Explain the importance of the bank letter and describe the procedures used to obtain confirmations
from the bank.
(b) Describe how you would test a client's bank reconciliation.

Answer
(a) The bank letter is important because it is independent confirmation of a number of significant
matters in the client's financial statements. It confirms cash and bank balances which may well be
a significant asset. It also provides confirmation of customers’ assets held as security, customers'
other assets held (as custodian) and contingent liabilities. Auditors also ask the bank to give details
of other banks and branches that the respondent bank is aware have a relationship with the client.
Audit procedures
(i) Obtain written authority from the client to the bank to disclose the necessary information.
(ii) Send a bank letter in standard form to the bank in sufficient time for it to arrive at least a
month before the year-end. The letter should state both the year-end date and the previous
year-end date, and should refer to the client's granting of authority.
(iii) If additional information over and above what is in the standard letter is requested, send a
separate letter requesting that information.
(iv) When confirmation is received from the bank, check that the bank has answered all the
questions in the letter.
(v) Follow up all points disclosed in the bank letter.
(b) The following procedures should be carried out on the bank reconciliation.
(i) Obtain standard bank confirmations from each bank with which the client conducted
business during the period.
(ii) Test arithmetic of bank reconciliation by recasting.
(iii) Trace cheques shown as outstanding from the bank reconciliation to the cash book prior to
the year-end and to the after-date bank statements and obtain explanations for any large or
unusual items not cleared at the time of the audit.
(iv) Verify by checking paying-in slips that uncleared bankings are paid in prior to the year-end,
and review whether uncleared bankings are cleared quickly after the year-end.
(v) Verify balances per cash book according to the reconciliation with cash book and general
ledger.
(vi) Verify the bank balances with reply to standard bank letter and with the bank statements.
(vii) Scrutinise the cash book and bank statements before and after the period-end for exceptional
entries or transfers which have a material effect on the balance shown to be in hand.
(viii) Identify whether any accounts are secured on the assets of the company.
(ix) Consider whether there is a legal right of set-off of overdrafts against positive bank
balances.
(x) Determine whether the bank accounts are subject to any restrictions.
3 Cash
FAST FORWARD
Cash balances should be verified if they are material or irregularities are suspected.
Cash balances/floats are often individually immaterial but they may require some audit emphasis because
of the opportunities for fraud that could exist where internal control is weak and because they may be
material in total.
However in enterprises such as hotels and retail organisations, the amount of cash-in-hand at the period-
end could be considerable. Cash counts may be important for internal auditors, who have a role in fraud
prevention.
Auditors will be concerned that the cash exists, is complete, and belongs to the company (rights and
obligations) and is stated at the correct value.

Where the auditors determine that cash balances are potentially material they may conduct a cash count,
ideally at the period-end. Rather like attendance at an inventory count, the conduct of the count falls into
three phases: planning, the count itself, and follow-up procedures.
3.1 Planning the cash count

Planning is an essential element, as it is important that all cash balances are counted at the same time as
far as possible. Cash in this context may include unbanked cheques received, IOUs and credit card slips,
in addition to notes and coins.
As part of their planning procedures the auditors will need to determine the locations where cash is held
and which of these locations warrant a count.
Planning decisions will need to be recorded on the current audit file including:
x The precise time of the count(s) and location(s)
x The names of the audit staff conducting the counts
x The names of the client staff intending to be present at each location
Where a location is not visited it may be appropriate to obtain a letter from the client confirming the
balance.
3.2 Cash count

The following matters apply to the count itself.
x All cash/petty cash books should be written up to date in ink (or other permanent form) at the time
of the count.
x All balances must be counted at the same time.
x All negotiable securities must be available and counted at the time the cash balances are
counted.
x At no time should the auditors be left alone with the cash and negotiable securities.
x All cash and securities counted must be recorded on working papers subsequently filed on the
current audit file. Reconciliations should be prepared where applicable (for example, imprest petty
cash float).
AUDIT PLAN: CASH COUNT (to confirm completeness, valuation, existence and disclosure)
x Count cash balances held and agree to petty cash book or other record:
– Count all balances simultaneously
– All counting to be done in the presence of the individuals responsible
– Enquire into any IOUs or cashed cheques outstanding for a long period of time
x Obtain certificates of cash-in-hand from responsible officials.
x Confirm that bank and cash balances as reconciled above are correctly stated in the financial
statements.
Follow up
x Obtain certificates of cash-in-hand as appropriate.
x Verify unbanked cheques/cash receipts have subsequently been paid in and agree to the bank
reconciliation by inspection of the relevant documentation.
x Ensure IOUs and cheques cashed for employees have been reimbursed.
x Review whether IOUs or cashed cheques outstanding for unreasonable periods of time have been
provided for.
x Verify the balances as counted are reflected in the accounts (subject to any agreed amendments
because of shortages and so on) by inspection of draft financial statements.

Chapter Roundup
x Bank balances are usually confirmed directly with the bank in question.
x The bank confirmation letter can be used to ask a variety of questions, including queries about
outstanding interests, contingent liabilities and guarantees.
x Cash balances should be verified if they are material or irregularities are suspected.
Quick Quiz
1 What are the relevant financial statement assertions for cash in the statement of financial position?
2 Summarise the procedure for obtaining confirmation from a client's bank of the year-end bank balance.
(1) ………………………………………………
(2) ………………………………………………
(3) ………………………………………………
(4) ………………………………………………
(5) ………………………………………………
(6) ………………………………………………
3 Complete the following two audit tests performed to verify the bank reconciliation.
(a) Trace cheques shown as outstanding on the ……………………………… to the ………..
………… prior to the year-end and ………………………. …………………… ………………..
…………………. .
(b) Obtain satisfactory explanations for all items in the ……………….. ………………… for which
there is no corresponding entry in the …………………… ……………….. and …………..
…………………. .
4 Give two examples of businesses where cash floats could be considerable.
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
5 What planning matters relating to a cash count should be recorded in the current audit file?
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
………………………………………………

1 Existence, completeness, valuation and allocation
2 (1) The banks will require explicit written authority from their client to disclose the information
requested.
(2) The auditors' request must refer to the client's letter of authority and the date thereof.
Alternatively it may be countersigned by the client or it may be accompanied by a specific letter of
authority.
(3) In the case of joint accounts, letters of authority signed by all parties will be necessary.
(4) Such letters of authority may either give permission to the bank to disclose information for a
specific request or grant permission for an indeterminate length of time.
(5) The request should reach the branch manager at least one month in advance of the client's year-
end and should state both that year-end date and the previous year-end date.
(6) The auditors should themselves check that the bank answers all the questions and, where the
reply is not received direct from the bank, be responsible for establishing the authenticity of the
reply.
3 (a) bank reconciliations, cash book, after-date bank statements
(b) bank statements, cash book, bank reconciliation
4 Hotels
Retail operations
5 Time of count
Names of client staff attending
Names of audit staff attending


Liabilities
and capital

1 Introduction E3
2 Audit procedures for trade payables and purchases E3
3 Non-current liabilities E3
4 Provisions and contingencies E3
5 Capital and other issues E3
Introduction
In this chapter, we examine the audit of liabilities including payables and
accruals, provisions and other long-term liabilities.
When auditing payables, the auditor must test for understatement (ie
completeness). Rather than circularising payables, it is more common to obtain
audit evidence from suppliers' statements.
The audit of provisions can be particularly complex due to the accounting
treatment and the degree of judgement involved in calculating the provision.
This chapter ends with a brief look at the audit of share capital and reserves.
267
Study guide
Intellectual level
E3 The audit of specific items: (c) payables and accruals; (e) long-term
liabilities
(c) Payables and accruals:
(i) Supplier statement reconciliations and direct confirmation of
accounts payable
(ii) Obtain evidence in relation to payables and accruals, and
(e) Long-term liabilities:
(ii) Evidence in relation to non-current liabilities, and
Exam guide
relating to liabilities. The pilot paper had 20 marks in question 1 on the substantive audit of purchases and
trade payables. Similarly, the December 2007 paper had 12 marks in question 1 on the audit of purchases.
1 Introduction
In this chapter we will examiner the substantive audit of trade payables and accruals, long-term liabilities
and provisions and end with a brief look at capital. Purchases are often tested in conjunction with the audit
of trade payables and so are included in the section on trade payables. The following table sets out the
financial statement assertions to which audit testing is directed.
Assertions about classes of – All purchase transactions recorded have occurred and relate to the
transactions entity (occurrence)
– All purchase transactions that should have been recorded have
been recorded (completeness)
– Amounts relating to transactions have been recorded appropriately
(accuracy)
– Purchase transactions have been recorded in the correct period
(cut-off)
– Purchase transactions are recorded properly in the accounts
(classification)
Assertions about period-end – Trade payables and accrued expenses are valid liabilities
account balances (existence)
– Trade payables and accrued expenses are the obligations of the
entity (rights and obligations)
– All liabilities have been recorded (completeness)
– All liabilities are included in the accounts at appropriate amounts
(valuation and allocation)
268 16: Liabilities and capital ~ Part E Audit evidence

Assertions about presentation – All disclosed events and transactions relating to liabilities have
and disclosure occurred and relate to the entity (occurrence and rights and
obligations)
– All disclosures required have been included (completeness)
– Financial information is appropriately presented and described and
disclosures clearly expressed (classification and
understandability)
– Financial information is disclosed fairly and at appropriate
amounts (accuracy and valuation)
2 Audit procedures for trade payables and accruals

Pilot paper, Dec 07
FAST FORWARD
The largest figure in current liabilities will normally be trade accounts payable which are generally
audited by comparison of suppliers' statements with purchase ledger accounts.

As with accounts receivable, accounts payable are likely to be a material figure in the statement of financial
position of most enterprises. The tests of controls on the purchases cycle (Chapter 10) will have provided
the auditors with some assurance as to the completeness of liabilities.
Auditors should however be particularly aware, when conducting their work on the statement of financial
position, of the possibility of understatement of liabilities to improve liquidity and profits (by
understating the corresponding purchases). The primary objective of their work will therefore be to
ascertain whether liabilities existing at the year-end have been completely and accurately recorded.
As regards trade accounts payable, this primary objective can be subdivided into two detailed objectives.
x Is there a satisfactory cut-off between goods received and invoices received, so that purchases and
trade accounts payable are recognised in the correct year?
x Do trade accounts payable represent the bona fide amounts due by the company?
Before we ascertain how the auditors design and conduct their tests with these objectives in mind, we
need to establish the importance of the list of balances.
The following table sets out audit procedures to test trade accounts payables and accruals.
AUDIT PLAN: ACCOUNTS PAYABLES AND ACCRUALS

COMPLETENESS x Obtain a listing of trade accounts payables and agree the total to
the general ledger by casting and cross-casting.
x Test for unrecorded liabilities by inquiries of management on how
unrecorded liabilities and accruals are identified and examining
post year-end transactions.
x Obtain selected suppliers’ statements and reconcile these to the
relevant suppliers’ accounts (see section 2.3 for details of
suppliers’ statements).
x Examine files of unmatched purchase orders and supplier invoices
for any unrecorded liabilities.
x Perform a confirmation of accounts payables for a sample (see
section 2.2 for details of the accounts payables’ confirmation)
x Complete the disclosure checklist to ensure that all the
disclosures relevant to liabilities have been made.
x Compare the current year balances for trade accounts payables
and accruals to the previous year.
Part E Audit evidence ~ 16: Liabilities and capital 269

AUDIT PLAN: ACCOUNTS PAYABLES AND ACCRUALS
x Compare the amounts owed to a sample of individual suppliers in
the trade accounts payables listing to amounts owed to these
suppliers in the previous year.
x Compare the payables’ turnover and payables’ days to the
previous year and industry data.
x Reperform casts of payroll records to confirm completeness and
accuracy.
x Confirm payment of net pay per payroll records to cheque or bank
transfer summary.
x Agree net pay per cashbook to payroll.
x Inspect payroll for unusual items and investigate them further by
discussion with management.
x Perform proof-in-total (analytical review) on payroll and compare
to figure in draft financial statements to assess reasonableness.
EXISTENCE x Vouch selected amounts from the trade accounts payables listing
and accruals listing to supporting documentation such as
purchase orders and suppliers’ invoices.
relevant suppliers’ accounts.
x Perform a confirmation of accounts payables for a sample.
x Perform analytical procedures comparing current year balances
to the previous year to confirm reasonableness, and also
calculating payables’ turnover and comparing to the previous year.
RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS x Vouch a sample of balances to supporting documentation such as
purchase orders and suppliers’ invoices to obtain audit evidence
regarding rights and obligations.
VALUATION AND ALLOCATION x Trace selected samples from the trade accounts payables listing
and accruals listing to the supporting documentation (purchase
orders, minutes authorising expenditure, suppliers’ invoices etc).
relevant suppliers’ accounts.
x For a sample of accruals, recalculate the amount of the accrual to
ensure the amount accrued is correct.
x Compare the current year balances for trade accounts payables
and accruals to the previous year.
x Compare the amounts owed to a sample of individual suppliers in
the trade accounts payables listing to amounts owed to these
suppliers in the previous year.
x Compare the payables’ turnover and payables’ days to the
previous year and industry data.
CUT-OFF x For a sample of vouchers, compare the dates with the dates they
were recorded in the ledger for application of correct cut-off.
x Test transactions around the year-end to determine whether
amounts have been recognised in the correct financial period.
x Perform analytical procedures on purchase returns, comparing
the purchase returns as a % of sales or cost of sales to the
previous year.

ACCURACY x Recalculate the mathematical accuracy of a sample of suppliers’
invoices to confirm the amounts are correct.
x Recast calculation of remuneration.
x Reperform calculation of statutory deductions to confirm whether
correct.
x Confirm validity of other deductions by agreeing to supporting
documentation.
x Recast calculation of other deductions.
OCCURRENCE x For a sample of vouchers, inspect supporting documentation such
as authorised purchase orders.
x Agree individual remuneration per payroll to personnel records,
records of hours worked, salary agreements etc.
x Confirm existence of employees on payroll by meeting them,
attending wages payout, inspecting personnel and tax records, and
confirmation from managers.
x Agree benefits on payroll to supporting correspondence.
CLASSIFICATION AND x Review the trade accounts payables listing to identify any large
UNDERSTANDABILITY debits (which should be reclassified as receivables or deposits) or
long-term liabilities which should be disclosed separately.
x Read the disclosure notes relevant to liabilities in the draft
financial statements and review for understandability.
ACCURACY AND VALUATION x Read the disclosure notes to ensure the information is accurate
and properly presented at the appropriate amounts.
2.2 Confirmation of trade payables

We have already discussed the receivables’ confirmation procedure in Chapter 14. It is also possible to
undertake confirmation of trade payables, although this is not used a great deal in practice because the
auditor can test trade payables by examining reliable, independent evidence in the form of suppliers’
invoices and suppliers’ statements. However, where an entity’s internal controls are weak, suppliers’
statements may not be available and in this situation, it may be relevant to undertake confirmation
procedures. Confirmation of trade payables provides evidence primarily for the completeness assertion.
Where the entity has strong controls in place to ensure that all liabilities are recorded, the confirmation
will focus on large balances.
Where the auditor is concerned about the presence of unrecorded liabilities, regular suppliers with small
or zero balances on their accounts and a sample of other accounts will be confirmed as well as large
balances.
Auditors use a positive confirmation referred to as a blank or zero-balance confirmation. This
confirmation does not state the balance owed but requires the supplier to declare the amount owed at the
year-end and to provide a detailed statement of the account. When the confirmation is received back, the
amount must be reconciled with the entity’s records.
The selection and sending out of accounts payables’ confirmations should be controlled using the same
procedures as for the receivables’ confirmation that we discussed in Chapter 14.
2.3 Reconciliations of accounts payables with suppliers’ statements

Many suppliers provide monthly statements to their customers. These may therefore be available in the
entity for examination. Because they are a source of documentary evidence originating outside of the

entity, they are a reliable source of evidence to support suppliers’ balances and provide evidence as to the
existence, completeness and valuation of balances.
Having said this, auditors do still need to be cautious when using them as they may have been tampered
with by the entity. The auditor should not rely on photocopies or faxed statements. If there is any doubt,
the auditor should request a copy directly from the supplier or confirm the balance with the supplier (see
above).
When selecting accounts for testing, the auditor should consider the volume of business during the year,
not the balance outstanding at the year-end, because the risk is understatement of balances. Most
differences between balances on suppliers’ statements and the year-end accounts payables’ listing are
likely to be due to goods and cash-in-transit and disputed amounts, however all differences need to be
investigated thoroughly.
Question Trade payables and accruals
You have been assigned to the audit of Carter Brandon Co (CBC), and you are drafting the audit
programme for payables and accruals for the year ended 31 December 20X7.
The company operates from a site in West Wendon. All raw materials are received in the stores and all
deliveries are checked to the delivery note and purchase order. The stores supervisor raises a goods
received note and is also responsible for raising credit requests if there are any problems with the raw
materials delivered.
When the purchase ledger department staff receive the purchase invoices, they match them to the relevant
goods received notes and purchase orders, and post them to the computerised purchase ledger. Suppliers
are paid on the last day of each month.
Other payables and accruals consist of tax, wages and other statutory deductions, accruals and time-
apportioned expenses such as electricity and telephone.
Required
Describe the audit work you will carry out:
(a) To compare suppliers' statements with balances recorded on the purchase ledger
(b) To check that purchases cut-off has been applied correctly
(c) To confirm that other payables and accruals have been accurately stated.
Answer
(a) Audit work
(i) Select a sample of balances and compare suppliers' statements with purchase ledger
balances. The extent of the sample will depend on the results of tests of controls and
assessment of the effectiveness of controls within the purchases system.
(ii) Select the sample on a random basis. Selection of only large balances or those with many
transactions will not yield an appropriate sample as understatement of liabilities is being
tested for. Nil and negative balances will also need to be included in the sample.
(iii) If no statement was available for the supplier, confirmation of the balance from the
supplier should be requested.
If the balance agrees exactly, no further work needs to be carried out.
Where differences arise these need to be categorised as either in-transit items or other (including
disputed) items. In-transit items will be either goods or cash.
(iv) If the difference relates to goods-in-transit, ascertain whether the goods were received
before the year-end by reference to the GRN and that they are included in year-end
inventory and purchase accruals. If not, a cut-off error has occurred and should be

investigated. If the goods were received after the year-end, the difference with the suppliers'
accounts is correct.
(v) Similarly, cash-in-transit would arise where the payment to the supplier was made by
cheque before the year-end but was not received by him until after the year-end. The date
the cheque was raised and its subsequent clearing through the bank account after the
year-end should be verified by inspecting the cash book and the post year-end bank
statements.
(vi) However, if the cheque clears after the year-end date, it may indicate that the cheque,
though raised before the year-end was not sent to the supplier until after the year-end. The
relevant amount should be added back to year-end accounts payable and to the end of year
bank balance.
(vii) Differences which do not arise from in-transit items need to be investigated and
appropriate adjustments made where necessary.
These differences may have arisen due to disputed invoices, where for example the client is
demanding credit against an invoice which the supplier is not willing to agree. The client
may decide not to post the invoice to the supplier account as he does not consider it to be a
liability of the company. However, differences may also arise because invoices have been
held back in order to reduce the level of year-end accounts payable.
(viii) If significant unexplained differences are discovered it may be necessary to extend my
testing. There may also be a problem if sufficient suppliers' statements are not available.
Alternative procedures, eg a circularisation may then be required.
(b) Audit work
(i) From the inventory count working papers, the number of the last GRN that was issued
before the year-end will have been noted. Select a sample of GRNs issued in the period
immediately before and immediately after the year-end. The period to be covered would be
at least two weeks either side of the year-end.
(ii) Concentrate the sample on high value items, and more on those GRNs from before the
year-end as these represent the greatest risk of cut-off error.
(iii) Check that the GRNs have a correct number, according to the last GRN issued in the year
and whether the goods were received before or after the year-end.
(iv) For GRNs issued before the year-end, check whether the inventory has been included in
the year-end inventory total. Also check whether the payable is either included in trade
payables or purchase accruals by inspecting the relevant documentation.
(v) For GRNs issued after the year-end, to ensure that the inventory is included in the
inventory records after the year-end. In addition, review the purchase ledger to ensure that
the relevant invoice has been posted to the supplier account after the year-end.
(c) Audit work
(i) Assess the system of control instituted by management to identify and quantify accruals
and accounts payable.
(ii) From the client's sundry payables and accruals listing, check that accruals are calculated
correctly and verify them by reference to subsequent payments. Check that all time
apportionments have been made correctly (for example, for electricity) by recalculation.
(iii) Taxation balances
(1) Check the amount paid to the tax authorities by inspecting relevant documentation.
The balance at the year-end would normally represent one month's deductions and
can be verified to the payroll records. The payment should be traced from the cash
book to the payment book (if used) and subsequent bank statements.

(2) For the sales tax balance, review for reasonableness to the next return. Ensure that
the payment for the previous return was for the correct amount and has cleared
through the bank.
(iv) Review the statement of comprehensive income and prior year figures (for any accruals
which have not appeared this year or which did not appear last year) and consider liabilities
inherent in the trade (eg weekly wages) to ensure that all likely accruals have been provided.
(v) Scrutinise payments made after the year-end to ascertain whether any payments made
should be accrued. This will include consideration of any payments relating to the current
year which are made a long time after the year-end.
(vi) Consider and document the basis for round sum accruals and ensure it is consistent with
prior years.
(vii) Ascertain why any payments on account are being made and ensure that the full liability is
provided.
(viii) Accrued interest and basic charges on loans or overdrafts can be agreed to the bank letter
received for audit purposes.
3 Non-current liabilities
FAST FORWARD
Non-current liabilities are usually authorised by the board and should be well documented.
We are concerned here with non-current liabilities comprising debentures, loan inventory and other loans
repayable at a date more than one year after the year-end.
Auditors will primarily try and determine:
x Completeness: whether all non-current liabilities have been disclosed
x Accuracy: whether interest payable has been calculated correctly and included in the correct
accounting period
x Classification and understandability: whether long-term loans and interest have been correctly
disclosed in the financial statements
The major complication for the auditors is that debenture and loan agreements frequently contain
conditions with which the company must comply, including restrictions on the company's total
borrowings and adherence to specific borrowing ratios.
AUDIT PLAN: NON-CURRENT LIABILITIES

x Obtain/prepare schedule of loans outstanding at the year-end date showing, for each loan: name of
lender, date of loan, maturity date, interest date, interest rate, balance at the end of the period and
security.
x Compare opening balances to previous year's papers.
x Test the clerical accuracy of the analysis.
x Compare balances to the general ledger.
x Agree name of lender etc, to register of debenture holders or equivalent (if kept).
x Trace additions and repayments to entries in the cash book.
x Confirm repayments are in accordance with loan agreement.
x Examine cancelled cheques and memoranda of satisfaction for loans repaid.
x Verify that borrowing limits imposed by agreements are not exceeded.
x Examine signed Board minutes relating to new borrowings/repayments.

AUDIT PLAN: NON-CURRENT LIABILITIES
x Obtain direct confirmation from lenders of the amounts outstanding, accrued interest and what
security they hold.
x Verify interest charged for the period and the adequacy of accrued interest.
x Confirm assets charged have been entered in the register of charges and notified to the Registrar.
x Review restrictive covenants and provisions relating to default:
– Review any correspondence relating to the loan
– Review confirmation replies for non-compliance
– If a default appears to exist, determine its effect, and schedule findings
x Review minutes, cash book to confirm that all loans have been recorded.
x Review draft accounts to ensure that disclosures for non-current liabilities are correct and in
accordance with accounting standards. Any elements repayable within one year should be classified
under current liabilities.
4 Provisions and contingencies

FAST FORWARD
The accounting treatments for provisions and contingencies are complex and involve judgement and this
can make them difficult to audit.
4.1 Accounting issues

Key terms A provision is a liability of uncertain timing or amount.
A liability is a present obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of which is expected
to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits.
An obligating event is an event that creates a legal or constructive obligation that results in an entity
having no realistic alternative to settling that obligation.
A legal obligation is an obligation that derives from:
(a) A contract (through its explicit or implicit terms),
(b) Legislation, or
(c) Other operation of law
A constructive obligation is an obligation that derives from an entity's actions where:
(a) By an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current
statement, the entity has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities, and
(b) As a result, the entity has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will
discharge those responsibilities.
A contingent liability is:
(a) A possible obligation that arises from past events and whose existence will be confirmed only by
the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the
control of the entity, or
(b) A present obligation that arises from past events but is not recognised because:
(i) It is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be
required to settle the obligation, or
(ii) The amount of the obligation cannot be measured with sufficient reliability.
A contingent asset is a possible asset that arises from past events and whose existence will be confirmed
only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the
control of the entity.

Under IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets, an entity should not recognise a
contingent asset or a contingent liability. However if it becomes probable that an outflow of future
economic benefits will be required for a previous contingent liability, a provision should be recognised. A
contingent asset should not be accounted for unless its realisation is virtually certain; if an inflow of
economic benefits has become probable, the asset should be disclosed.
Examples of the principal types of contingencies disclosed by companies are:
x Guarantees (for group companies, of staff pension schemes, of completion of contracts)
x Discounted bills of exchange
x Uncalled liabilities on shares or loan inventory
x Lawsuits or claims pending
x Options to purchase assets
4.2 Obtaining audit evidence of contingencies

Part of ISA 501 Audit evidence – specific considerations for selected items covers contingencies relating
to litigation and legal claims, which will represent the major part of audit work on contingencies. Litigation
and claims involving the entity may have a material effect on the financial statements, and so will require
adjustment to/disclosure in those financial statements.
The auditor shall design and perform procedures in order to identify any litigation and claims involving the
entity which may give rise to a risk of material misstatement. Such procedures would include the
following.
x Make appropriate inquiries of management and others including in-house legal advisers.
x Review minutes of meetings of those charged with governance and correspondence between the
entity and its external legal advisers.
x Review legal expense accounts.
x Use any information obtained regarding the entity's business including information obtained from
discussions with any in-house legal department.
When litigation or claims have been identified or when the auditor believes they may exist, the auditor
shall seek direct communication with the entity's external legal advisers through a letter of inquiry that is
prepared by management and sent by the auditor, requesting the legal adviser to communicate directly
with the auditor. This assists the auditor in obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence as to whether
potentially material litigation and claims are known and management’s estimates of the financial
implications, including costs, are reasonable. The letter may be one of general inquiry or one of specific
inquiry.
A letter of general inquiry requests the entity’s external legal advisers to inform the auditor of any
litigation and claims that they are aware of, together with an assessment of the outcome of the litigation
and claims, and an estimate of the financial implications, including costs involved.
However, if it is considered unlikely that the entity’s external legal advisers will respond appropriately to a
letter of general inquiry, the auditor may seek direct communication through a letter of specific inquiry.
This will include:
x A list of litigation and claims
x Where available, management’s assessment of the outcome of each of the identified litigation and
claims and its estimate of the financial implications, including costs involved
x A request that the entity’s external legal advisers confirm the reasonableness of management’s
assessments and provide the auditor with further information if they consider the list to be
incomplete or incorrect.
In certain circumstances (the matter is a significant risk, the matter is complex, there is disagreement
between management and legal advisers), the auditor also may judge it necessary to meet with the entity’s
external legal advisers to discuss the likely outcome of the litigation or claims. These meetings require
management’s permission and a member of management will be present at the meeting.

If management refuses to give the auditor permission to communicate or meet with the entity’s external
legal advisers, or the entity’s external legal advisers refuse to respond appropriately to the letter of inquiry,
or are prohibited from responding, and the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
by performing alternative audit procedures, the auditor shall modify the opinion in the auditor’s report in
accordance with ISA 705 Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor’s report.
The auditor shall request management and, where appropriate, those charged with governance to provide
written representations that all known actual or possible litigation and claims whose effects should be
considered when preparing the financial statements have been disclosed to the auditor and accounted for
and disclosed in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework.
4.3 The audit of provisions

The following audit plan can be used in the audit of provisions.
AUDIT PLAN: PROVISIONS/CONTINGENCIES

x Obtain details of all provisions which have been included in the accounts and all contingencies that
have been disclosed.
x Obtain a detailed analysis of all provisions showing opening balances, movements and closing
balances.
x Determine for each material provision whether the company has a present obligation as a result of
past events by:
– Review of correspondence relating to the item
– Discussion with the directors. Have they created a valid expectation in other parties that they will
discharge the obligation?
x Determine for each material provision whether it is probable that a transfer of economic benefits will
be required to settle the obligation by:
– Checking whether any payments have been made in the post year-end period in respect of the item
by reviewing after-date cash
– Review of correspondence with solicitors, banks, customers, insurance company and suppliers
both pre and post year-end
– Sending a letter to the solicitor to obtain his views (where relevant)
– Discussing the position of similar past provisions with the directors. Were these provisions
eventually settled?
– Considering the likelihood of reimbursement
x Recalculate all provisions made.
x Compare the amount provided with any post year-end payments and with any amount paid in the past
for similar items.
x In the event that it is not possible to estimate the amount of the provision, check that a contingent
liability is disclosed in the accounts.
x Consider the nature of the client's business. Would you expect to see any other provisions eg
warranties?
x Consider the adequacy of disclosure of provisions, contingent assets and contingent liabilities in
accordance with IAS 37.
Exam focus The audit of provisions is notoriously complex because of the degree of judgement used and the
point availability of sufficient appropriate audit evidence. This is likely to be tested in a mini scenario type
question so you must be able to apply your knowledge to the circumstances in the question.

5 Capital and other issues
FAST FORWARD
The main concern with share capital and reserves is that the company has complied with the law.
The issued share capital as stated in the accounts must be agreed in total with the share register. An
examination of transfers on a test basis should be made in those cases where a company handles its own
registration work. Where the registration work is dealt with by independent registrars, auditors will
normally examine the reports submitted by them to the company, and obtain from them at the year-end a
certificate of the share capital in issue.
Auditors should check carefully whether clients have complied with local legislation about share issues or
purchase of own shares. Auditors should take particular care if there are any movements in reserves that
cannot be distributed, and should confirm that these movements are valid.
AUDIT PLAN: CAPITAL AND RELATED ISSUES

SHARE EQUITY x Agree the authorised share capital with the statutory documents governing the
CAPITAL company's constitution.
x Agree changes to authorised share capital with properly authorised resolutions.
ISSUE OF x Verify any issue of share capital or other changes during the year with general and
SHARES board minutes.
x Ensure issue or change is within the terms of the constitution, and directors
possess appropriate authority to issue shares.
x Confirm that cash or other consideration has been received or receivable(s) is
included as called-up share capital not paid.
TRANSFER OF x Verify transfers of shares by reference to:
SHARES – Correspondence
– Completed and stamped transfer forms
– Cancelled share certificates
– Minutes of directors' meeting
x Review the balances on shareholders' accounts in the register of members and
the total list with the amount of issued share capital in the general ledger.
DIVIDENDS x Agree dividends paid and proposed pre year-end to authority in minute books and
reperform calculation with total share capital issued to ascertain whether there
are any outstanding or unclaimed dividends.
x Agree dividend payments with documentary evidence (say, the returned dividend
warrants).
x Test that dividends do not contravene distribution provisions by reviewing the
legislation.
x Inspect tax returns to insure that imputed tax has been accounted for to the
taxation authorities and correctly treated in the accounts.
RESERVES x Agree movements on reserves to supporting authority.
x Ensure that movements on reserves do not contravene the legislation and the
company's constitution by reviewing the legislation
x Confirm that the company can distinguish distributable reserves from those that
are non-distributable.
x Ensure appropriate disclosures of movements on reserves are made in the
company's accounts by inspection of the financial statements.

Chapter Roundup
x The largest figure in current liabilities will normally be trade accounts payable which are generally
audited by comparison of suppliers' statements with purchase ledger accounts.
x Non-current liabilities are usually authorised by the board and should be well documented.
x The accounting treatments for provisions and contingencies are complex and involve judgement and this
can make them difficult to audit.
x The main concern with share capital and reserves is that the company has complied with the law.
Quick Quiz
1 What are the two primary objectives of year-end work on liabilities?
(1) ……………………………………………………….
(2) ……………………………………………………….
2 Give two instances where trade accounts payables' confirmation is required.
(1) ……………………………………………………….
(2) ……………………………………………………….
3 State four issues auditors should consider when carrying out analytical review on wages and salaries.
(1) ……………………………………………………….
(2) ……………………………………………………….
(3) ……………………………………………………….
(4) ……………………………………………………….
4 Complete the definition
Non-current liabilities comprise ………………………, …………………..-……………….…. and other
loans ………………………… at a date ……………………. …………………….. a year ……………
the year-end.
5 What are the audit objectives relating to share capital?
(1) ………………………………………………………..
(2) ………………………………………………………..
(3) ………………………………………………………..

1 To ensure (1) completely and (2) accurately recorded.
2 (1) Supplier statements are unavailable
(2) Weak internal controls
3 (1) Salary rate changes
(2) Average wage by month over the year
(3) Sale/employee
(4) Payroll proof in total
4 debentures, loan-inventory, repayable, more than, after.
5 Share capital has been (1) properly classified and (2) disclosed in the financial statements and changes
are (3) properly authorised.


Not-for-profit
organisations

1 Objectives of not-for-profit organisations E6
2 Audit planning E6
3 Audit evidence E6
4 Audit reporting E6
Introduction
This chapter looks at the audit of not-for-profit organisations. Such entities
may or may not be required to have a statutory audit under legislation. They
may choose to have a non-statutory audit under the terms of a charitable deed
or as part of good practice.
The points made in this chapter about the issues inherent in these entities are
relevant for any kind of assurance work in not-for-profit organisations. These
entities will have particular features, the most obvious being the difference in
objectives of the entity, which will affect the way the work is carried out.
In this chapter we look specifically at the aspects of audit planning, evidence
and reporting in not-for-profit organisations and how these differ from for-
profit organisations.
281
Study guide
Intellectual level
E6 Not-for-profit organisations
(a) Apply audit techniques to small not-for-profit organisations 2
(b) Explain how the audit of small not-for-profit organisations differs from the 1
audit of for-profit organisations
Exam guide
An exam question on not-for-profit organisations may come up as a scenario-based question on audit
planning or evidence. In this case, use your knowledge of not-for-profit organisations as well as the clues
given in the scenario to generate ideas for your answer. The December 2008 paper had a question on audit
planning for a charity – there were 12 marks for identifying inherent risk areas and four marks on the
control environment.
1 Objectives of not-for-profit organisations

FAST FORWARD
There are various types of organisations such as charities which do not exist for the purpose of
maximising shareholder wealth but which may still require an audit.
1.1 Not-for-profit organisations

Before considering what a not-for-profit organisation's audit will entail, it will be helpful to consider the
types of entities that might exist with objectives other than to make a profit and their objectives, as these
will impact on the way that they report and the audit that is carried out.
1.2 Objectives of not-for-profit organisations

A hospital could operate at a profit by not spending all the money it receives in its budget. However, the
key objective of a hospital is to provide health services to the public, not to make a profit. As its income is
fixed, it is more likely to focus on cost-saving so that it can operate within its budget.
Question Objectives
Identify the key objectives and focus of the types of association listed above.
282 17: Not-for-profit organisations ~ Part E Audit evidence

Answer
Charities and friendly To carry out the charitable purpose. May involve fund-raising, receiving
societies donations, managing invested funds, controlling costs.
Schools To provide education. Likely to involve managing a tight budget (either from
fees or government funds).
Clubs, associations, To further the aims of the club, provide a service to members. May include
societies, unions managing subscriptions paid and keeping costs of running the club down.
Housing associations Managing the related houses and providing facilities for residents. May
involve rent collection and maintenance costs or even building costs of future
developments.
Local councils, public To provide local services to a budget based on public money. Likely to be
services focused on value for money as they are in the public eye.
1.3 Reporting
We noted in Chapter 1 that many not-for-profit organisations are legislated for and the acts which relate to
them may specify how they are to report their results.
Many of the organisations mentioned above may be companies (often companies limited by guarantee)
and so are required to prepare financial statements and have them audited under companies legislation.
In the UK, some of the entities will have associated Statements of Recommended Practice (SORPs).
SORPs are recommendations on accounting practices for specialised industries or sectors. They
supplement accounting standards and other legal and regulatory requirements. For example, there is a
SORP for charities (Accounting and reporting by charities) outlining what a charity's accounts should
comprise.
1.4 Audit
Where a statutory audit is required, the auditors will be required to produce the statutory audit opinion
concerning the truth and fairness of financial statements.
Where a statutory audit is not required, it is possible that the organisation might have one anyway for the
benefit of interested stakeholders, such as the public or people who donate to a charity.
It is also possible that such entities will have special, additional requirements of an audit. These may be
required by a regulator, or by the constitution of the organisation. For example, a charity's constitution
may require an audit of whether the charity is operating in accordance with its charitable purpose. The
Charity Commission for England and Wales has been established by law as the regulator and registrar for
charities in England and Wales, for example.
1.5 Conclusion
An audit of a not-for-profit organisation may vary from a 'for profit audit' due to:
x Its objectives and the impact on operations and reporting
x The purpose for which an audit is required
When carrying out an audit of a not-for-profit organisation, it is vital that the auditor establishes:
x Whether a statutory audit is required
x If a statutory audit it not required, what the objectives of the engagement are
x What the engagement is to report on
x To whom the report should be addressed
x What form the report should take
Part E Audit evidence ~ 17: Not-for-profit organisations 283

Exam focus You should think around the issues raised for the audit in relation to all the following entities, and be able
point to apply similar facts and reasoning to any not-for-profit organisation which comes up in the exam.
Remember, the issues relating to small companies that we have discussed in this Study Text may also
apply to small not-for-profit organisations as well. There is a useful article on not-for-profit organisations
in the September 2009 edition of Student Accountant, which you can also access on the ACCA's website.
2 Audit planning
FAST FORWARD
The audit risks associated with not-for-profit organisations may well be different from other entities.
2.1 Small charity audit

When planning the audit of a charity, the auditors should particularly consider the following:
x The scope of the audit
x Recent recommendations of the regulatory bodies
x The acceptability of accounting policies adopted
x Changes in circumstances in the sector in which the charity operates
x Past experience of the effectiveness of the charity's accounting system
x Key audit areas
x The amount of detail included in the financial statements on which the auditors are required to
report
The scope of the audit is two-fold. The auditors have to report on the truth and fairness of the financial
statements for the benefit of the trustees and also on whether the charity is meeting its objectives. The
auditors should therefore establish what the objectives are and consider how they are to identify whether
the objectives are being met. In order to identify the key audit areas, the auditors will have to consider
audit risk.
2.1.1 Audit risk

FAST FORWARD
Cash may be significant in small not-for-profit organisations and controls are likely to be limited. Income
may well be a risk area, particularly where money is donated or raised informally.
There are certain risks applicable to charities that might not necessarily be applicable to other small
companies. The auditors should consider the following:
Issue Key factors

Inherent risk x The complexity and extent of regulation
x The significance of donations and cash receipts
x Difficulties of the charity in establishing ownership and timing of voluntary income
where funds are raised by non-controlled bodies
x Lack of predictable income or precisely identifiable relationship between expenditure
and income
x Uncertainty of future income
x Restrictions imposed by the objectives and powers given by charities' governing
documents
x The importance of restricted funds
x The extent and nature of trading activities must be compatible with the entity's
charitable status
x The complexity of tax rules (whether income, capital, sales or local rates) relating to
charities

Issue Key factors
x The sensitivity of certain key statistics, such as the proportion of resources used in
administration
x The need to maintain adequate resources for future expenditure whilst avoiding the
build up of reserves which could appear excessive
Control risk x The amount of time committed by trustees to the charity's affairs
x The skills and qualifications of individual trustees
x The frequency and regularity of trustee meetings
x The form and content of trustee meetings
x The independence of trustees from each other
x The division of duties between trustees
x The degree of involvement in, or supervision of, the charity's transactions on the part
of individual trustees
Control x A recognised plan of the charity's structure showing clearly the areas of responsibility
environment and lines of authority and reporting
x Segregation of duties
x Supervision by trustees of activities of staff where segregation of duties is not practical
x Competence, training and qualification of paid staff and any volunteers appropriate to
the tasks they have to perform
x Involvement of the trustees in the recruitment, appointment and supervision of senior
executives
x Access of trustees to independent professional advice where necessary
x Budgetary controls in the form of estimates of income and expenditure for each
financial year and comparison of actual results with the estimates on a regular basis
x Communication of results of such reviews to the trustees on a regular basis
2.1.2 Internal controls

Small charities will generally suffer from internal control weaknesses common to small enterprises, such as
lack of segregation of duties and the use of unqualified staff. Shortcomings may arise from the staff's lack
of training and also, if they are volunteers, from their attitude, in that they may resent formal procedures.
The auditors will have to consider particularly carefully whether they will be able to obtain adequate
assurance that the accounting records do reflect all the transactions of the enterprise and bear in mind
whether there are any related statutory reporting requirements.
The following types of internal control might be typical of a number of charities.
Cash donations
Source Examples of controls
Collecting boxes Numerical control over boxes and tins
and tins Satisfactory sealing of boxes and tins so that any opening prior to recording cash
is apparent
Regular collection and recording of proceeds from collecting boxes
Dual control over counting and recording of proceeds
Postal receipts Unopened mail kept securely
Dual control over mail opening
Immediate recording of donations on opening of mail or receipt
Agreement of bank paying-in slips to record of receipts by an independent person

Cash donations
Deeds of covenant Regular checks and follow-up procedures to ensure due amounts are received
Regular checks to ensure all tax repayments have been obtained
Legacies Comprehensive correspondence files maintained in respect of each legacy
Regular reports and follow-up procedures undertaken in respect of outstanding
legacies
Donations in kind In case of charity shops, separation of recording, storage and sale of inventory
Other income
Fund-raising Records maintained for each fund-raising event
activities Other appropriate controls maintained over receipts
Controls maintained over expenses as for administrative expenses
Central and local Regular checks that all sources of income or funds are fully utilised and
government grants appropriate claims made
and loans Ensuring income or funds are correctly applied by adequate monitoring
Use of resources
Resource Examples of controls
Restricted funds Separate records maintained of relevant income, expenditure and assets
Terms controlling application of funds
Oversight of application of fund monies by independent personnel or trustees
Grants to Records maintained, as appropriate, of requests for material grants received and
beneficiaries their treatment
Appropriate checks made on applications and applicants for grants, and that
amounts paid are in accordance with legislation
Records maintained of all grant decisions, checking that proper authority exists,
that adequate documentation is presented to decision-making meetings, and that
any conflicts of interest are recorded
Controls to ensure grants made are properly spent by the recipient for the specified
purpose
Question Audit risks
The Midvale League is a small association. It runs several local football leagues for various ages and
stages. It employs a general administrator and some casual bar staff. Any player who appears in more
than 30% of a team's games for the season is required to pay a subscription to the association. The
subscriptions pay for the administrator's wages, the referee's fees, team coaches' expenses and a lease
on a sport's club comprising a clubhouse, changing facilities and three football pitches. The administrator
also acts as groundsman. There is a bar in the clubhouse which is run for the benefit of members at a
profit which covers bar staff wages and contributes to other expenses of the club. The association pays a
local firm of accountants to prepare management accounts every quarter and to produce annual financial
statements which it then audits for the benefit of members of the club.
Required
Identify any audit risks arising from The Midvale League.

Answer
Inherent risks
The classification of the sport's club lease may be problematic. It is certainly likely to be their biggest
financial commitment. The auditor will need to determine whether the terms of the lease mean that it
should be included on the statement of financial position as an asset, showing the corresponding liability
or whether it does not qualify. If the terms of the lease agreement imply that the lease is merely an
operating lease, the auditors should consider whether this has implications for the going concern of the
association, as if it obtains no long-term benefit from the lease, it might be faced with the situation where
it has nowhere to operate in the foreseeable future, in which case, the purpose of the association is gone.
The auditors will also have to consider the role of the general administrator, who fulfils a number of roles.
He is clearly a key man to the association, and it might find that it had difficulties if he was incapacitated,
not least perhaps in affording a replacement and any sickness benefit they were required to pay by law.
It is unclear what degree of financial record keeping the administrator takes on. The audit firm is hired to
produce quarterly management accounts. It will gain some assurance from the fact that it prepares the
accounts, but there is also a risk that day to day transactions are not properly recorded, as there appears
to be nobody with financial expertise 'at the coal face'. Given that the administrator will record or maintain
the relevant records to be passed on to the accountancy firm, there is also an issue of segregation of
duties here.
The auditors should be aware of any legal issues relating to the bearing of a licence for the bar, particularly
perhaps the danger that the licence might be jeopardised by the sale of liquor to underage drinkers. The
loss of the licence to serve alcohol could severely diminish the income of the club to the point where it
could no longer function.
The auditors will also need to pay attention to the membership of the association from the point of view of
completeness of income.
3 Audit evidence
FAST FORWARD
Obtaining audit evidence may be a problem, particularly where organisations have informal arrangements
and this may impact on the auditor's report.
3.1 Small charity

When designing substantive procedures for charities the auditors should give special attention to the
possibility of:
x Understatement or incompleteness of the recording of all income including gifts in kind, cash
donations, and legacies
x Overstatement of cash grants or expenses
x Misanalysis or misuse in the application of funds
x Misstatement or omission of assets including donated properties and investments
x The existence of restricted or uncontrollable funds in foreign or independent branches
Completeness of income can be a particularly problematic area. Areas auditors may check include:
x Loss of income through fraud
x Recognition of income from professional fund raisers
x Recognition of income from branches, associates or subsidiaries
x Income from informal fundraising groups
x Income from grants

3.1.1 Overall review of financial statements
The auditors must consider carefully whether the accounting policies adopted are appropriate to the
activities, constitution and objectives of the charity, and are consistently applied, and whether the financial
statements adequately disclose these policies and present fairly the state of affairs and the results for the
accounting period.
In particular the auditors should consider the basis of disclosing income from fund-raising activities (for
example, net or gross), accounting for income and expenses (accruals or cash), the capitalising of
expenditure on non-current assets, apportioning administrative expenditure and recognising income from
donations and legacies.
Charities without significant endowments or accumulated funds will often be dependent upon future
income from voluntary sources. In these circumstances auditors may question whether a going concern
basis of accounting is appropriate.
Question Charity audit
You have recently been appointed auditor of Links Famine Relief, a small registered charity which receives
donations from individuals to provide food in famine areas around the world.
The charity is run by a voluntary management committee, which has monthly meetings and it employs the
following full-time staff:
(a) A director, Mr Roberts, who suggests fund raising activities and payments for relief of famine, and
implements the policies adopted by the management committee
(b) A secretary and bookkeeper, Mrs Beech, who deals with correspondence and keeps the accounting
records
You are planning the audit of income of the charity for the year ended 5 April 20X7 and are considering the
controls which should be exercised over this area.
The previous year's accounts, to 5 April 20X6 (which have been audited by another firm) show the
following income.
$ $
Gifts under non-taxing arrangements 14,745
Tax reclaimed on gifts under non-taxing arrangements 4,915
19,660
Donations through the post 63,452
Autumn Fair 2,671
Other income
Legacies 7,538
Bank deposit account interest 2,774
10,312
96,095
Notes
(a) Income from gifts under non-taxing arrangements is stated net. Each person who pays by deed of
covenant has filled in a special tax form, which is kept by the full-time secretary, Mrs Beech.
(b) All gifts under non-taxing arrangements are paid by banker's order – they are credited directly to
the charity's bank account from the donor's bank. Donors make their payments by deed of
covenant either monthly or annually.
(c) The tax reclaimed on these gifts is 1/3 of the net value of the gifts, and relates to income received
during the year – as the tax is received after the year-end, an appropriate amount recoverable is
included in the statement of financial position. The treasurer, who is a voluntary (unpaid) member
of the management committee, completes the form for reclaiming the income tax, using the special
tax forms (in (a) above) and checks to the secretary's records that each donor has made the full
payment in the year required by the arrangement.
(d) Donations received through the post are dealt with by Mrs Beech. These donations are either
cheques or cash (bank notes and coins). Mrs Beech prepares a daily list of donations received,

which lists the cheques received and total cash (divided between the different denominations of
bank notes and coins). The total on this form is recorded in the cash book. She then prepares a
paying-in slip and banks these donations daily. When there is a special fund-raising campaign, Mrs
Beech receives help in dealing with these donations from voluntary members of the management
committee.
(e) The Autumn Fair takes place every year on a Saturday in October – members of the management
committee and other supporters of the charity give items to sell (for example food, garden plants,
clothing). A charge is made for entrance to the fair and coffee and biscuits are available at a small
charge. At the end of the fair, Mrs Beech collects the takings from each of the stalls and she banks
them the following Monday.
(f) Legacies are received irregularly, and are usually sent direct to the director of the charity, who
gives them to Mrs Beech for banking – they are stated separately on the daily bankings form (in (d)
above).
(g) Bank deposit account interest is paid gross of income tax by the bank, as the Links Famine Relief is
a charity.
Required
List and briefly describe the work you would carry out on the audit of income of the charity, the controls
you would expect to see in operation and the problems you may experience for the following sources of
income, as detailed in the statement above.
(a) Gifts under non-taxing arrangements
(b) Tax reclaimed on gifts made under non-taxing arrangements
(c) Donations received through the post
(d) Autumn Fair
Answer
The audit consideration in relation to the various sources of income of the Links Famine Relief charity
would be as follows.
(a) Gifts made under non-taxing arrangements
This type of income should not present any particular audit problem as the donations are made by
banker's order direct to the charity's bank account and so it would be difficult for such income to
be 'intercepted' and misappropriated.
Specific tests required would be as follows.
(i) Agree a sample of receipts from the bank statements to the cash book to ensure that the
income has been properly recorded.
(ii) Agree a sample of the receipts to the special tax forms to ensure that the full amount due
has been received.
Any discrepancies revealed by either of the above tests should be followed up with Mrs Beech.
(b) Tax reclaimed on gifts made under non-taxing arrangements
Once again this income should not pose any particular audit problems. The auditors should inspect
the claim form submitted to the tax authorities and calculate whether the amount of the claim
represents 1/3 of the net value of the covenants recorded as having been received.
(c) Donations received through the post
There is a serious problem here as the nature of this income is not predictable and also because of
the lack of internal checks, with Mrs Beech being almost entirely responsible for the receipt of
these monies, the recording of the income and the banking of the cash and cheques received. The
auditors may ultimately have to express a qualified opinion in this area.

Notwithstanding the above reservations, specific audit tests required would be as follows.
(i) Agree the details on the daily listings of donations received to the cash book, bank
statements and paying-in slips, observing whether the details agree in all respects and
confirming that there is no evidence of any delay in the banking of this income.
(ii) Agree the donations received by reference to any correspondence which may have been
received with the cheques or cash.
(iii) Consider whether the level of income appears reasonable by performing analytical
procedures to make comparison with previous years and in light of any special appeals that
the charity is known to have made during the course of the year.
(iv) Carry out, with permission from the management committee, surprise checks to vouch the
completeness and accuracy of the procedures relating to this source of income.
(d) Autumn Fair
Once again there is a potential problem here because of the level of responsibility vested in one
person, namely Mrs Beech.
Specific work required would be as follows.
(i) Attend the event to observe the proper application of laid down procedures and count the
cash at the end of the day.
(ii) Agree any records maintained by individual stallholders to the summary prepared by Mrs
Beech.
(iii) Inspect the vouchers supporting any expenditure deducted from the proceeds in order to
arrive at the net bankings.
(iv) Agree the summary prepared by Mrs Beech to the entry in the cash book and on the bank
statement.
4 Audit reporting
FAST FORWARD
The nature of the report will depend on statutory and entity requirements, but it should conform to the
criteria in ISA 700 Forming an opinion and reporting on financial statements.
For not-for-profit audits where a statutory audit report is required, the auditors should issue the same
report that we have considered briefly in Chapter 1. They should also consider whether any additional
statutory requirements fall on the audit report.
Where an association or charity is having an audit for the benefit of its members or trustees, the standard
audit report may not be required or appropriate. The auditor should bear in mind the objectives of the
audit and make suitable references in the audit report. However, the ISA 700 format will still be relevant.
The auditor should ensure that he makes the following matters clear:
x The addressees of the report
x What the report relates to
x The scope of the engagement
x The respective responsibilities of auditors and management/trustees/directors
x The work done
x The opinion drawn

Chapter Roundup
x There are various types of organisations such as charities which do not exist for the purpose of
maximising shareholder wealth but which may still require an audit.
x The audit risks associated with not-for-profit organisations may well be different from other entities.
x Cash may be significant in small not-for-profit organisations and controls are likely to be limited. Income
may well be a risk area, particularly where money is donated or raised informally.
x Obtaining audit evidence may be a problem, particularly where organisations have informal arrangements
and this may impact on the auditor's report.
x The nature of the report will depend on statutory and entity requirements, but it should conform to the
criteria in ISA 700 Forming an opinion and reporting on financial statements.
Quick Quiz
1 List five examples of not-for-profit organisations.
2 All not-for-profit organisations must have a statutory audit.
True
False
3 Explain why income can be a problem when auditing charities.
4 Complete the table, giving two examples of controls in each area.
Cash donations Other donations Other income
5 Explain why the control environment in a small charity might be weak.

1 Any five from charities, hospitals, schools, clubs, associations, friendly societies, local councils, public
services, trades unions, societies, housing associations
2 False
3 x Loss of income through fraud
x Recognition of income from professional fund raisers
x Recognition of income from branches, associates or subsidiaries
x Income from informal fundraising groups
x Income from grants
4
Cash donations Other donations Other income
Numerical control over boxes and Regular checks and follow-up Records maintained for each
tins procedures to ensure due fundraising event
amounts are received
Satisfactory sealing of boxes and Regular checks to ensure all tax Other appropriate controls
tins so that any opening prior to repayments have been obtained maintained over receipts
recording cash is apparent
Regular collection and recording Comprehensive correspondence Controls maintained over
of proceeds from collecting boxes files maintained in respect of expenses as for administrative
each legacy expenses
Dual control over counting and Regular reports and follow-up Regular monitoring that all
recording of proceeds procedures undertaken in respect sources of income or funds are
of outstanding legacies fully utilised and appropriate
claims made
Unopened mail kept securely In case of charity shops,
separation of recording, storage
and sale of inventory
Dual control over the opening of
mail
Immediate recording of donations
on opening of mail or receipt
Agreement of bank paying-in
slips to record of receipts by an
independent person
5 x Lack of segregation of duties

x Unqualified staff
x Lack of staff training
x Voluntary staff so unclear responsibilities
x High staff turnover
x Lack of internal audit department


P
A
R
T
Review
293
294
Audit review
and finalisation

1 Subsequent events F1
2 Going concern F2
3 Written representations F3
4 Overall review of financial statements F4
Introduction
This chapter will consider the reviews that take place to complete the audit,
which include subsequent events and going concern. These are both important
disclosure issues in the financial statements, because if the disclosures are not
correct, this will impact on the auditor's report.
In this chapter, we also consider the use and reliability of written
representations from management as audit evidence.
Financial reporting knowledge is particularly important at the review stage of
the audit. Auditors need to be able to interpret accounts and understand the
requirements of specific accounting standards. Analytical procedures must be
used when undertaking the final review of the financial statements.
295
Study guide
Intellectual level
F1 Subsequent events
(a) Explain the purpose of a subsequent events review 1
(b) Discuss the procedures to be undertaken in performing a subsequent events 2
review
F2 Going concern
(a) Define and discuss the significance of the concept of going concern 2
(b) Explain the importance of and the need for going concern reviews 2
(c) Explain the respective responsibilities of auditors and management 1
regarding going concern
(d) Discuss the procedures to be applied in performing going concern reviews 2
(e) Discuss the disclosure requirements in relation to going concern issues 2
(f) Discuss the reporting implications of the findings of going concern reviews 2
F3 Management representations
(a) Explain the purpose of and procedure for obtaining management 2
representations
(b) Discuss the quality and reliability of management representations as audit 2
evidence
(c) Discuss the circumstances where management representations are 2
necessary and the matters on which representations are commonly obtained
F4 Audit finalisation and the final review
(a) Discuss the importance of the overall review of evidence obtained 2
(b) Explain the significance of unadjusted differences 1
Exam guide
The review stage of the audit is very important and highly likely to come up in the exam. It is very
important that you understand the difference between the review stage of the audit and the earlier testing
stage. A question on subsequent events was set in the pilot paper in a scenario-based question which was
also linked to the potential impact on the audit report. The December 2007 paper contained a five mark
knowledge-based question on going concern.
The June 2008 paper had a three mark knowledge-based question on items to be included in the
representation letter, as well as 16 marks on going concern in a scenario context. The December 2008 had
a 20 mark scenario question on subsequent events. The June 2009 paper had a similar requirement in
question 5.
1 Subsequent events Pilot paper, Dec 08, June 09

FAST FORWARD
Subsequent events are events occurring between the period-end and the date of the auditor’s report and
also include facts discovered after the auditor’s report has been issued. Auditors shall consider the effect
of such events on the financial statements and on their audit opinion.
Key term
Subsequent events are events occurring between the date of the financial statements and the date of the
auditor's report, and facts that become known to the auditor after the date of the auditor's report.
296 18: Audit review and finalisation ~ Part F Review

IAS 10 Events after the reporting period deals with the treatment in the financial statements of events, both
favourable and unfavourable, occurring after the period-end. There are two types of event defined by IAS 10:
x Those that provide evidence of conditions that existed at the year-end date (adjusting events)
x Those that are indicative of conditions that arose after the year-end date (non-adjusting events)
You should be familiar with adjusting and non-adjusting events from your financial reporting studies. Here
are some examples.
Adjusting events Non-adjusting events

Settlement of a court case Dividends declared after the year-end
Sale of inventory after year-end providing evidence Fire causing destruction of major plant
of its NRV at year-end
Fraud or error showing the accounts are incorrect Announcement of a major restructuring
ISA 560 Subsequent events provides guidance to auditors in this area. The objectives of the auditor are:
x To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether events occurring between the date of
the financial statements and the date of the auditor’s report that need adjustment or disclosure in
the financial statements are properly reflected in the financial statements
x To respond appropriately to facts that become known to the auditor after the date of the auditor’s
report which may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report if they were known to the
auditor at the date of the report
1.1 Procedures
FAST FORWARD
Auditors have a responsibility to review subsequent events before they sign the auditor's report, and
may have to take action if they become aware of subsequent events between the date they sign the
auditor's report and the date the financial statements are issued.
The following time line is helpful when considering subsequent events and the auditor's responsibilities
concerning them.
ACTIVE DUTY PASSIVE DUTY
Auditor's Financial
Year-end report signed statements issued Financial statements
approved by members
1.1.1 Events occurring up to the date of the auditor's report

The auditor shall perform procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that all
events up to the date of the auditor's report that may require adjustment of, or disclosure in, the financial
statements have been identified.
These procedures should be applied to any matters examined during the audit which may be susceptible
to change after the year-end. They are in addition to tests on specific transactions after the period end, eg
cut-off tests.
ISA 560 lists procedures to identify subsequent events which may require adjustment or disclosure. They
should be performed as near as possible to the date of the auditors' report.
Part F Review ~ 18: Audit review and finalisation 297

AUDIT PROCEDURES TO TEST SUBSEQUENT EVENTS
Inquiries of Status of items involving subjective judgement
management Status of items accounted for using preliminary or inconclusive data
Whether there are any new commitments, borrowings or guarantees
Whether there have been any:
x Sales or destruction of assets
x Issues of shares/debentures or changes in business structure
x Developments involving risk areas, provisions and contingencies
x Unusual accounting adjustments
x Major events (eg going concern problems) affecting appropriateness of
accounting policies for estimates
x Litigations or claims
Other Review management procedures for identifying subsequent events to ensure that such
procedures events are identified.
Read minutes of general board/committee meetings and enquire about unusual items.
Review latest available interim financial statements and budgets, cash flow forecasts
and other management reports.
Obtain evidence concerning any litigation or claims from the company's solicitors (only
with client permission).
Obtain written representation that all events occurring subsequent to the period-end
which need adjustment or disclosure have been adjusted or disclosed.
1.1.2 Facts discovered after the date of the auditor's report but before the financial
statements are issued
The financial statements are the management's responsibility. They should therefore inform the auditors
of any material subsequent events between the date of the auditors' report and the date the financial
statements are issued. The auditor does not have any obligation to perform procedures, or make enquires
regarding the financial statements, after the date of the report.
However if the auditor becomes aware of a fact that had it been known to the auditor at the date of the
report may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:
x Discuss the matter with management and those charged with governance.
x Determine whether the financial statements need amendment.
x If amendment is required, inquire how management intends to address the matter in the financial
statements.
If amendment is required to the financial statements and management makes the necessary changes, the
auditor must carry out a number of procedures:
x Undertake any necessary audit procedures on the changes made.
x Extend audit procedures for identifying subsequent events that may require adjustment of or
disclosure in the financial statements to the date of the new auditor's report.
x Provide a new auditor's report on the amended financial statements.
If management does not amend the financial statements:
x If the auditor’s report has not yet been provided to the entity, the auditor shall modify the opinion
and then provide the auditor’s report.
x If the auditor’s report has already been provided to the entity, the auditor shall notify management
and those charged with governance not to issue the financial statements before the amendments
are made; but if the financial statements are issued anyway, the auditor shall take action to seek to
prevent reliance on the auditor’s report.

1.1.3 Facts discovered after the financial statements have been issued
Auditors have no obligations to perform procedures or make enquiries regarding the financial statements
after they have been issued.
However if the auditor becomes aware of a fact that had it been known to the auditor at the date of the
report may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:
x Discuss the matter with management and those charged with governance.
x Determine whether the financial statements need amendment.
x If amendment is required, inquire how management intends to address the matter in the financial
statements.
If management amends the financial statements, the auditor shall carry out procedures necessary on the
amendment and review the steps taken by management to ensure that anyone in receipt of the previously
issued financial statements is informed.
The auditor shall also issue a new or amended auditor’s report which will include an explanatory
paragraph (known as an emphasis of matter paragraph or other matter paragraph – we discuss these
further in Chapter 19) that refers to a note in the financial statements that discusses the reason for the
amendment. Audit procedures will be extended to the date of the new report.
If management does not take the necessary steps, the auditor shall notify management and those charged
with governance that the auditor will seek to prevent future reliance on the report. If management still
does not act, the auditor shall take appropriate action to seek to prevent reliance on the auditor’s report.
2 Going concern Dec 07, June 08

FAST FORWARD
If the entity has inappropriately used the going concern assumption or a material uncertainty exists, this
may impact on the auditor’s report.
Key term Under the going concern assumption, an entity is viewed as continuing in business for the foreseeable
future. When the use of the going concern assumption is appropriate, assets and liabilities are recorded
on the basis that the entity will be able to realise its assets and discharge its liabilities in the normal course
of business.
ISA 570 Going concern provides guidance to auditors in this area. The objectives of the auditor are:
x To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the appropriateness of management’s
use of the going concern assumption
x To conclude whether a material uncertainty exists related to events or conditions that may cast
significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern
x To determine the implications for the auditor’s report
ISA 570 includes examples of events or conditions that may cast doubt about the going concern
assumption. These fall under three headings: ‘financial’, ‘operating’ and ‘other’, and are shown in the table
below.
Events or conditions that may cast doubt about the going concern assumption
Financial x Net liability or net current liability position
x Fixed-term borrowings approaching maturity without realistic
prospects of renewal or repayment
x Excessive reliance on short-term borrowings to finance long-term
assets
x Withdrawal of financial support by creditors
x Negative operating cash flows

Events or conditions that may cast doubt about the going concern assumption
x Adverse key financial ratios
x Substantial operating losses or significant deterioration in the
value of assets used to generate cash flows
x Arrears or discontinuance of dividends
x Inability to pay creditors on due dates
x Inability to comply with terms of loan agreements
x Change from credit to cash-on-delivery transactions with suppliers
x Inability to obtain financing for essential new product development
or other essential investments
Operating x Management intentions to liquidate or cease operations
x Loss of key management without replacement
x Loss of a major market, key customers, licence, or principal
suppliers
x Labour difficulties
x Shortages of important supplies
x Emergence of a highly successful competitor
Other x Non-compliance with capital or other statutory requirements
x Pending legal or regulatory proceedings against the entity
x Changes in law or regulations that may adversely affect the entity
x Uninsured or under-insured catastrophes when they occur
2.1 Management's responsibilities for going concern

Management has specific responsibilities relating to going concern that may be set out in law or regulation
and in the financial reporting framework. IAS 1 Presentation of financial statements, for example, contains
a specific requirement that management makes an assessment of an entity's ability to continue as a going
concern.
Regardless of this, because general purpose financial statements are prepared on a going concern basis,
the going concern assumption is a fundamental principle in the preparation of financial statements.
Therefore management's responsibility for the preparation and presentation of the financial statements
also encompasses a responsibility to assess the entity's ability to continue as a going concern even if
there is no explicit requirement to do so in the financial reporting framework.
Management's assessment involves making a judgement about inherently uncertain future outcomes of
events or conditions. This judgement is affected by the following:
x Degree of uncertainty which increases the further into the future an event/condition/outcome
occurs
x Size and complexity of the entity
x Nature and condition of the business
x Judgement about the future is based on information available at the time the judgement is made
but subsequent events may result in inconsistent outcomes
This section highlights why audit work on going concern is crucial – because of the judgements used by
management in making its assessment of going concern.
2.2 Management’s assessment

Management may have performed a preliminary assessment of whether the entity can continue as a
going concern. If it has, the auditor shall discuss it with management. If the assessment has not been
performed, the auditor shall discuss with management the basis for the intended use of the going concern
assumption.

The auditor shall remain alert throughout the audit for evidence of events or conditions that may cast
significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
The auditor shall evaluate management’s assessment of the entity’s ability to continue as a going
concern. However, if this assessment covers less than 12 months from the date of the financial
statements, the auditor shall ask management to extend its assessment period to at least 12 months from
that date.
The auditor shall also inquire of management its knowledge of events or conditions beyond the period of
the assessment that may cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
2.3 Events or conditions identified

If events or conditions are identified that may cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a
going concern, the auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to determine whether a
material uncertainty exists by:
x Requesting management to make its assessment where this has not been done
x Evaluating management’s plans for future action
x Evaluating the reliability of underlying data used to prepare a cash flow forecast and considering
the assumptions used to make the forecast
x Considering whether any additional facts or information have become available since the date
management made its assessment
x Requesting written representations from management and those charged with governance about
plans for future action and the feasibility of these plans
Specific audit procedures the auditor might carry out could include the following:
x Analyse and discuss cash flow, profit and other relevant forecasts with management.
x Analyse and discuss the entity's latest available interim financial statements (or management
accounts).
x Review the terms of debentures and loan agreements and determine whether they have been
breached.
x Read minutes of the meetings of shareholders, the board of directors and important committees
for reference to financing difficulties.
x Inquire of the entity's lawyer regarding litigation and claims.
x Confirm the existence, legality and enforceability of arrangements to provide or maintain
financial support with related and third parties.
x Assess the financial ability of such parties to provide additional funds.
x Consider the entity's position concerning unfulfilled customer orders.
x Review events after the period-end for items affecting the entity's ability to continue as a going
concern.
2.4 Audit reporting

The auditor shall consider whether a material uncertainty exists related to events or conditions which
may cast doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern, as this will impact on the opinion
issued in the auditor's report because the uncertainty must be disclosed.
The following table summarises the possible scenarios that could arise following the auditor’s review of
going concern. We discuss audit reporting in detail in chapter 19 so you may wish to revisit this section
again after having studied chapter 19. ISA 570 does provide example extracts in respect of the following
scenarios and these are presented below the table.

Scenario Impact on audit report
1 Going concern assumption appropriate but Unmodified opinion and explanatory emphasis of
material uncertainty which is adequately matter paragraph
disclosed
2 Going concern assumption appropriate but Qualified or adverse opinion (ie modified opinion)
material uncertainty which is not adequately
disclosed
3 Use of going concern assumption inappropriate Adverse opinion (ie modified opinion)
4 Management unwilling to make or extend its Qualified or disclaimer of opinion (ie modified
assessment opinion)
Scenario 1: Going concern assumption appropriate but material uncertainty which is adequately
disclosed
In this situation, the opinion on the financial statements will be unmodified but the auditor’s report will
include an emphasis of matter paragraph which is an explanatory paragraph detailing the uncertainty. The
ISA contains an example of such an extract from the auditor’s report:
Emphasis of Matter
Without qualifying our opinion, we draw attention to Note X in the financial statements which indicates
that the Company incurred a net loss of ZZZ during the year ended December 31, 20X1 and, as of that
date, the company’s current liabilities exceeded its total assets by YYY. These conditions, along with other
matters as set forth in Note X, indicate the existence of a material uncertainty that may cast significant
doubt about the Company’s ability to continue as a going concern.
Scenario 2: Going concern assumption appropriate but mater uncertainty which is not adequately
disclosed
In this situation, as inadequate disclosure has been made of the material uncertainty, the auditor’s opinion
will be modified – either a qualified or adverse opinion will be issued depending on the magnitude of the
uncertainty. An extract from the auditor’s report where a qualified opinion is issued is provided by the ISA
and set out below:
Basis for Qualified Opinion

The Company’s financing arrangements expire and amounts outstanding are payable on March 19, 20X1.
The Company has been unable to re-negotiate or obtain replacement financing. This situation indicates the
existence of a material uncertainty that may cast significant doubt on the Company’s ability to continue as
a going concern and therefore the Company may be unable to realise its assets and discharge its liabilities
in the normal course of business. The financial statements (and notes thereto) do not fully disclose this
fact.
Qualified Opinion
In our opinion, except for the incomplete disclosure of the information referred to in the Basis for Qualified
Opinion paragraph, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects (or “give a true and fair
view of”) the financial position of the Company as at December 31, 20X0, and of its financial performance
and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with …

Scenario 3: Use of going concern assumption inappropriate
When the going concern assumption has been used but this is considered inappropriate by the auditor, an
adverse opinion must be issued, regardless of whether or not the financial statements include disclosure
of the inappropriateness of management’s use of the going concern assumption.
Basis for Adverse Opinion

[Provide explanation of inappropriate use of going concern assumption]
Adverse Opinion
In our opinion, because of the omission of the information mentioned in the Basis for Adverse Opinion
paragraph, the financial statements do not present fairly (or “give a true and fair view of”) the financial
position of the Company as at December 31, 20X0, and of its financial performance and its cash flows for
the year then ended in accordance with …
Scenario 4: Management unwilling to make or extend its assessment

In some circumstances, the auditor may ask management to make or extend its assessment. If
management does not do this, a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion in the auditor’s report may be
appropriate, because it may not be possible for the auditor to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the use of the going concern assumption in the preparation of the financial statements.
Examples of auditor’s reports with a disclaimer of opinion are provided in chapter 19 which looks at
modifications to the auditor’s opinion in detail.
2.5 Communicating to those charged with governance

The auditor shall communicate with those charged with governance events or conditions that may cast
doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern. This will include:
x Whether the events or conditions constitute a material uncertainty
x Whether the use of the going concern assumption is appropriate in the preparation and
presentation of the financial statements
x The adequacy of related disclosures
3 Written representations June 08

FAST FORWARD
The auditor obtains written representations from management concerning its responsibilities and to
support other audit evidence where necessary.
Key term Written representations are written statements by management provided to the auditor to confirm certain
matters or to support other audit evidence. They do not include the financial statements, assertions or
supporting books and records.
ISA 580 Written representations provides guidance to auditors in this area. The objectives of the auditor
are:
x To obtain written representations that management believes that it has fulfilled the fundamental
responsibilities that constitute the premise on which an audit is conducted
x To support other audit evidence relevant to the financial statements if determined by the auditor or
required by other ISAs
x To respond appropriately to written representations or if management does not provide written
representations requested by the auditor
There are three areas in which written representations are necessary – to confirm management's
responsibilities, where they are required by other ISAs and to support other audit evidence. We discuss
these below in more detail.

3.1 Written representations about management’s responsibilities
The auditor shall request management to provide written representations on the following matters:
x That management has fulfilled its responsibility for the preparation and presentation of the
financial statements as set out in the terms of the audit engagement and whether the financial
statements are prepared and presented in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
framework
x That management has provided the auditor with all relevant information agreed in the terms of the
audit engagement and that all transactions have been recorded and are reflected in the financial
statements
3.2 Other written representations

Other ISAs require written representations on specific issues but if the auditor considers it necessary to
obtain representations in addition to these to support other audit evidence, the auditor shall request these
other written representations.
The following table includes examples of other written representations.
Other written representations

Whether the selection and application of accounting policies are appropriate
Plans or intentions that may affect the carrying value or classification of assets and liabilities
Liabilities, both actual and contingent
Title to, or control over, assets, liens or encumbrances on assets and assets pledged as collateral
Aspects of laws, regulations and contractual agreements that may affect the financial statements,
including non-compliance
All deficiencies in internal control that management is aware of have been communicated to the auditor
Written representations about specific assertions in the financial statements
Significant assumptions used in making accounting estimates are reasonable
All subsequent events requiring adjustment or disclosure have been adjusted or disclosed
The effects of uncorrected misstatements are immaterial, both individually and in aggregate
Disclosed the results of management’s assessment of the risk that the financial statements may be
materially misstated as a result of fraud
Disclosed all information in relation to fraud or suspected fraud involving management, employees with
significant roles in internal control, and others where fraud could have a material effect on the financial
statements
Disclosed all information in relation to allegations of fraud or suspected fraud communicated by
employees, former employees, analysts, regulators or others
Disclosed all instances of non-compliance or suspected non-compliance with laws or regulations
3.3 Quality and reliability of written representations as audit evidence

Written representations are a form of audit evidence, however on their own they do not provide sufficient
appropriate audit evidence about the issues they relate to.
In addition, the fact that management has provided reliable written representations does not affect the
nature or extent of other audit evidence obtained by the auditor regarding the fulfilment of management's
responsibilities, or about specific assertions in the financial statements.
You will have noted at the start of section 3 on the objectives of the auditor regarding written
representations that the second objective is 'To support other audit evidence...' This is because although

written representations are necessary, they cannot provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence when they
stand alone.
3.4 Form of written representations

The written representations shall be in the form of a representation letter addressed to the auditor. ISA
580 includes an example representation letter in an appendix. The date of the representation letter must be
as near as practicable to, but not after, the date of the auditor's report on the financial statements and
must be for all the financial statements and period(s) referred to in the auditor's report.
Written representations are requested from those responsible for the preparation of the financial
statements – management is usually the responsible party. They can therefore be requested from the
chief executive officer and chief financial officer, or equivalent. In some cases though, it may be that those
charged with governance are also responsible for the preparation of the financial statements.
3.5 Doubt about the reliability of written representations

If written representations are inconsistent with other audit evidence, the auditor shall perform audit
procedures to try to resolve the matter. If the matter cannot be resolved, the auditor shall reconsider the
assessment of the competence, integrity and ethical values of management, and the effect this may have
on the reliability of representations and audit evidence in general.
If the auditor concludes that written representations are not reliable, the auditor shall take appropriate
actions, including determining the impact on the auditor’s report.
3.6 Written representations not provided

If management does not provide one or more requested written representations, the auditor shall:
x Discuss the matter with management.
x Re-evaluate the integrity of management and evaluate the effect this may have on the reliability of
representations and audit evidence in general.
x Take appropriate actions, including determining the impact on the auditor’s report.
4 Overall review of financial statements

FAST FORWARD
The auditors must perform and document an overall review of the financial statements by undertaking
analytical procedures before they can reach an opinion.
Once most of the substantive audit procedures have been carried out, the auditors will have a draft set of
financial statements which should be supported by appropriate and sufficient audit evidence. At the
beginning of the end of the audit process, it is usual for the auditors to undertake an overall review of the
This review of the financial statements, in conjunction with the conclusions drawn from the other audit
evidence obtained, gives the auditors a reasonable basis for their opinion on the financial statements. It
should be carried out by a senior member of the audit team, with appropriate skills and experience.
4.1 Compliance with accounting regulations

The auditors should consider whether:
(a) The information presented in the financial statements is in accordance with local/national statutory
requirements.
(b) The accounting policies employed are in accordance with accounting standards, properly
disclosed, consistently applied and appropriate to the entity.
When examining the accounting policies, auditors should consider:
(a) Policies commonly adopted in particular industries

(b) Policies for which there is substantial authoritative support
(c) Whether any departures from applicable accounting standards are necessary for the financial
statements to give a true and fair view
(d) Whether the financial statements reflect the substance of the underlying transactions and not
merely their form
When compliance with local/national statutory requirements and accounting standards is considered, the
auditors may find it useful to use a checklist.
4.2 Review for consistency and reasonableness

The auditors should consider whether the financial statements are consistent with their knowledge of the
entity's business and with the results of other audit procedures, and the manner of disclosure is fair. This
can be done by applying analytical procedures at or near the end of the audit in accordance with ISA 520
Analytical procedures which states that the auditor shall design and perform analytical procedures near
the end of the audit that assist in forming an overall conclusion as to whether the financial statements are
consistent with the auditor’s understanding of the entity.
The principal considerations are as follows.
(a) Whether the financial statements adequately reflect the information and explanations previously
obtained and conclusions previously reached during the course of the audit
(b) Whether it reveals any new factors which may affect the presentation of, or disclosure in, the
(c) Whether analytical procedures applied when completing the audit, such as comparing the
information in the financial statements with other pertinent data, produce results which assist in
arriving at the overall conclusion as to whether the financial statements as a whole are consistent
with their knowledge of the entity's business
(d) Whether the presentation adopted in the financial statements may have been unduly influenced by
the directors' desire to present matters in a favourable or unfavourable light
(e) The potential impact on the financial statements of the aggregate of uncorrected misstatements
(including those arising from bias in making accounting estimates) identified during the course of
the audit and the preceding period's audit, if any
The analytical review at the final stage should cover the following:
x Important accounting ratios
x Related items
x Changes in products/customers
x Price and mix changes
x Wages changes
x Variances
x Trends in production and sales
x Changes in material and labour content of production
x Other expenditure in the statement of comprehensive income
x Variations caused by industry or economy factors
As at other stages of the audit process, significant fluctuations and unexpected relationships must be
investigated by inquiries of management and obtaining appropriate audit evidence relevant to
management’s responses, and performing other audit procedures considered necessary.
4.3 Accounting treatment issues

As noted in the previous section auditors review the financial statements to assess whether the
accounting policies are consistently applied. Auditors should therefore consider whether new
accounting policies are appropriate, whether matters in financial statements are consistent with each
other, and whether the financial statements give a true and fair view.

4.4 Treatment of misstatements
Key terms A misstatement is a difference between the amount, classification, presentation, or disclosure of a
reported financial statement item and the amount, classification, presentation, or disclosure that is
required for the item to be in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. It can arise
from error or fraud.
An uncorrected misstatement is a misstatement accumulated during the audit by the auditor which has
not been corrected.
ISA 450 Evaluation of misstatements identified during the audit requires the auditor to accumulate
misstatements identified during the audit, other than those that are clearly trivial. The ISA distinguishes
between factual misstatements (misstatements about which there is no doubt), judgemental
misstatements (misstatements arising from management’s judgement concerning accounting estimates
or accounting policies) and projected misstatements (the auditor’s best estimate of misstatements
arising from sampling populations).
ISA 450 requires the auditor to communicate all misstatements accumulated during the audit with the
appropriate level of management on a timely basis and to request management to correct those
misstatements. If management refuses, the auditor must establish the reasons why and consider this
when evaluating whether the financial statements as a whole are free from material misstatement.
As part of their completion procedures, auditors shall consider whether the aggregate of uncorrected
misstatements in the financial statements is material, having first reassessed materiality in accordance
with ISA 320 Materiality in planning and performing an audit to confirm that it is still appropriate. When
determining whether uncorrected misstatements are material (individually or in aggregate), the auditor
shall consider the size and nature of the misstatements and the effect of uncorrected misstatements
related to prior periods on the financial statements as a whole.
4.4.1 Communication of uncorrected misstatements

ISA 450 requires the auditor to communicate uncorrected misstatements and their effect to those
charged with governance, with material uncorrected misstatements being identified individually. The
auditor shall request uncorrected misstatements to be corrected. The auditor shall also communicate the
effect of uncorrected misstatements relating to prior periods.
The auditor shall request a written representation from management and those charged with governance
whether they believe the effects of uncorrected misstatements are immaterial (individually and in
aggregate) to the financial statements as a whole. A summary of these items shall be included in or
attached to the representation.
4.4.2 Documentation
ISA 450 requires the auditor to document the following information:
x The amount below which misstatements would be regarded as clearly trivial
x All misstatements accumulated during the audit and whether they have been corrected
x The auditor’s conclusion as to whether uncorrected misstatements are material and the basis for
that conclusion
Exam focus The audit review and finalisation stage of the external audit is very important. It could come up in a
point scenario-based question or in the knowledge-based question 2 of the paper. It is vital that you are
completely comfortable with this stage of the audit process, and can distinguish it from the audit testing
stage.

Chapter Roundup
x Subsequent events are events occurring between the period-end and the date of the auditor’s report and
also include facts discovered after the auditor’s report has been issued. Auditors shall consider the effect
of such events on the financial statements and on their audit opinion.
x Auditors have a responsibility to review subsequent events before they sign the auditor's report, and
may have to take action if they become aware of subsequent events between the date they sign the
auditor's report and the date the financial statements are issued.
x If the entity has inappropriately used the going concern assumption or a material uncertainty exists, this
may impact on the auditor's report.
x The auditor obtains written representations from management concerning its responsibilities and to
support other audit evidence where necessary.
x The auditors must perform and document an overall review of the financial statements by undertaking
analytical procedures before they can reach an opinion.
Quick Quiz
1 State three inquiries that should be made of management to test subsequent events.
1 ……………………………………………………
2 ……………………………………………………
3 ……………………………………………………
2 Complete the definition, using the words given below.
Under the ……………………. …………………… assumption, an entity is viewed as …………………
in business for the …………………….. …………
future going continuing foreseeable concern
3 The auditors must satisfy themselves that the use of the going concern basis in the financial statements is
appropriate.
True
False
4 List four examples of what areas analytical review at the final stage should cover.
1 …………………………………………………
2 …………………………………………………
3 …………………………………………………
4 …………………………………………………
5 In evaluating whether the financial statements give a true and fair view, auditors shall assess the
materiality of uncorrected misstatements.
True
False

1 From:
x What the status is of items involving subjective judgement
x Whether there are any new commitments, borrowings or guarantees
x Whether any assets have been sold or destroyed
x Whether any new shares/debentures have been issued
x Whether there have been any developments in risk areas
x Any unusual accounting adjustments
x Any major events
2 going concern, continuing, foreseeable future
3 True
4 From:
x Important accounting ratios
x Related items
x Changes in products/customers
x Price and mix changes
x Wages changes
x Variances
x Trends in production and sales
x Changes in material and labour content of production
x Other income statement expenditure
x Variations caused by industry or economy factors
5 True


P
A
R
T
Reporting
311
312
Reports

1 The auditor's report on financial statements G1
2 Reports to management G2
Introduction
The auditor’s report is the means by which the external auditors express their
opinion on the truth and fairness of a company's financial statements. It is for
the benefit principally of the shareholders, but also for other users as the audit
report is usually kept on public record with the filed financial statements.
Many of the contents of the auditor's report are prescribed by statute. They are
also subject to professional requirements in the form of ISA 700 Forming an
opinion and reporting on financial statements. The auditor’s report may be
unqualified or modified and these are considered in detail in this chapter. We
also look at circumstances in detail which may impact on the auditor’s report:
other information in documents containing audited financial statements, and
opening balances and comparatives.
We end this chapter by looking at the report to management submitted to the
directors and management of a company. This is also known as a letter of
weakness or management letter or letter on internal control and is submitted at
the end of the audit as a by-product of the audit.
313
Study guide
Intellectual level
G1 Audit reports
(a) Describe and analyse the format and content of unmodified audit reports 2
(b) Describe and analyse the format and content of modified audit reports 2
G2 Reports to management
(a) Identify and analyse internal control and system weaknesses and their 2
potential effects and make appropriate recommendations to management
Exam guide
You will not be expected to reproduce a full audit report in the exam, however you may be required to
describe different types of modification either in a knowledge-based part of a question or in a scenario-
based situation. Questions on the report to management setting out deficiencies in internal control are
highly likely to come up in a scenario-based context.
The pilot paper had three marks in question 2 on modifications to the audit report. There were eight marks
available in question 3 on weaknesses in a company's wages system and recommendations to overcome
the weaknesses. Question 5 was on subsequent events but contained a six mark part on the impact on the
audit report.
The December 2007 paper had 12 marks in question 1 on weaknesses in the inventory counting system
and recommendations to overcome the weaknesses. Question 5 had 14 marks relating to the audit report
in a scenario context.
Question 1 of the December 2008 paper had 14 marks available for writing a management letter regarding
a wages system.
Question 2 of the June 2009 paper had two marks for explaining the term 'modified'.
1 The auditor’s report on financial statements

Pilot paper, Dec 07, June 09
FAST FORWARD
The auditor is required to produce an audit report at the end of the audit which sets out his opinion on the
truth and fairness of the financial statements. The report contains a number of consistent elements so
that users know the audit has been conducted according to recognised standards.
Objective 18 of the PER performance objectives is to evaluate and report on audit. The knowledge you gain
in this key chapter will assist you in demonstrating the achievement of this objective in practice.
ISA 700 Forming an opinion and reporting on financial statements establishes standards and provides
guidance on the form and content of the auditor's report issued as a result of an audit performed by an
independent auditor on the financial statements of an entity. It states that the auditor shall form an opinion
on whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework.
In order to form the opinion, the auditor needs to conclude as to whether reasonable assurance has been
obtained that the financial statements are free from material misstatement. The auditor’s conclusion needs
to consider the following.
x Whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been obtained (ISA 330)
x Whether uncorrected misstatements are material (ISA 450)
314 19: Reports ~ Part G Reporting

x Qualitative aspects of the entity’s accounting practices, including indicators of possible bias in
management’s judgements
x Whether the financial statements adequately disclose the significant accounting policies
selected and applied
x Whether the accounting policies selected and applied are consistent with the applicable financial
reporting framework and are appropriate
x Whether accounting estimates made by management are reasonable
x Whether the information in the financial statements is relevant, reliable, comparable and
understandable
x Whether the financial statements provide adequate disclosures to allow users to understand the
effect of material transactions and events on the information presented in the financial statements
x Whether the terminology used in the financial statements is appropriate
x The overall presentation, structure and content of the financial statements
x Whether the financial statements represent the underlying transactions and events so as to achieve
fair presentation
x Whether the financial statements adequately refer to or describe the applicable financial
reporting framework
1.1 Unmodified auditor's report

Key term An unmodified opinion is the opinion expressed by the auditor when the auditor concludes that the
financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with the applicable financial
reporting framework.
ISA 700 states that the auditor shall express an unmodified opinion when the auditor concludes that the
financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with the applicable financial
reporting framework.
If the auditor concludes that the financial statements as a whole are not free from material misstatement
or cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to make this conclusion, the auditor must modify
the opinion in accordance with ISA 705 Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor’s report.
We discuss modifications to the opinion later in this section.
The following extract from an audit report shows an example of the opinion paragraph for an unmodified
report, in accordance with ISA 700, which contains illustrations of unmodified auditors’ reports in its
appendix. The full unmodified report was also set out in Chapter 1 of this Study Text.
In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, (or give a true and fair view
of) the financial position of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X1, and (of) its financial performance and
its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards.
1.2 Basic elements of the auditor's report

A measure of consistency in the form and content of the auditor's report is desirable because it promotes
credibility in the global marketplace and also helps to promote the reader's understanding and to identify
unusual circumstances when they occur.
The auditor's report must be in writing and includes the following basic elements, usually in the following
layout.
Part G Reporting ~ 19: Reports 315

Basic elements of audit report Explanation
Title The auditor’s report must have a title that clearly indicates that it is the
report of the independent auditor. This signifies that the auditor has
met all the ethical requirements concerning independence and
therefore distinguishes the auditor’s report from other reports.
Addressee The addressee will be determined by law or regulation, but is likely to
be the shareholders or those charged with governance.
Introductory paragraph This shall identify the entity being audited, state that the financial
statements have been audited, identify the title of each statement that
comprises the financial statements being audited, refer to the
summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory
notes, and specify the date or period covered by each statement
comprising the financial statements.
Management’s responsibility This part of the report describes the responsibilities of those who are
for the financial statements responsible for the preparation of the financial statements. The report
shall include a section headed ‘Management’s responsibility for the
financial statements’ and describe management’s responsibility
including the following:
x Management is responsible for the preparation of the financial
statements in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
framework.
x Management is responsible for such internal control necessary
to enable the preparation of financial statements that are free
from material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud.
x Reference shall be made to ‘the preparation and fair presentation
of these financial statements’ (or’ the preparation of financial
statements that give a true and fair view’) where the financial
statements are prepared in accordance with a fair presentation
framework.
Auditor’s responsibility The report shall include a section entitled ‘Auditor’s responsibility’. The
report must state that the auditor is responsible for expressing an
opinion on the financial statements based on the audit.
This section must also state that the audit was conducted in
accordance with International Standards on Auditing and ethical
requirements and that the auditor planned and performed the audit so
as to obtain reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free
from material misstatement.
The report must describe an audit by stating that:
x An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit
evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the financial
statements.
x The procedures chosen depend on the auditor's judgement of
risks of material misstatements, and the auditor considers
internal control relevant to the preparation of the financial
statements in order to design appropriate audit procedures (but
not to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal
control).
x An audit includes evaluation of the appropriateness of the
accounting policies used, the reasonableness of accounting
estimates made by management, and the overall presentation of

Basic elements of audit report Explanation
This part of the report shall also state whether the auditor believes that
the audit evidence obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a
basis for the opinion.
Opinion paragraph If the auditor expresses an unmodified opinion on financial statements
prepared in accordance with a fair presentation framework, the opinion
shall use one of the following equivalent phrases:
x The financial statements present fairly, in all material
respects,…in accordance with [the applicable financial reporting
framework]; or
x The financial statements give a true and fair view of … in
accordance with [the applicable financial reporting framework].
Other reporting responsibilities If the auditor is required by law to report on any other matters, this
must be done in an additional paragraph below the opinion paragraph
which is titled ‘Report on other legal and regulatory requirements’ or
otherwise as appropriate.
Auditor’s signature The report must contain the auditor’s signature, whether this is the
auditor's own name or the audit firm's name or both.
Date of the report The report must be dated no earlier than the date on which the auditor
has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence on which to base the
auditor’s opinion on the financial statements.
Auditor’s address The location where the auditor practises must be included.
1.3 Modified opinions

FAST FORWARD There are three types of modified opinion: a qualified opinion, an adverse opinion, and a disclaimer of
opinion.
ISA 705 Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor's report sets out the different types of
modified opinions that can result. It identifies three possible types of modifications:
x A qualified opinion
x An adverse opinion
x A disclaimer of opinion
1.3.1 Types of modifications
Key term Pervasiveness is a term used to describe the effects or possible effects on the financial statements of
misstatements or undetected misstatements (due to an inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence). There are three types of pervasive effect:
– Those that are not confined to specific elements, accounts or items in the financial statements
– Those that are confined to specific elements, accounts or items in the financial statements and
represent or could represent a substantial portion of the financial statements
– Those that relate to disclosures which are fundamental to users’ understanding of the financial
statements
The type of modification issued depends on the following:

x The nature of the matter giving rise to the modifications (i.e. whether the financial statements are
materially misstated or whether they may be misstated when the auditor cannot obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence)
x The auditor’s judgement about the pervasiveness of the effects/possible effects of the matter on

A modified opinion is required when:
x The auditor concludes that the financial statements as a whole are not free from material
misstatements or
x The auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to conclude that the financial
statements as a whole are free from material misstatement.
1.3.2 Qualified opinions

A qualified opinion must be expressed in the auditor’s report in the following two situations:
(1) The auditor concludes that misstatements are material, but not pervasive, to the financial
statements.
Material misstatements could arise in respect of:
x The appropriateness of selected accounting policies
x The application of selected accounting policies
x The appropriateness or adequacy of disclosures in the financial statements
(2) The auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence on which to base the opinion but
concludes that the possible effects of undetected misstatements, if any, could be material but not
pervasive.
The auditor’s inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence is also referred to as a limitation on
the scope of the audit and could arise from:
x Circumstances beyond the entity’s control (e.g. accounting records destroyed)
x Circumstances relating to the nature or timing of the auditor’s work (e.g. the timing of the auditor’s
appointment prevents the observation of the physical inventory count)
x Limitations imposed by management (e.g. management prevents the auditor from requesting
external confirmation of specific account balances)
1.3.3 Adverse opinions

An adverse opinion is expressed when the auditor, having obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence,
concludes that misstatements are both material and pervasive to the financial statements. For example,
an adverse opinion might be issued if there is a material uncertainty in respect of going concern which has
not be adequately disclosed or use of the going concern assumption is inappropriate (we discussed this in
Chapter 18).
1.3.4 Disclaimers of opinion

An opinion must be disclaimed when the auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence on
which to base the opinion and concludes that the possible effects on the financial statements of
undetected misstatements, if any, could be both material and pervasive.
The opinion must also be disclaimed in situations involving multiple uncertainties when the auditor
concludes that, despite having obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence for the individual
uncertainties, it is not possible to form an opinion on the financial statements due to the potential
interaction of the uncertainties and their possible cumulative effect on the financial statements.
An example of when a disclaimer of opinion is used could be in relation to going concern if management is
unwilling to make or extend its assessment (see Chapter 18).
1.3.5 Impact on the auditor’s report

When the auditor has had to modify the auditor’s report, the report must include a paragraph before the
opinion paragraph, which provides a description of the matter giving rise to the modification. This
paragraph will be entitled ‘Basis for qualified opinion’ or ‘Basis for adverse opinion’ or ‘Basis for disclaimer
of opinion’ depending on the type of modification.

The section of the auditor’s report containing the opinion will be headed either ‘Qualified opinion’, ‘Adverse
opinion’ or ‘Disclaimer of opinion’, again depending on the type of modification.
When the auditor expresses a qualified or adverse opinion, the section of the report on the auditor’s
responsibilities must be amended to state that the auditor believes that the audit evidence obtained is
sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for the auditor’s modified audit opinion.
When the auditor disclaims an opinion due to being unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence,
the section on the auditor’s responsibilities must be amended to include the following: ‘Because of the
matter(s) described in the Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion paragraph, however, we were not able to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence to provide a basis for an audit opinion’.
We will now look at some examples of extracts from modified auditor’s reports for each of the situations
we have discussed above.
Example 1: Qualified opinion due to material misstatement of inventories
Basis for qualified opinion

The company’s inventories are carried in the balance sheet at xxx. Management has not stated inventories
at the lower of cost and net realisable value but has stated them solely at cost, which constitutes a
departure from International Financial Reporting Standards. The company’s records indicate that had
management stated the inventories at the lower of cost and net realisable value, an amount of xxx would
have been required to write the inventories down to their net realisable value. Accordingly, cost of sales
would have been increased by xxx, and income tax, net income and shareholders’ equity would have been
reduced by xxx, xxx and xxx, respectively.
Qualified Opinion
In our opinion, except for the effects of the matter described in the Basis for Qualified Opinion paragraph,
the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, (or give a true and fair view of) the financial
position of ABC Company as at December 31, 20X1, and (of) its financial performance and its cash flows
for the year then ended in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards.
Example 2: Adverse opinion due to material misstatement because of non-consolidation of a

subsidiary
Basis for adverse opinion

As explained in Note X, the company has not consolidated the financial statements of subsidiary XYZ
Company it acquired during 20X1 because it has not yet been able to ascertain the fair values of certain of
the subsidiary’s material assets and liabilities at the acquisition date. This investment is therefore
accounted for on a cost basis. Under International Financial Reporting Standards, the subsidiary should
have been consolidated because it is controlled by the company. Had XYZ been consolidated, many
elements in the accompanying financial statements would have been materially affected. The effects on the
consolidated financial statements of the failure to consolidate have not been determined.
Adverse Opinion
In our opinion, because of the significance of the matter discussed in the Basis for Adverse Opinion
paragraph, the consolidated financial statements do not present fairly (or do not give a true and fair view
of) the financial position of ABC Company and its subsidiaries as at December 31, 20X1, and (of) their
financial performance and their cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with International
Financial Reporting Standards.

Example 3: Qualified opinion due to inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about an
investment in a foreign affiliate (material but not pervasive)

ABC Company’s investment in XYZ Company, a foreign associate acquired during the year and accounted
for by the equity method, is carried at xxx on the balance sheet as at December 31, 20X1, and ABC’s share
of XYZ’s net income of xxx is included in ABC’s income for the year then ended. We were unable to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence about the carrying amount of ABC’s investment in XYZ as at
December 31, 20X1 and ABC’s share of XYZ’s net income for the year because we were denied access to
the financial information, management, and the auditors of XYZ. Consequently, we were unable to
determine whether any adjustments to these amounts were necessary.
Qualified Opinion
In our opinion, except for the possible effects of the matter described in the Basis for Qualified Opinion
paragraph, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, (or give a true and fair view of)
the financial position of ABC Company as at December 31, 20X1, and (of) its financial performance and its
cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards.
Example 4: Disclaimer of opinion due to inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about
a single element of the financial statements (financial information of a joint venture investment
representing over 90% of company’s net assets – material and pervasive)
Basis for disclaimer of opinion

The company’s investment in its joint venture XYZ (Country X) Company is carried at xxx on the
company’s balance sheet, which represents over 90% of the company’s net assets as at December 31,
20X1. We were not allowed access to the management and the auditors of XYZ, including XYZ’s auditors’
audit documentation. As a result, we were unable to determine whether any adjustments were necessary
in respect of the company’s proportional share of XYZ’s assets that it controls jointly, its proportional
share of XYZ’s liabilities for which it is jointly responsible, its proportional share of XYZ’s income and
expenses for the year, and the elements making up the statement of changes in equity and cash flow
statement.
Disclaimer of Opinion
Because of the significance of the matter described in the Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion paragraph, we
have not been able to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to provide a basis for an audit opinion.
Accordingly, we do not express an opinion on the financial statements.
Example 5: Disclaimer of opinion due to inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about
multiple elements of the financial statements (inventories and accounts receivable – material and
pervasive)
Basis for disclaimer of opinion

We were not appointed as auditors of the company until after December 31, 20X1 and thus did not
observe the counting of physical inventories at the beginning and end of the year. We were unable to
satisfy ourselves by alternative means concerning the inventory quantities held at December 31, 20X0 and
20X1 which are stated in the balance sheet at xxx and xxx, respectively. In addition, the introduction of a
new computerized accounts receivable system in September 20X1 resulted in numerous errors in
accounts receivable. As of the date of our audit report, management was still in the process of rectifying
the system deficiencies and correcting the errors. We were unable to confirm or verify by alternative
means accounts receivable included in the balance sheet at a total amount of xxx as at December 31,
20X1. As a result of these matters, we were unable to determine whether any adjustments might have
been found necessary in respect of recorded or unrecorded inventories and accounts receivable, and the
elements making up the income statement, statement of changes in equity and cash flow statement.

Disclaimer of Opinion
Because of the significance of the matters described in the Basis for Disclaimer of Opinion paragraph, we
have not been able to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to provide a basis for an audit opinion.
Accordingly, we do not express an opinion on the financial statements.
1.3.6 Communication with those charged with governance

ISA 705 states that when the auditor expects to express a modified opinion, the auditor must
communicate with those charged with governance the circumstances leading to the expected
modification and the proposed wording of the modification in the auditor’s report.
This allows the auditor to give notice to those charged with governance of the intended modification and
the reasons for it, to seek agreement or confirm disagreement with those charged with governance with
respect to the modification, and to give those charged with governance an opportunity to provide further
information and explanations in respect of the matter giving rise to the expected modification.
1.3.7 Summary of modifications and impact on the auditor’s report

The following table summarises the different types of modified opinion that can arise.
Nature of circumstances Material but not pervasive Material and pervasive

Financial statements are
QUALIFIED OPINION ADVERSE OPINION
materially misstated
Auditor unable to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit QUALIFIED OPINION DISCLAIMER OF OPINION
evidence
Question Modified reports
During the course of your audit of the non-current assets of Eastern Engineering Inc at 31 March 20X4,
two problems have arisen.
(a) The calculations of the cost of direct labour incurred on assets in the course of construction by the
company's employees have been accidentally destroyed for the early part of the year. The direct
labour cost involved is $10,000.
(b) The company incurred development expenditure of $25,000 spent on a viable new product which
will go into production next year and which is expected to last for ten years. The direct labour cost
involved is $10,000.
(c) Other relevant financial information is as follows.
$
Profit before tax 100,000
Non-current asset additions 133,000
Assets constructed by company 34,000
Non-current asset at net book value 666,667
Required
(a) List the general forms of modification available to auditors in drafting their report and state the
circumstances in which each is appropriate.
(b) State whether you feel that a modified audit report would be necessary for each of the two
circumstances outlined above, giving reasons in each case.
(c) On the assumption that you decide that a modified audit report is necessary with respect to the
treatment of the revaluation, draft the section of the report describing the matter (the whole report
is not required).

Answer
(a) ISA 705 Modifications to the opinion in the independent auditor's report suggests that the auditor
may need to modify the opinion under one of two main circumstances:
x The auditor concludes that the financial statements as a whole are not free from material
misstatements or
x The auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to conclude that the financial
statements as a whole are free from material misstatement.
For both circumstances there can be two 'levels' of modified opinion:
(i) Material but not pervasive, where the circumstances prompting the misstatement or
possible misstatement are material.
(ii) Material and pervasive to the overall view shown by the financial statements, ie the financial
statements are or could be misleading. These will result in an adverse opinion (financial
statements are misstated) or a disclaimer of opinion (the auditor is unable to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence).
(b) Whether a qualification of the audit opinion would be required in the circumstances described
would depend on whether or not the auditors considered either of them to be material to the
financial statements as a whole. An item is likely to be considered material in the context of a
company's financial statements if its omission, misstatement or non-disclosure would prevent a
proper understanding of those statements on the part of a potential user.
(i) Loss of records relating to direct labour costs for assets in the course of construction
The loss of records supporting one of the asset figures in the statement of financial position
would cause a limitation in scope of the auditor’s work because the auditor would be unable
to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence. The $10,000 represents 29.4% of the
expenditure incurred during the year on assets in course of construction but only 6% of
total additions to non-current assets during the year and 1.5% of the year-end net book
value for non-current assets. The total amount of $10,000 represents 10% of pre-tax profit
but, as in relation to asset values, the real consideration by the auditor should be the
materiality of any over- or under-statement of assets resulting from error in arriving at the
$10,000 rather than the total figure itself.
Provided there are no suspicious circumstances surrounding the loss of these records and
the total figure for additions to assets in the course of construction seems reasonable in the
light of other audit evidence obtained, then it is unlikely that this matter would be seen as
sufficiently material to merit any modification of the audit opinion. If other records have
been lost as well, however, it may be necessary for the auditor to comment on the directors'
failure to maintain proper books and records.
(ii) Development cost debited to the income statement
The situation here is one of misstatement in the financial statements, since best accounting
practice as laid down by IAS 38 requires that development costs should be taken to the
statement of comprehensive income over the useful life of the product to which they relate.
This departure from IAS 38 does not seem to be justifiable and would be material to the
reported pre-tax profits for the year, representing 22.5% of that figure.
Whilst this understatement of profit (and corresponding overstatement of undistributable
reserves) would be material to the financial statements, it is not likely to been seen as
pervasive and therefore a qualified opinion would be appropriate.

(c) Qualified audit opinion extract
As explained in note ... development costs in respect of a potential new product have been
deducted in full against profit instead of being spread over the life of the relevant product as
required by IAS 38; the effect of so doing has been to decrease profits before and after tax for the
year by $25,000.
Qualified opinion
In our opinion, except for the effects of the matter described in the Basis for Qualified Opinion
paragraph, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, (or give a true and fair
view of) the financial position of Eastern Engineering Inc as at March 31, 20X4, and (of) its
financial performance and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with International
Financial Reporting Standards.
Exam focus If you are given a scenario in a question on audit reports and asked whether the report should be modified
point and on what basis, always remember to calculate materiality and comment on it in the context of its
impact on the type of modification (ie qualified opinion, adverse opinion or disclaimer of opinion).
1.4 Emphasis of matter paragraphs and other matter paragraphs in the

auditor’s report
FAST FORWARD
Emphasis of matter paragraphs and other matter paragraphs can be included in the auditor’s report
under certain circumstances. Their use does not modify the auditor’s opinion on the financial statements.
ISA 706 Emphasis of matter paragraphs and other matter paragraphs in the independent auditor’s report
provides guidance to auditors on the inclusion of paragraphs in the auditor’s report that either draw users’
attention to a matter that is of such importance that it is fundamental to their understanding or that is
relevant to their understanding of the audit, the auditor’s responsibilities or the auditor’s report.
1.4.1 Emphasis of matter paragraphs

Key term An emphasis of matter paragraph is a paragraph included in the auditor’s report that refers to a matter
appropriately presented or disclosed in the financial statements that, in the auditor’s judgement, is of such
importance that it is fundamental to users’ understanding of the financial statements.
Emphasis of matter paragraphs are used to draw readers’ attention to a matter already presented or
disclosed in the financial statements that the auditor feels is fundamental to their understanding, provided
that the auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the matter is not materially
misstated.
When an emphasis of matter paragraph is included in the auditor’s report, it comes immediately after the
opinion paragraph and is entitled ‘Emphasis of matter’ (or appropriate). The paragraph must contain a
clear reference to the matter being emphasised and to where relevant disclosures that fully describe it
can be found in the financial statements. The paragraph must state that the auditor’s opinion is not
modified in respect of the matter emphasised.
The following are examples of situations in which the auditor might include an emphasis of matter
paragraph in the auditor’s report:
x An uncertainty relating to the future outcome of exceptional litigation or regulatory action
x Early application of a new accounting standard that has a pervasive effect on the financial
statements

x A major catastrophe that has had, or continues to have, a significant effect on the entity’s
financial position
ISA 706 contains an example auditor’s report that contains an emphasis of matter paragraph, relevant
extracts of which are shown below.
Emphasis of Matter
We draw attention to Note X to the financial statements which describes the uncertainty related to the
outcome of the lawsuit filed against the company by XYZ Company. Our opinion is not qualified in respect
of this matter.
1.4.2 Other matter paragraphs

Key term An other matter paragraph is a paragraph included in the auditor’s report that refers to a matter other
than those presented or disclosed in the financial statements that, in the auditor's judgement, is relevant
to users’ understanding of the audit, the auditor’s responsibilities or the auditor’s report.
Other matter paragraphs are used where the auditor considers it necessary to draw readers’ attention to a
matter that is relevant to their understanding of the audit, the auditor’s responsibilities or the auditor’s
report.
The other matter paragraph must be included immediately after the opinion paragraph and any emphasis
of matter paragraph, or elsewhere in the auditor’s report if the content of it is relevant to the other
reporting responsibilities section. The content of the other matter paragraph must reflect clearly that the
other matter is not required to be presented and disclosed in the financial statements, and does not
include information that the auditor is prohibited from providing by law and regulations or other
standards, or information that is required to be provided by management.
1.4.3 Communication with those charged with governance

ISA 706 states that when the auditor expects to include an emphasis of matter paragraph or an other
matter paragraph, the auditor must communicate with those charged with governance the circumstances
and the proposed wording of the paragraph in the auditor’s report.
1.5 Reporting on Compliance with International Financial Reporting

Standards
As we have discussed above, the objective of an audit is to enable the auditor to express an opinion on
whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable
financial reporting framework. The auditor’s report must indicate the financial reporting framework that
has been used to prepare the financial statements.
IAPS 1014 Reporting by auditors on compliance with International Financial Reporting Standards provides
additional guidance to auditors when the auditor expresses an opinion on financial statements that are
prepared:
x Solely in accordance with IFRSs
x In accordance with IFRSs and a national financial reporting framework or
x In accordance with a national financial reporting framework with disclosure of the extent of
compliance with IFRSs

The following table summarises the guidance in the IAPS in each of these situations
Basis of preparation of financial statements Impact on audit report

Solely in accordance with IFRSs Qualified, disclaimed or adverse opinion if auditor
concludes financial statements are not prepared in
accordance with IFRSs
In accordance with IFRSs and a national Consider each framework separately. If failure to
financial reporting framework comply with either or both frameworks, issue a
qualified opinion or adverse opinion on either one
framework or both.
In accordance with a national financial If financial statements fail to comply with national
reporting framework with disclosure of the reporting framework because disclosures on
extent of compliance with IFRSs compliance with IFRSs are misleading, express a
qualified opinion or adverse opinion.
1.6 Other information in documents containing audited financial

statements
FAST FORWARD
Auditors shall review the other information in documents containing audited financial statements for
material inconsistencies and misstatements of fact.
ISA 720 The auditor’s responsibilities relating to other information in documents containing audited
financial statements provides guidance to auditors in this area. The objective of the auditor is to respond
appropriately when documents containing audited financial statements include other information that
could undermine the credibility of the financial statements and the auditor’s report.
Key terms Other information is financial and non-financial information, other than the financial statements and the
auditor’s report, which is included, either by law, regulation or custom, in a document containing audited
financial statements and the auditor’s report.
An inconsistency means the other information contradicts information contained in the audited financial
statements. A material inconsistency may raise doubt about the audit conclusions drawn from audit
evidence previously obtained and possibly also the basis for the auditor’s opinion on the financial
statements.
A misstatement of fact is when the other information that is unrelated to matters appearing in the audited
financial statements is incorrectly stated or presented. A material misstatement of fact may undermine the
credibility of the document containing audited financial statements.
Examples of other information include the following:

x A report by management or those charged with governance on operations
x Financial summaries or highlights
x Employment data
x Planned capital expenditures
x Financial ratios
x Names of officers and directors
x Selected quarterly data
1.6.1 Material inconsistencies

ISA 720 states that the auditor shall read the other information to identity material inconsistencies with
the audited financial statements. If a material inconsistency is identified, the auditor shall determine
whether the audited financial statements or other information needs to be revised.
If the financial statements need to be revised but management refuses, the auditor shall modify the audit
opinion.

If the other information needs to be revised but management refuses, the auditor shall communicate this
matter to those charged with governance and:
x Include an emphasis of matter paragraph in the auditor’s report that describes the material
inconsistency or
x Withhold the auditor’s report or
x Withdraw from the engagement (where this is legally permitted)
1.6.2 Material misstatements of fact

If the auditor becomes aware that the other information includes an apparent material misstatement of
fact, he shall discuss this with management.
If, after the discussions, the auditor still considers there is an apparent material misstatement of fact, he
shall request management to consult a qualified third party such as a lawyer and the auditor shall
consider the advice received.
If management refuses to correct the other information, the auditor shall notify those charged with
governance and take any appropriate further action, such as consulting the auditor’s lawyer.
1.7 Opening balances and comparative information

FAST FORWARD
Auditors must ensure that the opening balances and comparative information are fairly stated in the
1.7.1 Opening balances

Key terms
Opening balances are those account balances that exist at the beginning of the period. They are based on
the closing balances of the prior period and reflect the effects of transactions of prior periods and
accounting policies applied in the prior period. They also include matters requiring disclosure that existed
at the beginning of the period, such as contingencies and commitments.
An initial audit engagement is one in which either the financial statements for the prior period were not
audited or one in which the financial statements for the prior period were audited by a predecessor
auditor.
ISA 510 Initial audit engagements – opening balances provides guidance to auditors on the audit of
opening balances when conducting an initial audit engagement.
The ISA states that for initial audit engagements the auditor’s objective is to obtain sufficient appropriate
audit evidence whether:
x Opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the current period’s financial
statements.
x Appropriate accounting policies are consistently applied or changes have been properly
accounted for and adequately presented and disclosed.
1.7.2 Audit evidence for opening balances

ISA 510 states that the auditor shall read the most recent financial statements and the predecessor
auditor’s report for information relevant to opening balances.
The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether opening balances contain
misstatements that materially affect the current period’s financial statements by:
x Determining whether the prior period’s closing balances have been correctly brought forward or
restated
x Determining whether the opening balances reflect the application of appropriate accounting policies

x Performing one or more of the following:
– Where the prior period’s financial statements were audited, reviewing the predecessor
auditor’s working papers
– Evaluating whether audit procedures performed in the current period provide evidence
relevant to opening balances
– Performing specific audit procedures to obtain evidence regarding opening balances
1.7.3 Opening balances – audit conclusions and reporting

If the auditor cannot obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence for opening balances, the auditor shall
express a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion.
If the opening balances contain misstatements that could materially affect the current year’s financial
statements, the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion.
If the auditor concludes that the current period’s accounting policies are not consistently applied in
relation to opening balances or changes have not been properly accounted for and adequately presented
and disclosed, the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion.
If a prior period modification remains relevant and material to the current period’s financial statements,
the auditor shall modify the auditor’s opinion on the current period’s financial statements accordingly.
1.7.4 Comparative information

Key terms
Comparative information is amounts and disclosures included in the financial statements in respect of
one or more prior periods in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. There are two
methods of presentation: corresponding figures, where amounts and other disclosures for the prior
period are included as an integral part of the current period financial statements, and are intended to be
read only in relation to the amounts and other disclosures relating to the current period; and comparative
financial statements where amounts and other disclosures for the prior period are included for
comparison with the financial statements of the current period but, if audited, are referred to in the
auditor’s report.
ISA 710 Comparative information – corresponding figures and comparative financial statements provides
guidance to auditors on comparatives, both corresponding figures and comparative financial statements.
Whether corresponding figures or comparative financial statements are required is usually dictated by law
or regulation but may also be specified in the terms of engagement.
In terms of audit reporting, for corresponding figures, the auditor’s opinion refers to the current period
only. For comparative financial statements, the auditor’s opinion refers to each period for which financial
statements are presented.
1.7.5 Auditor’s responsibilities for comparative information

The ISA states that the auditor must determine whether the financial statements include the comparative
information required by the applicable financial reporting framework and whether it is appropriately
classified. This includes an evaluation of whether:
x The accounting policies used for corresponding figures or comparative financial statements are
consistent with the current period.
x The corresponding figures or comparative financial statements agree with the amounts and other
disclosures presented in the prior period.
If the auditor becomes aware of a possible material misstatement regarding the comparative information,
the auditor must perform additional audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to
determine whether a material misstatement exists.
ISA 710 requires the auditor to obtain a written representation for all periods referred to in the auditor’s
opinion and a specific written representation regarding any restatements made to correct a material
misstatement in prior period financial statements that affect the comparative information.

1.7.6 Corresponding figures - reporting
In terms of reporting, the audit report does not specifically refer to the corresponding figures because the
opinion is on the current period’s financial statements as a whole, and this includes the corresponding
figures. The following table summarises the impact on the auditor’s report in particular circumstances.
Scenario Impact on auditor’s report

Prior period report modified and matter Modified regarding current period’s financial
unresolved and results in modification of current statements
period report
Prior period report unmodified but evidence of Modified (qualified opinion or adverse opinion)
material misstatement and figures not restated regarding corresponding figures
Prior period financial statements audited by a Other matter paragraph stating that financial
predecessor auditor statements audited by predecessor auditor, type of
opinion expressed, date of the report
Prior period financial statements not audited Other matter paragraph stating that corresponding
figures unaudited
1.7.7 Comparative financial statements – reporting

The auditor’s opinion must refer to each period for which financial statements are presented and on which
an audit opinion is expressed. The following table summarises the impact on the auditor’s report in
particular circumstances.
Scenario Impact on auditor’s report

Opinion on prior period financial statements Other matter paragraph to explain different opinion
different from opinion previously expressed
Prior period financial statements audited by a Other matter paragraph stating that prior period
predecessor auditor financial statements audited by a predecessor
auditor, type of opinion expressed, date of the
report
Material misstatement affecting prior period If predecessor auditor is informed and financial
financial statements on which predecessor auditor statements are amended and new report issued,
had expressed an unmodified opinion auditor reports only on current period
Prior period financial statements not audited Other matter paragraph stating that comparative
financial statements not audited
1.8 The audit report as a means of communication

1.8.1 Implied information
Unmodified audit reports may not appear to give a great deal of information. The report says much,
however, by implication. Remember that the auditors report by exception, so an unmodified report tells
the user that, for example:
x Adequate accounting records have been kept.
x The accounts agree with the records.
x The auditors have received all necessary information.
x All directors' transactions have been disclosed.
x The directors' report is consistent with the accounts.
The real problem here is that, unfortunately, most users do not know that this is what an unmodified audit
report tells them. This issue is also confused by the fact that many users do not understand the
responsibilities of either the auditors or the directors in relation to the financial statements.

1.8.2 Expectations gap
This difference between the actual and the public perception is part of what is called the 'expectations
gap', defined as the difference between the apparent public perceptions of the responsibilities of auditors
on the one hand (and hence the assurance that their involvement provides) and the legal and professional
reality on the other. The question remains: how can we make the meaning of an unqualified audit report
clear to the user?
The above definition of the expectations gap is not definitive but we can highlight some specific issues.
(a) Misunderstandings of the nature of audited financial statements, for example that:
x The statement of financial position provides a fair valuation of the reporting entity.
x The amounts in the financial statements are stated precisely.
x The audited financial statements will guarantee that the entity concerned will continue to
exist.
(b) Misunderstanding as to the type and extent of work undertaken by auditors
(c) Misunderstanding about the level of assurance provided by auditors, for example that:
x An unmodified auditor’s report means that no frauds have occurred in the period.
x The auditors provide absolute assurance that the figures in the financial statements are
correct (ignoring the concept of materiality and the problems of estimation).
Different countries have tackled this problem in different ways. The role of auditors has been included in
the debate on corporate governance in many western countries, leading to further rules which are
nevertheless voluntary, not mandatory, as we discussed in Chapter 3.
2 Reports to management Pilot paper, Dec 07, Dec 08

FAST FORWARD
Reports to management can be sent by external auditors after both the interim and final audits. They set
out deficiencies in internal control, the implications of those deficiencies on the business and suggested
recommendations to mitigate them.
ISA 265 Communicating deficiencies in internal control to those charged with governance and
management sets out guidance on internal control deficiencies. We covered the requirements of this
standard in detail in Chapter 9 of this Study Text. Many external auditors produce a report to management
as a by-product of an external audit, listing any deficiencies they have found in systems and making
recommendations for improvements. The report to management may also be referred to as the
management letter, letter of weakness or letter on internal control.
One of the PER performance objectives is to 'communicate effectively'. Examples of this in practice would
be to compile written reports for management or clients. This would therefore include a report to
management. The knowledge you attain in this section of the Study Text will help you in situations where
you are asked to draft a report to management, and therefore assist you in achieving this particular PER
objective. At the same time it applies also to objective 18 ('evaluate and report on audit') – examples under
this objective include drafting and presenting reports to management.
2.1 The report to management

Recommendations regarding internal control are a by-product of the audit of the financial statements, not
a primary objective, but nonetheless are frequently of great value to a client. The auditors shall
communicate with those charged with governance any material deficiencies in the design, implementation
or operating effectiveness of internal control which have come to their attention during the course of the
audit. This shall be done on timely basis.
When auditors prepare a written communication on internal control matters, the following points should
be considered:
(a) It should not include language that conflicts with the opinion expressed in the auditor’s report.

(b) It should state that the accounting and internal control system were considered only to the extent
necessary to determine the auditing procedures to report on the financial statements and not to
determine the adequacy of internal control for management purposes or to provide assurances on
the accounting and internal control systems.
(c) It will state that it discusses only deficiencies in internal control which have come to the auditors'
attention as a result of the audit and that other deficiencies in internal control may exist.
(d) It should also include a statement that the communication is provided for use only by
management (or another specific named party).
After the above items and the auditors' suggestions for corrective action are communicated to
management, the auditors will usually ascertain the actions taken, including the reasons for those
suggestions rejected. The auditors may encourage management to respond to the auditors' comments in
which case any response can be included in the report.
The significance of findings relating to the accounting and internal control systems may change with the
passage of time. Suggestions from previous years' audits which have not been adopted, if any, should
normally be repeated or referred to.
2.1.1 Example report to management

This is an example of a report to management or letter on internal control which demonstrates how the
principles described above might be put into practice.
ABC & Co
29 High Street
The Board of Directors
Manufacturing Ltd
15 South Street
1 April 20X8
Members of the board,
Financial statements for the year ended 31 May 20X8
We set out in this letter certain matters which arose as a result of our review of the accounting systems
and procedures operated by your company during our recent interim audit. The matters dealt with in this
letter came to our notice during the conduct of our normal audit procedures which are designed primarily
for the purpose of expressing our opinion on the financial statements. Consequently our work did not
encompass a detailed review of all aspects of the system and cannot be relied on necessarily to disclose
defalcations or other irregularities or to include all possible improvements in internal control.
Purchases: ordering procedures
Deficiency
During the course of our work we discovered that it was the practice of the stores to order certain
goods from X Co orally without preparing either a purchase requisition or purchase order.
Implication
There is therefore the possibility of liabilities being set up for unauthorised items and at a
non-competitive price.
Recommendation
We recommend that the buying department should be responsible for such orders and, if they are
placed orally, an official order should be raised as confirmation.
Payables ledger reconciliation
Deficiency
Although your procedures require that the payables ledger is reconciled against the control account on
the nominal ledger at the end of every month, this was not done in December or January.

Implication
The balance on the payables ledger was short by some $2,120 of the nominal ledger control
account at 31 January 20X8 for which no explanation could be offered. This implies a serious
breakdown in the purchase invoice and/or cash payment batching and posting procedures.
Recommendation
It is important in future that this reconciliation is performed regularly by a responsible official
independent of the day-to-day payables ledger, cashier and nominal ledger functions.
Receivables ledger: credit control
Deficiency
As at 28 February 20X8 trade receivables accounted for approximately 12 weeks of sales, although
your standard credit terms are cash within 30 days of statement, equivalent to an average of about
40 days (6 weeks) of sales.
Implication
This has resulted in increased overdraft usage and difficulty in settling some key suppliers'
accounts on time.
Recommendation
We recommend that a more structured system of debt collection be considered using standard
letters and that statements should be sent out a week earlier if possible.
Preparation of payroll and maintenance of personnel records
Deficiency
Under your present system, just two members of staff are entirely and equally responsible for the
maintenance of personnel records and preparation of the payroll. Furthermore, the only independent
check of any nature on the payroll is that the chief accountant confirms that the amount of the wages
cheque presented to him for signature agrees with the total of the net wages column in the payroll. This
latter check does not involve any consideration of the reasonableness of the amount of the total net
wages cheque or the monies being shown as due to individual employees.
Implication
It is a serious weakness of your present system that so much responsibility is vested in the hands
of just two people. This situation is made worse by the fact that there is no clearly defined division
of duties as between the two of them. In our opinion, it would be far too easy for fraud to take place
in this area (eg by inserting the names of 'dummy workmen' into the personnel records and hence
on to the payroll) and/or for clerical errors to go undetected.
Recommendations
(i) Some person other than the two wages clerks be made responsible for maintaining the
personnel records and for periodically (but on a surprise basis) checking them against the
details on the payroll.
(ii) The two wages clerks be allocated specific duties in relation to the preparation of the
payroll, with each clerk independently reviewing the work of the other.
(iii) When the payroll is presented in support of the cheque for signature to the chief accountant,
he should be responsible for assessing the reasonableness of the overall charge for wages
that week.
Our comments have been discussed with your Finance Director and the Chief Accountant and these
matters will be considered by us again during future audits. We look forward to receiving your comments
on the points made.
This letter has been produced for the sole use of your company. It must not be disclosed to a third party, or
quoted or referred to, without our written consent. No responsibility is assumed by us to any other person.
We should like to take this opportunity of thanking your staff for their co-operation and assistance during
the course of our audit.
Yours faithfully
ABC & Co

You may be asked to draft paragraphs for a letter on internal control in the exam, given a specific scenario
Exam focus
in the question. Your recommendations should be specific to the circumstances in the scenario – vague
point
statements will not score good marks.
Chapter Roundup
x The auditor is required to produce an audit report at the end of the audit which sets out his opinion on the
truth and fairness of the financial statements. The report contains a number of consistent elements so
that users know the audit has been conducted according to recognised standards.
x There are three types of modified opinion: a qualified opinion, an adverse opinion and a disclaimer of
opinion.
x Emphasis of matter paragraphs and other matter paragraphs can be included in the auditor’s report
under certain circumstances. Their use does not modify the auditor’s opinion on the financial statements.
x Auditors shall review the other information in documents containing audited financial statements for
material inconsistencies and misstatements of fact.
x Auditors must ensure that the opening balances and comparative information are fairly stated in the
x Reports to management can be sent by external auditors after both the interim and final audits. They set
out deficiencies in internal control, the implications of those deficiencies on the business and suggested
recommendations to mitigate them.

Quick Quiz
1 The statement of management's responsibilities is always included in the auditors' report.
True
False
2 Draw a table that summarises the different modified opinions that can arise in the auditor’s report.
3 The inclusion of an emphasis of matter paragraph in the auditor's report does not affect the auditor's
opinion on the financial statements.
True
False
4 Give three examples of misunderstandings which contribute to the expectations gap.
(1) ………………………………………………..
(2) ………………………………………………..
(3) ………………………………………………..
5 Which of the following are examples of other information in documents containing audited financial
statements?
x Employment data
x Information contained on the entity's website
x Representation letter
x Financial ratios
x Names of officers and directors

1 False
2 Modification table
Nature of circumstances Material but not pervasive Material and pervasive

Financial statements are
QUALIFIED OPINION ADVERSE OPINION
materially misstated
Auditor unable to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit QUALIFIED OPINION DISCLAIMER OF OPINION
evidence
3 True
4 (1) The nature of the financial statements
(2) The type of extent of work undertaken by auditors
(3) The level of assurance given by auditors
5 Employment data, financial ratios, and the names of officers and directors are all examples of other
information in documents containing audited financial statements.


Exam question and
answer bank
335
336
Examination standard questions are indicated by mark and time allocations.
1 Objectives, characteristics and responsibilities

Your client, Mr Neville, has written to you saying he has been considering setting up an internal audit
department but has heard from his brother that he would be better off abandoning this idea and getting
the external auditor to do some assurance work instead. His brother also claimed that if the external
auditor does some work for the company, there would be no need to have an external audit.
Required
Write a letter to Mr Neville explaining the objectives, characteristics and responsibilities of internal audit,
external audit and assurance.
2 Audit and assurance engagements

(a) Explain the difference between negative and positive assurance in the context of the external audit
and review engagements. State some of the limitations of the external audit. (4 marks)
(b) The audit opinion sets out explicit opinions which must be stated in the audit report. State what
these are and outline the possible implied opinions, which are only reported on by exception.
(3 marks)
(c) Auditors have certain rights to allow them to carry out their duties. State and explain what these
rights are, using the UK as an example. (3 marks)
(Total = 10 marks)
3 Standards
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of auditing standards to auditors and the consequences of
them being enforceable by statute.
4 Corporate governance
The objective of a system of corporate governance is to secure the effective, sound and efficient operation
of companies. This objective transcends any legislation or voluntary code. Good corporate governance
embraces not only making the company prosper but also doing business in a legal and ethical manner. A
key element of corporate governance is the audit committee. The audit committee is a committee of the
board of directors and is of a voluntary nature regulated by voluntary codes.
Required
(a) Explain how an audit committee could improve the effectiveness of the external auditor's work.
(b) Discuss the problems of ensuring the 'independence' of the members of the audit committee.
(c) Discuss the view that the role of the audit committee should not be left to voluntary codes of
practice but should be regulated by statute.

5 Independence
It has been suggested that the most important matter affecting the credibility of the auditor is that of
'independence'.
Required
(a) Discuss, giving examples, matters other than independence, which might be relevant in relation to
the credibility of the auditor and steps that the accounting profession has taken or might take in
relation to them.
(b) Discuss the following situations in the context of the independence of the auditor, showing clearly
the principles involved:
(i) The audit manager in charge of the audit assignment of Andrew Co holds 1,000 $1 ordinary
shares in the company (total shares in issue – 100,000). The audit partner holds no shares.
(ii) The audit fee receivable from Janet Co, a private company is $100,000. The total fee income
of the audit firm is $700,000.
(iii) The audit senior in charge of the audit of Margot Bank Co has a personal loan from the bank
of $2,000 on which she is currently paying 13% interest.
(iv) The audit partner is responsible for two audit assignments, Harry Co and Jean Co. Harry Co
has recently tendered for a contract with Jean Co for the supply of material quantities of
goods over a number of years. Jean Co has asked the audit partner to advise on the matter.
6 Objectivity 36 mins
(a) Explain the concept of objectivity, with reference to
(i) External auditors
(ii) Internal auditors, who are members of ACCA,
outlining any general threats to objectivity that exist. (8 marks)
(b) Scenario 1
Bakers Co is an audit client of Hinkley Innes, a firm of Chartered Certified Accountants. The firm
has had the audit of Bakers for 17 years and the fee represents 7% of firm income. Bakers is
considering a major new project and has asked the firm if it would be happy to undertake some
one-off consultancy work for the firm. It is possible that the fee income for this contract would
represent 10% of that year's income for Hinkley Innes. The new business services partner, who
heads up a new division of the firm, is keen to take on the work, as this would represent his best
contract yet.
Scenario 2
Peter works in the purchasing department of Murphy Manufacturing Co. He has been instrumental
in setting up control systems in the purchasing department as part of a recent risk management
exercise. He has a poor relationship with his immediate supervisor, the Purchasing Director.
Murphy Manufacturing has just advertised the post of trainee internal auditor. Peter is interested in
the work that internal audit do, having liased substantially with the department during the recent
controls exercise. No formal accountancy qualifications are required for the post, because the
successful candidate will be put through accountancy training. Peter has had a chat with the head
of internal audit concerning the post and is seriously considering making an application.
Required
Discuss the threats and the safeguards to objectivity that could be implemented in the two
situations given above. (12 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
338 Exam question bank

7 Role of internal audit 36 mins
(a) You are a member of the internal audit team at Golden Holdings, a listed company. The board of
directors wants to raise the profile of the internal audit department in the company. They have
asked the internal audit department to give a series of seminars on corporate governance and the
role of internal audit in achieving corporate objectives to other members of staff.
The head of internal audit has asked you to prepare some notes on this subject.
Required
Prepare the notes which the head of internal audit wants. (12 marks)
You should cover the following matters:
(i) The Board of Directors
(ii) Accountability
(iii) The meaning of risk management
(b) After the seminars, the various departments of Golden Holdings have been asked to carry out risk
management brainstorming sessions to identify risks in each of their departments and to design
internal control systems to reduce those risks. The Sales Director, Wayne, has asked you if you will
attend the brainstorming session in the sales department and whether you will assist them in the
risk identification and management process.
Required
Prepare a memorandum to the Sales Director, answering his questions. (8 marks)
You should cover the following matters:
(i) Whether you will attend the meeting, and in what capacity
(ii) Whether you attend the meeting or not, what involvement you, as a member of the internal
audit team, will have in the risk management exercise
(Total = 20 marks)

8 Glo 36 mins
Glo-Warm Co, a limited liability company, manufactures various heating products which it sells to both
High Street and catalogue retailers.
The statement of financial position for the years ended 20X7 and 20X6 are set out below. Last year,
materiality was set at $10,000.
20X7 20X6
$'000 $'000 $'000 $'000
Non-current assets
Tangible non-current assets 20 21
Investments 2 2
Current assets
Inventory 52 179
Receivables 78 136
Cash at bank 12 34
Cash in hand 1 1
143 350
Total assets 165 373
Current liabilities
Trade payables 121 133
Bank loan 5 5
126 138
Long-term liabilities
Bank loan 20 25
Provision* 20 –
Capital and reserves

Share capital 2 2
Reserves (3) 208
Total liabilities 165 373
*The provision of $20,000 consists entirely of a warranty provision.

Required
(a) Discuss whether the materiality level used in 20X6 will be appropriate for this year's audit, giving
reasons for your answer. (3 marks)
(b) Explain audit risk. (3 marks)
(c) Review the statement of financial position given above and state the areas in which audit work
should be concentrated, giving reasons in each case. (14 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
9 Audit planning and documentation 18 mins

(a) Explain the difference between the overall audit strategy and the audit plan and state the key
contents of the overall audit strategy document. (4 marks)
(b) Briefly explain the reasons for auditors documenting their work. (3 marks)
(c) Many audit firms use standardised working papers. List the advantages and disadvantages of audit
firms using standardised working papers to document their audit work. (3 marks)
(Total = 10 marks)

10 Audit evidence considerations 18 mins
(a) Discuss how analytical procedures can be used as substantive audit procedures to provide audit
evidence. Illustrate your answer with an example. (5 marks)
(b) ISA 500 Audit evidence requires auditors to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to be able
to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base their audit opinion. Discuss the different sources
of evidence available to auditors and assess their relative appropriateness. (5 marks)
(Total = 10 marks)
11 Knits 54 mins
Knits Co is a small company which manufactures and sells high quality knitwear. Its customers are mainly
fashion boutiques.
Knits Co has two directors, one who is non-executive and the other who is involved in the day-to-day
administration of the company. There are ten other employees. Six of these work in the factory, one works
in the warehouse, one is a sales representative and two are accounts staff. The accounts staff consist of
Miss Jones, who is responsible for processing sales and receivables, and Mrs Singh, who is the
purchases and wages clerk. Mrs Singh works part-time, five mornings a week.
The company’s sales representative visits shops throughout the region. He takes orders from customers
which he records on a pre-numbered two-part order form. He passes the completed forms to the accounts
department. Miss Jones files one copy of the order form in numerical sequence and passes the other to
the warehouse.
The completed order is despatched from the warehouse by carrier, accompanied by one copy of a
despatch note. The other copy is sent to Miss Jones, who prepares an invoice based on the information it
contains and on the company’s price list. She sends one copy of the invoice to the customer, and a
second copy of the invoice is retained.
Each Friday, Miss Jones inputs the week’s invoices to the computerised sales ledger. She then files the
invoices alphabetically by customer name. Despatch notes are not retained because filing space is limited.
Miss Jones opens the post daily and lists remittances received from credit customers. Every Friday, she
inputs the information listed to the sales ledger. Cheques received are banked daily by the executive
director.
Miss Jones reviews the sales ledger balances every month and writes to customers who have not paid
within 90 days of receiving goods. The sales ledger is printed out annually for year-end purposes.
Otherwise no hard copy is printed and Miss Jones reviews the sales ledger on the computer screen.
The company’s computer package includes the facility to produce a sales day book and sales ledger
control account. These are not used because Miss Jones considers that the low volume of transactions
(10-15 invoices per week) makes them unnecessary.
Required
(a) Explain the particular issues relating to controls which would affect the audit of a small company
such as Knits. (4 marks)
(b) List six control objectives of a sales system. (6 marks)
(c) State, with reasons, what you consider to be the potential deficiencies in Knits Co’s present system
of accounting for sales and receivables. (10 marks)
(d) List and explain the controls that a small firm such as Knits Co could feasibly adopt to overcome
the deficiencies you have identified. (10 marks)
(Total = 30 marks)
(Note: You are not required to consider the system for dealing with returns and credit notes.)

12 Fenton Distributors 54 mins
Fenton Distributors Co is a small company which maintains its sales, purchase and nominal ledgers on a
small PC, using a standard computerised accounting package. The company buys products from large
manufacturers and sells them to shops which either sell or hire them to the general public. The products
include drain clearing machines, portable generators, garden cultivators and wallpaper strippers.
You have been asked to carry out an audit of the nominal ledger system to verify that items are accurately
recorded in the year. At the end of the year, the nominal ledger produces a trial balance, which is used to
prepare the annual accounts.
The company employs a bookkeeper, who is responsible for posting the sales and purchase ledgers, and
maintaining the nominal ledger. Data is posted to the nominal ledger as follows.
(a) At the start of the financial year, all the balances on the nominal ledger accounts are set to zero
(using the standard year-end procedure of the computer package).
(b) The following procedures relate to purchase transactions.
(i) When invoices are posted to the purchase ledger, the purchase analysis code (for the
nominal ledger), the purchases value and the sales tax value are entered. The total invoice
value is posted to the purchase ledger.
(ii) At the end of the month, the computer posts the following items to the nominal ledger.
(1) The total of each category of invoice expense and sales tax for purchase invoices and
credit notes posted in the month (at the same time the computer prints details of the
individual invoices making up the total of each invoice expense and sales tax for the
month).
(2) The total of purchase ledger cash payments, discount received and adjustments
posted to the purchase ledger in the month (the computer prints details of the
individual items comprising the total cash discount and adjustments for the month).
(3) Where there is no account in the nominal ledger relating to the items being posted,
the computer posts the items to a payables suspense account. Also, all adjustments
are posted to the suspense account.
(c) Sales ledger data is posted to the nominal ledger in a similar way to purchase ledger data.
(d) Journals are posted manually to the nominal ledger for:
(i) The opening balances at the start of the year
(ii) Other cash book items (other than sales and purchase ledger cash)
(iii) Petty cash payments
(iv) Wages analysis (details are obtained from the computerised payroll system)
(v) Adjustments, which include:
(1) Correction of errors
(2) Dealing with items in the sale and purchase ledger suspense accounts (adjustments
posted to the ledger, and items where there is no account in the nominal ledger)
All these journals are written manually in an accounts journal book, and they must be authorised by
the managing director before posting. The opening balances are posted to the nominal ledger when
the previous year's accounts have been approved by the auditors. Although the employee wages
are calculated using another computer package, the total wages expense is posted to the nominal
ledger manually. The wages expense is calculated from the payroll's monthly summary, using a
spreadsheet package, and the wages expense is analysed into directors, sales, warehouse and
office wages (or salaries).

Required
(a) List three control objectives of a sales system and three control objectives of a purchases system.
(6 marks)
(b) List and describe the audit work you would perform on the computerised nominal ledger system,
and in particular:
(i) The audit procedures you would perform to verify the accuracy of purchases transactions
which are posted to the nominal ledger. (5 marks)
(ii) The audit procedures you would perform to verify the validity and accuracy of journals
posted to the nominal ledger. Also, you should briefly describe any other tests you would
perform to verify the accuracy of the year-end balances on the nominal ledger. (15 marks)
(Note. You should assume that sales transactions are accurately recorded and correctly posted to
the nominal ledger.)
(c) Explain the auditor's responsibilities in respect of opening balances. (4 marks)
(Total = 30 marks)
13 Cheque payments and petty cash 36 mins

Mr A Black has recently acquired the controlling interest in Quicksand Co, who are importers of
sportswear. In his review of the organisational structure of the company Mr Black became aware of
weaknesses in the procedures for the signing of cheques and the operation of the petty cash system. Mr
Black engages you as the company's auditor and requests that you review the controls over cheque
payments and petty cash. He does not wish to be a cheque signatory himself because he feels that such a
procedure is an inefficient use of his time. In addition to Mr Black, who is the managing director, the
company employs 20 personnel including four other directors, and approximately three hundred cheques
are drawn each month. The petty cash account normally has a working balance of about $300, and $600 is
expended from the fund each month. Mr Black has again indicated that he is unwilling to participate in any
internal control procedures which would ensure the efficient operation of the petty cash fund.
Required
(a) Prepare a letter to Mr Black containing your recommendations for good internal control procedures
for:
(i) Cheque payments (9 marks)
(ii) Petty cash (7 marks)
(Marks will be awarded for the style and layout of the answer.)
(b) Discuss the audit implications, if any, of the unwillingness of Mr Black to participate in the cheque
signing procedures and petty cash function. (4 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
14 Using the work of a management’s expert 36 mins

You are carrying out the audit of Ravenshead Construction a quoted company. The company's business
includes large civil engineering contracts (the construction of buildings and roads). It also owns
investment properties which are let to third parties and these comprise offices and industrial buildings.
During the year ended 31 October 20X6 the company received a substantial claim for damages from
Netherfield Manufacturing for faults in a building it had constructed. This claim includes the cost of repairs
and damages, as the customer alleges that the building cannot be used because of the faults, so
alternative accommodation has had to be found. The company has obtained advice on the likely outcome
of this claim from a local solicitor.
In the year-end financial statements the properties had been revalued by an independent valuer and the
work in progress has been valued by an employee of the company who is a qualified valuer.

Required
Describe the matters you would consider and the other evidence you would obtain to enable you to assess
the reliability of the work of experts in the following cases:
(a) Legal advice obtained from the local solicitor on the outcome of the claim by Netherfield
Manufacturing (7 marks)
(b) Valuation of the properties by the independent valuer (7 marks)
(c) Valuation of the work in progress by the internal valuer (6 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
15 Elsams 36 mins
You are the auditor of Elsams Co which operates a chain of retail shops throughout the country selling
a wide range of electrical goods. Each branch has computerised cash registers linked into the central
computerised sales, receivables and inventory records. At the point of sale, the information keyed in
includes the following: branch reference, product number, inventory location, unit selling price, date of
sale.
The file of inventory records is updated daily for sales and receipts. It contains both cost (on a FIFO basis)
and selling price information. The only regular printed output is sales summaries analysed by value,
product and branch.
Required
(a) Explain the ways in which you, as the auditor of Elsams Co, could use computer programs to assist
in the verification of inventory at the year-end, and indicate their limitations. (8 marks)
(b) Without particular reference to Elsams Co, describe the objectives and principles of using test data
and comment on the areas where it can be of most use in an audit, and on the difficulties of this
technique. (5 marks)
(c) Describe the following different methods of sample selection:
(i) Random selection
(ii) Systematic selection
(iii) Haphazard selection
(iv) Block selection (7 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
16 Boston Manufacturing 36 mins

You are the audit assistant assigned to the audit of Boston Manufacturing. The audit senior has asked you
to plan the audit of non-current assets. He has provisionally assessed materiality at $72,000.
Boston Manufacturing maintains a register of non-current assets. The management accountant reconciles
a sample of entries to physical assets and vice versa on a three-monthly basis. Authorisation is required
for all capital purchases. Items valued less than $10,000 can be authorised by the production manager,
items costing more than $10,000 must be authorised by the Managing Director. The purchasing
department will not place an order for capital goods unless it has been duly signed.
The company has invested in a large amount of new plant this year in connection with an eight year
project for a government department.

The management accountant has provided you with the following schedule of non-current assets:
Land and Plant and Motor
buildings equipment Computers vehicles Total
$ $ $ $ $
Cost
At 31 March 20X6 500,000* 75,034 30,207 54,723 659,964
Additions 250,729 1,154 251,883
At 31 March 20X7 500,000 325,763 31,361 54,723 911,847
Accumulated depreciation
At 31 March 20X6 128,000 45,354 21,893 25,937 221,184
Charge for the year 8,000 28,340 2,367 13,081 51,788
At 31 March 20X7 136,000 73,694 24,260 39,018 272,972
Net realisable value
At 31 March 20X7 364,000 252,069 7,101 15,705 638,875
At 31 March 20X6 372,000 29,680 8,314 28,786 438,780
*Of which, $100,000 relates to land.

Required
(a) Without undertaking any calculations, assess the risk of the tangible non-current assets audit,
drawing reasoned conclusions. (6 marks)
(b) State the audit procedures you would undertake on non-current assets in respect of the following
assertions:
(i) Existence (3 marks)
(ii) Valuation (excluding depreciation) (4 marks)
(iii) Completeness (3 marks)
(c) Describe how you would assess the appropriateness of the depreciation rates. (4 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
17 Wandsworth Wholesalers 36 mins

Your firm is the auditor of Wandsworth Wholesalers Co, and you have been asked to carry out audit
checks on cut-off and verifying inventory quantities at the year-end.
The company maintains details of inventory quantities on its computer. These inventory quantities are
updated from goods received notes, and sales invoices. The company carries out inventory counts each
month, when all the fast moving and high value inventory is counted, and a third of the remaining
inventory is counted in rotation so that all items are counted at least four times a year.
You attend the inventory count on Sunday 13 October, and a further inventory count was carried out on
Sunday 10 November. The company's year-end was Thursday 31 October 20X1, and the inventory
quantities at that date, as shown by the computer, have been used in the valuation of the inventory. No
inventory was counted at the year-end.
Required
List and describe:
(a) The principal matters you should have checked and the matters you should have recorded when
you attended the company's inventory count on Sunday 13 October (8 marks)
(b) The tests you will perform in ensuring that sales and purchases cut-off has been correctly carried
out:
(i) At the date of inventory count on 13 October 20X1
(ii) At the year-end (4 marks)

(c) The work you will carry out to test whether the book inventory records have been correctly updated
from the counts at the inventory count (4 marks)
(d) The work you will carry out to satisfy yourself that the inventory quantities used in the valuation of
the inventory at the year-end are correct (4 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
(Note. You should assume that the price per unit of inventory is correct.)
18 Sitting Pretty 36 mins

Sitting Pretty Co is a small, family-run company that makes plastic chairs in a variety of shapes and
colours for children and 'fun at heart' adults. It buys in sheets of plastic which can be cut and bent into the
correct shape and a plastic leg that is custom made by another company to Sitting Pretty's requirements.
All off-cut plastic is sent back to the supplier who melts it down and re-uses it, for which Sitting Pretty
receive a 10% discount off their purchase price.
For the inventory count, the factory manager ensures that no work-in-progress is outstanding and closes
down production for the day. The factory workers come in early on the day of the inventory count to count
the inventory, and they are entitled to go home as soon as inventory is counted. Good controls have
always been maintained over the inventory count in previous years. There are no perpetual inventory
records. Raw materials are all kept in the stores and are only taken out when they are required for
production. Finished goods are kept in the end of the factory, near the delivery exit.
You are the audit assistant assigned to attend the inventory count. You have just rung the factory manager
and he has mentioned that on the day of the inventory count a large consignment of plastic is going to be
delivered. It is the only day that his supplier can make the delivery, and he needs the material to continue
with production on the day after the count.
The audit engagement partner has told you that he is aware that Sitting Pretty changed the specification of
their customised leg recently, after a series of complaints over the stability of their chairs. Last year's
inventory was valued at $200,000 in the statement of financial position, of which $30,000 related to raw
material inventory.
Finished goods are all carried at the same valuation as each other as there is very little difference between
the inventory ranges. Planning materiality for this year has been set at $5,000 on the grounds, at this
stage, that the figures are expected to be similar to last year.
Required
(a) Explain the importance of the inventory count in this situation. (3 marks)
(b) Prepare notes for your audit supervisor detailing the procedures you propose to undertake in
relation to your inventory count attendance. (7 marks)
(c) State the procedures which should be taken in relation to cut-off at the final audit. (5 marks)
(d) List the audit procedures you would carry out on the valuation of inventory at the final audit.
(5 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)

19 Bright Sparks 36 mins
Bright Sparks, a limited liability company, distributes domestic electrical equipment from one warehouse.
Customers are mainly installers of such equipment, but there is a 'cash and carry' counter in the
warehouse for retail customers. The warehousemen are responsible for raising invoices and credit notes
relating to credit sales as well as handling cash sales.
You have carried out your interim audit in respect of the year ending 31 December 20X0 which included a
circularisation of 80 trade accounts receivable as at 30 September 20X0 selected from a total credit
customer list of 1,000. Replies were received from all customers circularised. The interim audit work
disclosed the following.
(a) Of the 80 customers' accounts circularised, eight disagreed but could be reconciled by bringing
into account payments stated by the customers concerned to have been made before 30
September 20X0 but which in each case were recorded in Bright Sparks' books between 14 and 18
days after the dates stated by the customers as the date of payment.
(b) Your tests suggested that some 25% of credit customers were allowed settlement discounts of
2.5% although payments were consistently received after the latest date eligible for discount.
(c) A large number of credit notes were raised representing approximately 12% of the total number of
invoices raised. A review of the copy credit notes indicated that they usually arose from
arithmetical and pricing errors on invoices raised.
You are required to explain the conclusions you would draw as a result of the interim audit and describe
the work you would plan to carry out at the final audit on trade receivables at 31 December 20X0 based
upon those conclusions. (20 marks)
20 Audit of cash and bank 18 mins

(a) State the characteristics of a bank confirmation letter. (3 marks)
(b) List six examples of items requested in the bank confirmation letter. (3 marks)
(c) Explain the purpose and importance of the bank reconciliation. (4 marks)
(Total = 10 marks)
21 Understatement 54 mins
Research into the distribution of errors in accounts has shown that for most items on the statement of
financial position the errors are normally distributed. However, with payables the distribution is skewed,
and there is a greater risk that payables will be understated than overstated. Understatement of payables
will lead to overstatement of profit, so auditors must design their tests to ensure that payables are not
understated.
You have been asked by the manager in charge of the audit of Heanor Wholesale Co to verify trade
payables and accruals at the company's year-end of 30 April 20X2. The company maintains its purchase
ledger on a microcomputer, using a standard purchase ledger accounting package. Purchase invoices are
posted to the purchase ledger after they have been checked to the delivery note and the purchase order
and have been authorised by either the financial director or the managing director.
The purchase ledger can show for each purchase ledger account:
(a) The unpaid invoices and credit notes
(b) An ageing of the balance into current month, one month, two months and three or more months
(c) The total balance on the account
Also, the system is able to provide the total of the balances of all the accounts on the purchase ledger.
Your audit of the purchases system has revealed that the system for recording receipt of goods is
relatively weak. The company does not use goods received notes, but the supplier's delivery note should
be dated by the goods received department when the goods are received. Your audit tests have revealed

that some delivery notes are not dated by the goods received department. The delivery note is filed with
the purchase invoice in alphabetical order (by supplier).
A full inventory count was carried out at the company's year-end and you are satisfied that it was counted
accurately.
In the company's draft financial statements the value of trade payables and accruals at 30 April 20X2 are
as follows.
$
Trade payables 509,200
Purchase accruals 27,050
536,250
Sundry payables and accruals 59,480
Current liabilities 595,730
Heanor's annual revenue figure is about $3.5 million and its profit before tax is $190,000. The age of
payables at 30 April 20X2 is 3.4 months, which is similar to the previous year. Sundry payables and
accruals comprise mainly wages accruals (including income tax and other deductions) and a sales tax
liability of $20,000.
Required
(a) Consider and discuss the reasons why:
(i) It is more likely that payables will be understated than overstated.
(ii) It is difficult for auditors to ensure that payables are not understated. (6 marks)
(b) Describe the audit work you will perform to verify trade payables and purchase accruals. Your
answer should include consideration of:
(i) Tests using suppliers' statements
(ii) Why most auditors do not carry out a payables' circularisation, and the circumstances when
a payables' circularisation should be carried out
(iii) Audit tests which are designed to detect understatement of payables (14 marks)
(c) Describe the audit procedures you will perform to verify sundry payables and accruals, including
the sales tax liability. (10 marks)
(Total = 30 marks)
22 'Tap!' 36 mins
You are an audit assistant in the firm Rogers and Smith. You have been asked to plan the audit of 'Tap!'
for the year ended 30 June 20X4. It is the first time your audit firm has audited the charity, which has not
been audited previously. The trustees have expressed interest in receiving a 'value added' audit and are
particularly interested in business advice, especially in the area of systems controls.
'Tap!' is a registered charity that raises money for projects building wells in Africa through musical
entertainment. The group consists of volunteers who travel around the country, putting on variety shows
of music and dance, the proceeds of which are put towards building the wells. The main show is a tap
dance production, acting out the difficulties many people face when they are not near a clean water supply.
The administrative offices of 'Tap!' are located in a large provincial town. It owns a house, donated by
legacy in the past, where the administration is carried out and where the volunteers stay during off
periods.
A large proportion of 'Tap!'s income comes from box office receipts which are taken by the theatre at
which they are performing. The theatres usually waive their standard terms for use of the premises and
merely take a 10% commission on ticket receipts to cover light and heat and other such expenses. Income
usually comes in after every booking in the form of a lump sum cheque from the theatre, together with a
break down of takings and commission.

'Tap!' also receives donations towards the work. These come from a variety of sources:
x Cash donations from buckets passed around at the interval of each performance
x Cash donations on the (rare) occasion that the team does street performances
x Cash donations made over the phone or by post by interested donors
The troupe consists largely of volunteers so they are only paid expenses for their work. The cost of
housing the group while they are on the road is borne by the charity. The charity employs an administrator
who organises bookings, handles publicity and co-ordinates all the finances.
Required
(a) Discuss the risks arising for the audit of the year ending 30 June 20X4. (8 marks)
(b) State the audit procedures you would undertake in respect of cash income in the financial
statements. (6 marks)
(c) List some controls over cash which the charity should implement. (6 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)
Approaching the answer

You should read through the requirement before working through and annotating the question as we
have so that you are aware of what things you are looking for.
You are an audit assistant in the firm Rogers and Smith. You have been
asked to plan the audit of 'Tap!' for the year ended 30 June 20X4. It is the
First time audit for firm first time your audit firm has
Impact on opening balances
so little cumulated and comparatives.
knowledge and
experience. audited the charity, which has not been audited previously. The trustees
have expressed interest in receiving a 'value added' audit and are
particularly interested in business advice, especially in the area of systems
High degree of
controls.
regulation. Do we have Not just a simple audit. This may make the engagement too risky – given the
any experience in this potential bad publicity that could result if there were problems with the audit.
field?
'Tap!' is a registered charity that raises money for projects building wells in
Africa through
Where is the audit
evidence? Also, is
musical entertainment. The group consists of volunteers who travel around
expenditure in line with
the country, putting on variety shows of music and dance, the proceeds of
the Trust Deed?
which are put towards building the wells. The main show is a tap dance
production, acting out the difficulties many people face when they are not
near a clean water supply.
Is this common? Are
there restrictions on The administrative offices of 'Tap!' are located in a large provincial town. It
expenditure? Also ensure
accounts are correct for
disclosures.
owns a house, donated by legacy in the past, where the administration is
carried out and where the volunteers stay during off periods.

Trust?
A large proportion of 'Tap!'s income comes from box office receipts which
are taken by the theatre at which they are performing. The theatres usually
waive their standard terms for use of the premises and merely take a 10% How
Cash income – risky commission on ticket receipts to cover light and heat and other such accounted?
expenses. Income usually comes in after every booking in the form of a
lump sum cheque from the theatre, together with a break down of takings
and commission. Trust for
Again cash. Also, poor in
completeness?
future years for analytical
evidence. Lack of good 'Tap!' also receive donations towards the work. These come from a variety
evidence available. of sources:
Again cash. Also, what are the controls
here? Completeness may be a problem.
x Cash donations from buckets passed around at the interval of each
performance
x Cash donations on the (rare) occasion that the team does street
performances
x Cash donations made over the phone or by post by interested
donors
The troupe consists largely of volunteers so they are only paid expenses for
No salaries Expenditure
their work. The cost of housing the group while they are on the road is
issues again.
borne by the charity. The charity employs an administrator who organises
Not a specialist? But

drafting complex bookings, handles publicity and co-ordinates all the finances.
accounts.
Required
You should have been noticing and annotating risks as you
have worked through the scenario. Try and categorise them
in your mind (inherent, control, detection).
(a) Discuss the risks arising for the audit of the year ending 30 June
20X4. (8 marks)
Note you are looking
specifically for audit risks. You must tailor your answer to the
scenario.
(b) State the audit procedures you would undertake in respect of cash
income in the financial statements. (6 marks)
Only cash income!!
(c) List some controls over cash which the charity should implement. (6 marks)
Think of control objectives and then design

reasonable controls that meet the objective. There
are more control problems in the scenario than
you need to identify/solve for the marks.
(Total = 20 marks)

Answer plan
(a) Audit risks
Disclosure Cash (loss/theft) Cash
Inherent Control
risk Charity audit
risk
Completeness No accountant
of income
Location Detection First year of audit

of audit risk
evidence
First audit for charity
(b) Audit procedures

x Income from box office
x Income from buckets
x Income from other donations
(c) Controls
x Schedule of seats
x Two people to collect
x Pre-numbered forms
Security of cash during collection and between banking?
Other income
Use pre-numbered forms
Periodic reviews of work by Trustees
23 Going concern 36 mins

Carrington Joinery, a private company, owned by its directors, manufactures wooden window frames,
doors and staircases for domestic houses. It has prepared draft accounts for the year ended 30 September
20X6 and you are concerned that they indicate serious going concern problems. The statements of
comprehensive income and statements of financial position for the last five years (each ended 30
September) are given below.
STATEMENT OF COMPREHENSIVE INCOME
20X2 20X3 20X4 20X5 20X6
$'000 $'000 $'000 $'000 $'000
Sales 625 787 1,121 1,661 1,881
Cost of sales (478) (701) (962) (1,326) (1,510)
Gross profit 147 86 159 335 371
Other expenses (88) (86) (161) (240) (288)
Interest (6) (9) (58) (90) (117)
Net profit/(loss) 53 (9) (60) 5 (34)

STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION
20X2 20X3 20X4 20X5 20X6
$'000 $'000 $'000 $'000 $'000
Assets
Current assets
Inventory 67 133 181 307 449
Trade accounts receivable 91 240 303 313 364
158 373 484 620 813
Net current assets 89 161 544 600 587
Total assets 247 534 1,028 1,220 1,400
Liabilities and shareholders' funds

Current liabilities
Trade accounts payable 90 317 355 490 641
Bank overdraft 10 65 211 269 365
Lease creditor 14 28 98 92 59
114 410 664 851 1,065
Non-current loan – – 300 300 300
114 410 964 1,151 1,365
Shareholders' funds
Share capital 17 17 17 17 17
Reserves 116 107 47 52 18
133 124 64 69 35
Total liabilities and shareholders' funds 247 534 1,028 1,220 1,400
The company has been in business for about fifteen years. In January 20X3 it decided to build a new
factory on a site leased from the local authority which would allow a major increase in sales. This new
factory with new equipment was completed a year later. The factory was financed by a non-current loan of
$300,000 from a merchant bank and an increase in the bank overdraft.
The loan from the merchant bank is secured by a fixed charge on the leasehold factory and the bank
overdraft is secured by a second charge on the leasehold factory, a fixed charge on the other non-current
assets and a floating charge on the current assets.
The company purchases its main raw material, wood, from timber wholesalers. It sells around 75% of its
production to about 12 local and national builders of new domestic houses. The remaining sales are
mainly to smaller builders with a very few sales to local builders merchants.
Required
(a) In relation to the financial statements above, list and briefly describe the factors which indicate that
the company may not be a going concern. You should also highlight certain figures and calculate
relevant ratios in the accounts. (13 marks)
(Note. You will only be given credit for going concern problems which can be determined from the
accounts above.)
(b) Describe the investigations and tests you would carry out, in addition to those described in part (a)
above, to determine whether the company is a going concern. (7 marks)
(Total = 20 marks)

24 Audit review and finalisation 18 mins
(a) ISA 560 Subsequent events provides guidance on the responsibilities of auditors regarding
subsequent events. Briefly explain the responsibilities of auditors for facts discovered up to the
date of the auditor’s report, facts discovered after the date of the auditor’s report but before the
accounts are issued and for facts discovered after the financial statements have been issued.
(4 marks)
(b) ISA 580 Written representations explains the purpose and use of written representations as audit
evidence. State six items that could be included in a written representation letter.
(3 marks)
(c) Briefly discuss the use of analytical procedures at the review stage of the audit. (3 marks)
(Total = 10 marks)
25 Wiseguys National Bakeries

Your firm acts as auditor of Wiseguys National Bakeries Co. The finance director has prepared financial
statements of the company for year to 31 December 20X9 which show a pre-tax profit of $450,000. You
have been advised that the board of directors has approved the financial statements and decided that no
amendments should be made thereto.
As partner responsible for the audit you have noted the following matters during your review of the
financial statements and the audit working papers:
(a) The freehold property which was included at cost in previous years' statement of financial position,
has now been restated at a professional valuation of $1,250,000 carried out during the year. You
are satisfied with the valuation, the relevant figures have been correctly adjusted and the necessary
information disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.
(b) An amount of $45,000 due from a customer in respect of sales during the year is included in
receivables but, from information made available to you, you conclude that no part of this debt will
be recovered. No allowance has been made against this amount.
(c) The financial statements do not disclose the fact that a director was indebted to the company for an
amount of $22,000 during a period of six weeks commencing 1 February 20X9.
Required
Explain how each of the above will impact on the auditor’s report.
26 Builders Merchants 36 mins

You are the auditor of Builders Merchants, a listed company which distributes materials to the
construction industry from eight depots in the south of the country, and you are currently finalising the
audit for the year ended 31 March 20X1. Your audits tests have proved satisfactory with the exception of
the following four matters.
(a) The physical inventory count sheets for one of the depots were lost before they were made
available to you, and you have not been able to confirm the inventory quantities and values for this
depot by alternative methods. The directors have valued this part of the inventory at $75,000 and
this figure is included in the overall inventory valuation of $640,000.
(b) Included in trade receivables, which total $580,000, is a debt amounting to $45,000 from a
customer which went into liquidation on 15 June 20X1. You have ascertained from the liquidator
that your client is unlikely to receive a distribution. The statement of comprehensive income for the
year shows a pre-tax profit of $100,000 but the directors are not prepared to provide for this debt.
(c) The financial statements of Builders Merchants do not contain a statement of cash flows.

(d) A substantial claim has been lodged against the company by a major customer. The matter is fully
explained in the notes to the accounts, but no provision has been made for legal costs or
compensation payable as it is not possible to determine with reasonable accuracy the amounts, if
any, which may become payable. The directors have received legal advice which appears to be
reliable in indicating that the claim can be successfully defended.
Required
Explain how the above items will influence the auditor’s report you will issue. (20 marks)

1 Objectives, characteristics and responsibilities
Bird & Co
1 Old Street
New Town
M1 3WQ
1 January 20X1
Mr G Neville
1 Any Street
New Town
M2 5LM
Dear Mr Neville
In response to your queries I have produced some information on the difference between statutory audit,
assurance work and internal audit. I have included this information in an appendix. However, it is
important to note that the external audit is a legal requirement for many companies and cannot be avoided
by employing the auditor to do other work.
If you require any further details please do not hesitate to contact me.
Yours sincerely
A N Accountant
Enclosure: Appendix
External audit Assurance work Internal audit
Characteristics and objectives
The external audit is a legal Assurance work is voluntary for Internal audit departments are
requirement for limited liability companies. Management can not a legal requirement, though
companies above a certain size. employ the external auditor to the Combined Code on Corporate
Partnerships and sole traders do report on any specific areas. Governance recommends them
not normally need to have any Directors may employ the as best practice for listed
audit, though some may opt to external auditor when they feel a companies in the UK and other
do so to give independent specific investigation or some countries are following this
credibility to their financial specific work needs to be done, model.
statements. e.g. in support of an insurance
claim or loan application.
In an external audit the auditor The scope of assurance work is Internal auditors are employees
gives an independent opinion on determined by management. of the company. They report on
whether the financial statements the internal controls, identifying
are true and fair. Implied problems and suggesting
opinions may also be given on improvements. They may also
issues such as whether the report on the effectiveness of
financial statements agree with efficiency of operations.
the underlying records and all
information and explanations
which are relevant to the audit
have been received.
External audits are performed Assurance work is a one-off Internal auditors are full-time
annually, and the auditor is paid specific assignment; fees are employees, and as such there are
based on hours worked. The normally agreed with ongoing costs involved with
audit fee is normally disclosed in management and based on hours setting up an internal audit
a set of financial statements. worked. department.

External audit Assurance work Internal audit
Characteristics and objectives
The auditor’s report is a formal Reports are tailored to the scope Reports are prepared for
report with standard wording, of work, and addressed to management. There is no
prepared for shareholders. An management. guidance governing the wording
unqualified auditor’s report of reports, though companies
indicates that the auditor believes may have their own internal
the financial statements are true guidelines.
and fair.
Responsibilities
Work and procedures are The International Framework for There are no International
governed by International Assurance Engagements Standards on Auditing to govern
Standards on Auditing, produced provides guidance on the nature internal audit work.
by the International Auditing and of assurance engagements. ISAE
Assurance Standards Board of 3000 Assurance Engagements
IFAC. Compliance with these provides standards for assurance
Standards is a good defence engagements other than audits
should the auditor end up in or reviews of historical financial
court. information. Auditors are
expected to comply with this
standard for both reasonable and
limited assurance engagements.
2 Audit and assurance engagements

(a) Assurance engagements are engagements in which a professional accountant expresses a
conclusion which provides the intended user with a level of assurance about a particular subject
matter. External audits and review engagements are examples of assurance engagements.
An external audit provides only reasonable assurance because of the inherent limitations of the
audit such as the fact that not all the transactions in the accounts can be tested and that judgement
is required in the audit of provisions, for example.
Review engagements only provide negative assurance – this means that nothing has come to the
attention of the auditor which indicates that the accounts have not been prepared according to the
applicable framework.
Limitations of the external audit:
– Not all items in the financial statements are tested.
– Judgement is required.
– There are limitations in the accounting and control systems.
– The audit report is issued a while after the balance sheet date.
(b) The explicit opinions stated in the audit report:
– The state of the company’s affairs at the end of the financial year in the statement of
financial position.
– The company’s profit or loss for the financial year in the statement of comprehensive
income.
356 Exam answer bank

Implied opinions are reported on in the audit report only by exception, and could include the
following:
– Adequate accounting records have been kept.
– Returns adequate for the audit have been received from branches not visited.
– The accounts are in agreement with the accounting records and returns.
– All information and explanations have been received by the auditors and they have had
access at all times to the company’s books, accounts and records.
– Details of directors’ emoluments and other benefits have been correctly disclosed in the
accounts.
– Particulars of loans and other transactions in favour of directors and others have been
correctly disclosed in the accounts.
(c) Using the UK as an example, auditors have the following rights:
– Access to records: Auditors have a right of access at all times to the books, accounts and
vouchers of the company.
– Information and explanations: Auditors have a right to require from the company’s officers
any information and explanations that they consider necessary for the performance of their
duties.
– Attendance at and notices of general meetings: Auditors have a right to attend any general
meetings of the company and to receive all notices of and communications relating to such
meetings which any member of the company is entitled to receive.
– Right to speak at general meetings: Auditors have a right to be heard at general meetings
which they attend on any part of the business that concerns them as auditors.
– Rights in relation to written resolutions: Auditors have a right to receive a copy of any
written resolution proposed.
– Right to require laying of accounts: Auditors have a right to give notice in writing that a
general meeting is held for the purpose of the laying of accounts and reports before the
company.
3 Standards
The major advantages and disadvantages of auditing standards can be summarised as follows.
Advantages
They give a framework for all audits around which a particular audit can be developed.
They help to standardise the approach of all auditors to the common objective of producing an opinion.
They assist the court in interpretation of the concept of 'due professional care' and may assist auditors
when defending their work.
They increase public awareness of what an audit comprises and the work behind the production of an
audit report.
They provide support for auditors in potential disputes with clients regarding the audit work necessary.
Disadvantages
It may appear that they impinge on, rather than assist, professional judgement.
They are considered by some to stifle initiative and developments of new auditing methods.
They may create additional and unnecessary work and thus raise fees, particularly in the audit of small
companies.

If auditing standards were to be enforceable by statute it would mean that there would be government
intervention in areas currently controlled solely by the profession itself. This might ultimately lead to a
diminished role in self-regulation. To be enforceable by statute the standards would have to be applicable
to all circumstances and thus need to be very general and broad in their instructions. This might reduce
their usefulness to the auditors. Auditors might spend unnecessary time ensuring that they have complied
with the law rather than considering the quality of service to their clients.
Finally, it should be considered whether full statutory backing for standards would force auditors into
narrow views and approaches which might gradually impair the quality of accounting and auditing
practices.
4 Corporate governance
(a) Improving the effectiveness of audit
x Increasing assurance from stronger corporate governance and internal controls
x Providing an opportunity to discuss the terms and scope of external audit in an impartial
way
x Strengthening the ability of the external auditor to request changes in control systems
x Ensuring that there is minimal duplication of work where internal auditors are involved, by
discussing the audit plan with the external auditors via the audit committee
x Ensuring that directors' statements on internal control as required by Cadbury are reviewed
by the audit committee
x Reviewing going concern issues and ensuring that appropriate disclosures are made
x Acting as a forum for resolving problems between the directors and the external auditors
x Resolving difficulties over the availability of information and key client personnel
x Reviewing draft financial statements before presentation to the auditors and the executive
board
(b) Independence of audit committees
x The members should be independent and declare any interests in the company.
x Non-executive directors often sit on several boards, so conflicts of interest can easily arise.
x Salaries are paid by the company so financial independence can be compromised.
x Members of the audit committee tend to have other roles at the client, eg personnel. They
act in several capacities and independence may be impaired.
x Members may have had previous involvement in executive positions and could have share
options or pension schemes, again compromising independence.
(c) Statutory regulation
Statutory regulation could impose additional costs and regulatory burdens, which might not justify
the end in all cases and could sometimes be detrimental to shareholders.
However, an argument in favour of statutory regulation is that voluntary codes of practice may not
be applied consistently by companies. Another is that the non-executive audit committee may not
feel able to criticise management unless they have statutory backing.
Shareholders do not readily understand the role of the audit committee. If it was appointed by
statute and governed this role might be better understood, but this is not necessarily the case.
There is no evidence that shareholders understand legal regulations any better than voluntary ones
in many cases. It is difficult to arrive at a 'model' audit committee suitable for all entities, as would
be required if statutory regulation were introduced. Companies are unique and have unique
requirements.
A statutory monitoring report upon the audit committee would be required. This would further
increase costs for the company. It would be very difficult to set standards for non-executive
directors on audit committees.

5 Independence
(a) If an auditor is to have credibility then it is vital that he should be seen to be independent of any
concern on which he is required to report. However, independence is but one of a number of
qualities which the modern auditor must possess if he is to be accepted as suitable for his role.
Outside of independence, perhaps the two most important qualities required of an auditor are:
(i) Integrity
The auditor must be seen as honest. Having formed his opinion, based on the audit
evidence he has collected, he will not allow others to sway his judgement to suit their own
ends. It is the auditor's integrity which will allow interested parties to place reliance on his
reports.
IFAC and national supervisory bodies do a great deal to try and ensure that the integrity of
the profession as a whole, as well as that of individual members, is maintained. This is done
by laying down ethical guidelines which all members are required to follow (disciplinary
proceedings are taken against any member known to have breached such guidelines). The
accounting bodies also assist in this area by providing a broad framework for the training
and examination of prospective new members, such as the ACCA's Code of Ethics and
Conduct.
(ii) Professional competence
Clearly the auditor must be in possession of certain technical skills. This fact is clearly
recognised so far as statutory audits are concerned, as only suitable qualified accountants
are recognised as being competent to hold office as auditor. Examples of some of the skills
required of the modern auditor are that he must be:
x Aware of and understand audit objectives
x Able to interpret systems
x Able to communicate well with others
x Conversant with required techniques such as sampling
x Able to cope with the impact of modern technology on accounting and internal
control systems
The accounting profession is only too well aware of the need to maintain and improve standards of
professional competence and for this reason has issued and recently revised a number of
International Standards on Auditing. In addition the accounting bodies are heavily involved in
running courses to assist members in maintaining and improving their technical skills.
(b) Independence on the part of the auditor as a reporting accountant is seen by many to be a
fundamental concept of auditing. It has been said that it would never be sufficient for an auditor to
claim that he was independent. In fact, he must always be clearly seen to be independent in
practice. Given this situation, it would be almost impossible to draw up a set of rules to cover every
conceivable situation where an auditor's independence might be called into question.
Whilst not able to provide an exhaustive list of recommendations, the main principles which should
be applied when considering the question of independence may be found in the relevant section of
the ACCA’s Code of Ethics and Conduct. With this in mind, the following comments could be made
in relation to the situations specified in the question:
(i) The audit partner has no shareholdings in the client company and so, all other things being
equal, he could be seen as giving an objective audit opinion. However, the audit manager
does have a shareholding in the client company which, whilst not material to the company
(at 1% of issued share capital), could be material to the audit manager and certainly might
be seen to influence his ability to give an impartial opinion in relation to the company's
affairs. As the partner will inevitably have to rely upon the work completed and controlled by

the audit manager it is clearly undesirable for the manager to have such a financial
involvement in the client's affairs.
(ii) The code suggests that under normal circumstances no more that 15% of the gross fee
income of a practice should come from any one client source. The reason for this is that the
fear of losing a major client, and thus a substantial proportion of fee income, could
prejudice the auditor's objectivity and make him more likely to bow to pressures from the
client.
The audit fee from Janet Co contributes some 14.3% of the total fees income of the practice
and so is within the 15% recommended limit. It would be necessary to consider whether
any other fee income was received from this client, as this could result in the 15% limit
being exceeded. However, perhaps the most important point to note is that the 15% is
merely a guide. If the figure is slightly exceeded it does not automatically mean that
independence is impaired and it must also be appreciated that even if the level of fee income
is below 15% the auditor's independence could still be seen as being prejudiced. The firm
would need to keep this situation under constant review.
(iii) As another instance of where financial involvement in a client's affairs could be seen to
impair an auditor's objectivity, the code recommends that between an auditor and a client,
there should be no loans or guarantees in respect of loans either way. Any such financial
involvement could be seen to impair the auditor's judgement either because of a client
putting pressure on the auditor or because of the auditor's own fear of suffering some
financial loss.
However, the code does allow for one exception in making the above recommendation and
that is where the loan is 'in the normal course of business and on normal commercial
terms', providing it is not to the engagement partner (i.e. allowed for other audit staff
members and practice partners). It is part of a bank's normal business to make personal
loans and if the rate of interest being paid by the audit senior is the normal commercial rate
of interest, this transaction is unlikely to be seen as impairing the auditor's independence.
(iv) The code also considers the problems that can be created when conflicts of interest arise
between different clients and between clients and the auditor's own business interests. It
concludes that every effort should be made to avoid conflicts of interest arising and that it
would be highly unethical for an accountant to act in a situation where he knew that a
conflict of interest existed.
The situation described in the question is a good example of the type of conflict of interest
with which the code is concerned. The audit partner should not advise Jean Co with regard
to the contract tender received from Harry Co. The auditor should explain the professional
reasons why he is unable to act on this occasion and suggest that Jean Co seek advice from
another firm of accountants.
6 Objectivity
(a) Objectivity
Objectivity is defined by the ACCA as being 'a state of mind which has regard to all considerations
relevant to the task in hand but no other. It pre-supposes intellectual honesty.'
(i) External auditors. Objectivity is usually hallmarked by 'independence' in the case of external
auditors. The auditor must be, and be seen to be, independent. ACCA provides a number of
guidelines as to how an auditor should maintain his independence.
(ii) Internal auditors. Internal auditors are usually employees of the people they report to, so
independence is a more difficult issue to understand here. However, it is vital that they
maintain objectivity towards their tasks within a company, so they must avoid conflicts of
interest and maintain integrity in their relationships with other staff members.

In particular, as an ACCA member, an internal auditor is bound by the ACCA's Code of
Ethics and Conduct. Objectivity is a fundamental principle of this code.
Threats to objectivity
The following are all threats to objectivity:
x Personal interest (for example, fear of losing fees or a good relationship with a client/fellow
staff member)
x Review of own work (for example, if an auditor audits financial statements he has compiled,
or an internal auditor monitors systems he has designed)
x Disputes (for example, with a client, or where an audit firm advocates for its client, or where
an internal auditor has a personal issue with a staff member)
x Long association or undue sympathy (for example, through close personal relationships)
x Intimidation (this is linked to self-interest, for example, fear of losing a client or an internal
auditor losing his job)
(b) Two situations
Scenario 1
(i) Threats
The situation raises three potential threats to objectivity.
The first is the issue that the firm has had a long association with the audit client. It is
unclear whether the same engagement staff have been associated with the entity in that
time.
The second is that the firm has been offered the opportunity to carry out work other than
audit for the firm. ACCA guidance states that provision of other services can affect
objectivity.
Connected to the previous point is the fact that a self-interest threat arises through the
substantial fee income that this client may generate in the current year. ACCA's guideline in
respect to recurring income is that 15% of office income from one client is likely to
adversely affect objectivity (for an unlisted company). The income in this year is likely to be
17%, but much of that is not recurring. However, the firm should consider that the result of
the consultancy might be that the business expands and the audit fee might rise in the
future. They should lay down contingency plans.
(ii) Safeguards
In relation to the other services, the key inherent safeguard is that it is a one-off project, as
stated above. It appears that it will also be carried out by a department other than the audit
department, which will help to maintain objectivity.
In terms of the audit, as the client has been associated with the audit firm for a number of
years, the firm should consider laying out procedures for rotation of the engagement
partner in relation to the client, so that the relationship cannot become too close over time.
If this is considered inappropriate, it might consider instituting a second partner review as
another measure to maintain objectivity.
Scenario 2
(i) Threats
If Peter was to get the job in the internal audit department, there would be considerable
threat of self-review, as he would have to monitor the systems which he has set up in the
purchasing department.
As Peter is a current employee of the company, there is also a risk that his objectivity
towards an internal audit role would be affected by his relationships with fellow employees.

This is particularly the case with regard to his relationship with his current boss, the
Purchasing Director, as he has a poor relationship with him. As a member of the internal
audit department, Peter would in all likelihood have to report directly on matters relating to
this director.
(ii) Safeguards
If Peter gets the job, an important safeguard would be that he did not work on matters
relating to the purchasing department for a period of time, or perhaps until the systems
have been reviewed again and/or the Purchasing Director moves on.
It would also be important to address the issue of objectivity as part of the recruitment
process. The issue of relationships with staff would have to be discussed and understood.
Lastly, it is important to have objectivity in the recruitment process. As Peter has had an
informal discussion with the head of Internal Audit, the head of Internal Audit should ensure
that other staff members are included in the recruitment process.
7 Role of internal audit

(a) Notes on the role of internal audit
(i) Requirements in relation to the Board of Directors
As a listed company, Golden Holdings should implement the following:
x The Board must meet regularly
x There should be a clearly accepted division of responsibilities
x Positions of Chief Executive and Chairman should be distinct
x A formal schedule of matters for referral to the Board should exist
x There should be a balance of executive and non-executive directors
Companies should also set up remuneration committees consisting of non-executive
directors to determine executive remuneration. The Committee should report annually to the
shareholders setting out the company's policy on remuneration and making disclosures
about director's remuneration packages.
(ii) Requirements in relation to accountability
They should also consider the following matters in relation to accountability:
x Directors must explain their responsibility for preparing accounts
x Directors must report on the going concern status of the company
x The Board should establish an audit committee
In addition, the financial statements are likely to be required to be audited by an
independent auditor who qualifies for the position under legislation.
(iii) Risk management
Directors should review the effectiveness of internal control systems at least annually.
Internal control systems are maintained to enable the business to operate efficiently, to
ensure that assets are safeguarded and that reliable records are maintained. An internal
control system reduces risk to a company.
As such, an internal control system is part of a company's risk management. Directors are
required to review the system as part of their risk management exercise, to ensure that the
system is still reducing risks, and that all risks have been considered.
The directors are also required to appraise the need for an internal audit department
annually. Internal audit have a role in monitoring the risk management of an entity.

(b) Sales department brainstorming session
MEMORANDUM
To: Sales director
(i) I should be able to come along to your brainstorming session in July. However, it is
probably best that I attend in an advisory and interested capacity only.
As we shall be involved in monitoring the systems which the sales department puts into
place to mitigate risks in the business, it is inappropriate for me to get too involved in the
initial systems design stage, as this will impair my future objectivity when monitoring how
the system is operating and achieving its objectives.
(ii) In terms of assessing risks, I am not best qualified to undertake this role. You are the
specialists and should be able to identify the major risks arising in the department.
Just to give you a better idea of what my role can be, internal audit are able to provide three
things:
x Objective assurance on the operation of systems once you have them up and
running
x Assistance in setting up a process to help you identify risks
x Assistance in strengthening the control process once you have identified risks
In other words, if you are struggling to identify risks at the meeting, I can give you some
pointers on how to go about it, but after that my job will be looking at the systems you
come up with, and helping you improve them continually.
Internal auditor
8 Glo
(a) Materiality
It is never appropriate to apply the prior year's materiality figure to the current year figures.
Materiality should be assessed in each year.
If the financial position has not changed much, and the results are very comparable with the prior
year, it is possible that the materiality assessed year-on-year is very similar, but this does not mean
that the auditors should not assess it for each audit. When assessing materiality, the auditor must
consider all known factors at the current date. In this case, the position has changed
considerably, increasing the risk of the audit, which may lower materiality itself.
As the position on the statement of financial position has changed considerably, when materiality
is assessed, it is unlikely that it will be similar to the prior year. Using the information available,
materiality is likely to be assessed extremely low in monetary terms, due to the overall decrease
in assets and the loss that appears to have been made in the year. It is also possible that given the
current position, the figures on the statement of financial position will not be used to assess
materiality in this year.
(b) Audit risk
Audit risk is the risk that the auditor will give an inappropriate opinion on financial statements. It is
made up of three different elements of risk:
x Inherent risk: the risks arising naturally in the business and specific accounts/transactions
x Control risk: the risk that the accounting system will fail to detect and prevent errors
x Detection risk: the risk that the auditors will not detect material misstatements
Detection risk comprises sampling risk (the risk that the auditors' conclusion drawn from a sample
is different to what it would have been, had the whole population been tested) and non-sampling
risk (the risk that auditors may use inappropriate procedures or misinterpret evidence).

Inherent and control risk are assessed by the auditors. Detection risk is then set at a level which
makes overall audit risk acceptable to them.
(c) Specific audit areas of risk
A review of this statement of financial position suggests that audit work should be directed to the
following areas:
Going concern
Total assets have fallen from $373,000 to $165,000. Although the statement of comprehensive
income has not been reviewed, the statement of financial position shows a retained loss for the
year of $211,000.
Net assets show a reduction in both inventory and receivables, which suggests a decrease in
activity, although trade payables do not seem to have fallen so considerably. However, this could
be accounted for by Glo-Warm not paying its suppliers in a similar fashion to the previous year. It
will be necessary to review the statement of comprehensive income to substantiate whether
activity has reduced.
The cash position has also worsened, with cash falling by $22,000. The statement of cash flows
should reveal more detail about this fall. However, the company has paid off $5,000 of its bank
loan, reducing overall net debt.
In summary, audit work should be directed at going concern as several indicators of going
concern problems exist on the statement of financial position. This will be further amplified when
the statement of comprehensive income is available.
Inventory
Inventory has been mentioned above in the context of going concern. Audit work should be
directed at inventory specifically as this balance has fallen significantly from the previous year,
which seems odd in a manufacturing company. There is no suggestion on the statement of
financial position for why this should be so (for example, receivables are not correspondingly high,
suggesting high pre-year end sales, and payables are not correspondingly low, suggesting low pre-
year end purchases). It may be that the inventory count did not include every item of inventory.
Alternatively it could simply point to a fall in activity (discussed above).
Warranty provision
A provision of $20,000 has been included in 20X6 for warranties. The reasons for this must be
investigated and the auditors must check that it has been accounted for correctly.
It seems odd that a warranty provision should suddenly appear on a statement of financial
position. It suggests a change in the terms of contracts given to customers, or a change in the
customers themselves (with different terms then applying). Alternatively it suggests that IAS 37
has been wrongly applied in the current year, or should have been applied in the previous year,
and was not.
Other material items
As stated above, given the indications of loss and the reduction in total asset value, it is likely that
materiality will be assessed low in monetary terms. In this case, most balances on the statement of
financial position are likely to be material (excluding investments and cash-in-hand which appear to
be very low risk).
However, as the bank loan is likely to be substantiated by good audit evidence, the most risky of
the other balances are trade receivables and trade payables, for reasons discussed above in
going concern. More detail is required to make a judgement about the risk of tangible non-current
assets.

9 Audit planning and documentation
(a) The overall audit strategy is a document that outlines the general strategy of the audit. It sets the
direction of the audit, describes the expected scope and conduct of the audit and provides
guidance for the development of the audit plan.
The audit plan is a more detailed document than the overall audit strategy and includes instructions
to the audit team that set out the audit procedures the auditors intend to adopt. The audit plan may
also contain references to other matters such as audit objectives, timing, sample sizes and the
basis of selection for each account area. It also serves as a means to control and record the proper
execution of the audit work.
Key contents of an overall audit strategy:
– Section on understanding the company’s environment.
– Section on understanding the company’s accounting and internal control system.
– Risk and materiality considerations.
– Nature, timing and extent of audit procedures.
– Section on co-ordination, direction, supervision and review.
– Any other matters.
(b) ISA 230 Audit documentation requires auditors to document their audit work. Audit work needs to
be documented for a number of reasons which are outlined below.
Audit documentation provides evidence of the auditor’s basis for a conclusion about the
achievement of the auditor’s objectives and evidence that the audit was planned and performed in
accordance with ISAs and other applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
It also assists the engagement team to plan and perform the audit; it assists team members
responsible for supervision to direct and supervise the audit work; it enables the team to be
accountable for its work; it allows a record of matters of continuing significance to be retained; and
it allows for the conduct of quality control reviews and inspections (both internal and external).
(c) Standardised audit working papers
Advantages
– May improve efficiency of audit work, through the use of checklists and specimen letters,
for example.
– Automated working paper packages may make documenting audit work easier, because
they include features such as automatic cross-referencing, for example.
– Facilitate review.
– Can lead to time saving.
Disadvantages
– May lead to a mechanical approach without applying audit judgement.
– May not be applicable to all clients.
– New audit staff will require training to use the audit documentation system used by the
audit firm.
10 Audit evidence considerations

(a) Analytical procedures can be used at the planning stage, as substantive procedures, and at the
review stage of the audit. Analytical procedures consist of the analysis of significant ratios and
trends including the resulting investigations of fluctuations and relationships that are inconsistent
with other relevant information or which deviate from predictable amounts. Analytical procedures
include comparisons with similar information from prior periods, comparisons to budgets and
forecasts, comparisons with predictions prepared by auditors, and comparisons with industry
information.

When using analytical procedures as substantive tests, auditors need to consider the information
available in terms of its availability, relevance and comparability. They also need to consider the
plausibility and predictability of the relationships they are testing. Other factors to consider include
materiality, other audit procedures, the accuracy with which the expected results can be predicted,
the frequency with which a relationship is observed and the assessments of inherent and control
risks.
An example of an analytical procedure that can be used as a substantive test is a proof in total test
on depreciation and amortisation. In this test, the auditor predicts the expected charge for the year
for depreciation and amortisation by using the client’s accounting policy for depreciation and
applying this to the brought forward figures for non-current assets from the prior year audited
financial statements, factoring in additions and disposals for the year. The figure obtained can be
compared to the charge in the draft financial statements to assess its reasonableness and
accuracy.
(b) Audit evidence is available to auditors in a variety of forms. These include auditor-generated
evidence (e.g. analytical procedures), external sources of evidence from third parties (e.g.
solicitors’ correspondence, valuation reports from surveyors for land and buildings), internal
sources of evidence from within the entity being audited (e.g. minutes of meetings from the Board
of directors, reports generated from the accounting system), and oral or written evidence. Another
factor to consider is whether the evidence, if written, is from an original document or a copy.
Audit evidence from external sources to the entity is more reliable than that obtained from the
entity’s records. Evidence from the entity’s records is more reliable when the related internal
control system is operating effectively. Auditor-generated evidence is more reliable than that
obtained indirectly or by inference. Evidence in the form of documents or written representations is
more reliable than oral representations. Where evidence is written, original documents are more
reliable than photocopies which can be altered by the client relatively easily.
11 Knits
(a) The audit of a small company such as Knits poses particular problems for an auditor because of
the following reasons:
x A single individual/small number of individuals running the business
x Lack of segregation of staff
x Few internal controls in place
x Informal controls that can be overridden by management
Knits has two directors, one who is involved in the everyday running of the company. This means
that internal controls can be overridden easily and may not be in place in any case. Although the
other director is a non-executive, this individual may not feel confident in discussing any control
issues, particularly if the director running the business is a strong individual.
It can also be seen that in the accounts department, there are only two members of staff so
segregation of duties may not be possible – this also can result in fraud being easy to perpetrate.
In terms of the audit, this may mean that the auditor cannot rely on the internal controls in place,
so would undertake a fully substantive audit consisting of tests of detail and analytical procedures.
(b) Control objectives of a sales system
– Goods and services ate only supplied to customers with good credit ratings.
– Customers are encouraged to pay promptly.
– Orders are recorded correctly.
– Orders are fulfilled.
– All dispatches are recorded.
– All goods and services sold are correctly invoiced.
– All invoices raised relate to goods and services supplied by the business.
– Credit notes are only issued for valid reasons.
– All sales that have been invoiced are recorded in the accounting system.

– All entries in the sales ledger are made to the correct accounts.
– Potentially doubtful debts have been identified.
(Note. Only six were required.)
(c)
Internal control deficiency Reason
1 There does not appear to be any list of Potential sales may be lost if customer goodwill
regular customers to be visited or timetable is lost through inventory not being ordered
of regular visits. promptly.
There is no credit check for accepting an Goods may be issued to a bad credit risk.
order.
2 The order form set has insufficient copies. The customer has no copy of the accepted order,
disputes at a later date when the goods are
despatched may become difficult to resolve.
3 The copy of the order for use in the The accounts department, who generate and post
warehouse is not sent directly to the the sales invoice have the ability to adjust the
warehouse. order before it is sent to the warehouse.
4 The order form is filed before being matched Poor monitoring of accurate and timely
to a despatch note and sales invoice. completeness of sales orders.
5 No copy of the despatch note is retained in No documentation is available within the
the warehouse. warehouse to support inventory movements and
prepare inventory records.
6 The sales ledger is only updated weekly. Customers are being given an additional weeks
credit which does not help Knits Co's cash flow.
7 Mrs Jones has control over most stages of Sales transactions may be manipulated and
the sales cycle from passing the order to company funds lost.
despatch, raising and posting the sales
invoice to receiving and posting the cash.
8 Written customer statements are only
The company is giving a very long credit period
produced for balances over 90 days old.
before chasing for payment.
This causes cash flow problems for the company
and given the nature of the customers business
could easily become bad debts within a 90 day
period.
9 There is no monthly reconciliation of a
Errors in updating sales invoices and cash may
receivables listing to a control account
go undetected until a customer complains.
balance.
Lack of audit trail poses problems for the
This is exacerbated by the fact that hard copy
company in dealing with complaints but also in
printouts of sales ledger balances are not
making year-end provisions and providing audit
retained.
evidence for the external auditor.

Additional valid points
1 The sales representative does not monitor the Customer goodwill may be lost as a result of
completeness of orders. errors or time delay in completing orders.
2 There is no customer confirmation of receipt Any dispute regarding receivables arising from
of goods. goods delivered may be difficult to resolve.
3 There is no independent review of the sales Errors in terms of prices to be charged, any
invoices prepared by Mrs Jones. discounts due to arithmetical errors may go
undetected.
4 Sales invoices are filed away, without Any customer disputes arising may be difficult to
retaining the despatch note, before the resolve without evidence of the goods
customer has paid. despatched. Bad debts may arise.
5 The executive director does not appear to Errors in recording and banking receipts may go
check the cheques received and being banked undetected.
to a remittances list.
(d) Controls to overcome the internal control deficiencies stated in part (a)
1 A schedule of planned visits should be prepared by the sales representative and completed
with details of sales orders taken.
This schedule should be reviewed by the executive director on a weekly basis, comparing
sales made to budgeted sales.
Any customers who are bad credit risks should be notified to the sales representative before
his scheduled visit.
2,3,4 A four-part order form should be prepared at the customers premises, with evidence of
approval by the customer.
The parts should be distributed as follows:
(1) Remain with customer
(2) To the warehouse
(3) To accounts to match with the sales invoice and despatch note
(4) Remain with the sales representative, to be used to monitor the progress of orders.
5 A three part despatch note system should be used as follows:
(1) Copy with the goods
(2) Filed with a copy of the order in the warehouse
(3) Sent to Accounts
6 Sales invoices should be posted to the sales ledger daily.
7 The sending of a copy of the despatch note directly to the warehouse and the monitoring of
the completion of the order by the sales representative would help to introduce segregation
of duties into the system.
In addition, cash and cheque receipts received in the morning could be recorded by Mrs
Singh if she was given the additional morning duty of opening the post.
8 Statements should be sent on a monthly basis. In addition the company should investigate
whether the company's computer package could produce them automatically.
9 Printouts of sales invoice and cash receipts postings should be retained, to provide
adequate audit trail.
In addition the individual sales ledger balances should be listed monthly and reconciled to
the nominal ledger sales ledger control account.
This account reconciliation should be performed by the executive director.

Additional points
x A schedule of goods being despatched should be prepared and the courier company should
sign for the goods being taken to customers.
x The executive director should review a sample of invoices per week, comparing details to
despatch notes, price lists and orders and checking numerical calculations.
x The copy of the sales invoice retained by Knits Co should be matched to the order and
despatch note before being filed away.
x Mrs Singh should prepare a list of remittances detailing the customers name, specific
invoices being paid and the net and gross amounts. A copy of the form should be sent to
Mrs Jones and a second copy sent to the executive director alongside the cheques for
banking. The executive director should evidence the form on banking the cheques to the
form filed in date order.
12 Fenton Distributors
(a) Control objectives
Sales system
– Goods and services ate only supplied to customers with good credit ratings.
– Customers are encouraged to pay promptly.
– Orders are recorded correctly.
– Orders are fulfilled.
– All dispatches are recorded.
– All goods and services sold are correctly invoiced.
– All invoices raised relate to goods and services supplied by the business.
– Credit notes are only issued for valid reasons.
– All sales that have been invoiced are recorded in the accounting system.
– All entries in the sales ledger are made to the correct accounts.
– Potentially doubtful debts have been identified.
Purchases system
– All orders for goods and services are properly authorised and are for goods and services
that are actually received and are for the company.
– Orders are only made to authorised suppliers and at competitive prices.
– Goods and services are only accepted if they have been ordered and the order has been
authorised.
– All goods and services received are accurately recorded.
– Liabilities are recorded for all goods and services that have been received.
– All credit notes received are recorded in the nominal and purchase ledger.
(Note. Only three were required for each.)
(b) (i) To verify the accuracy of the purchases transactions posted to the nominal ledger I would
perform the following tests.
x I would verify that the bookkeeper was up to date with the monthly posting of all
purchases transactions to the nominal ledger.
x Specific tests on purchase transactions will include the following.
(1) Purchase transactions will be traced from the invoice to the nominal ledger
and the analysis and analysis code will be checked.
(2) The total invoice value will be traced to the nominal ledger.
(3) The category of invoice expense and the expense amount will be examined to
confirm that it appears correctly on the detailed computer list for the month
concerned.

(4) The total of the items on the detailed list will be matched to the nominal
ledger.
(5) Transactions will also be traced backwards from the entries in the nominal
ledger making up the monthly total posted to the purchase ledger back to
both the detailed analysis and the individual invoice.
(6) The amount of the invoice expense will be agreed with the amount posted to
the nominal ledger.
The tests above check accounting entries forwards and backwards within the system
and any errors would be fully investigated as to their type, cause, materiality and
pattern.
x The tests on the detailed list and total postings of cash payments, discounts received
and adjustments will follow the same procedure as for invoices and credit notes. The
monthly cash book total will be agreed to the total posted from the purchase ledger
to the nominal ledger.
x An examination of the analysis and coding of purchase invoices will be carried out to
establish the level of accuracy achieved. Particular care will be taken to see that the
expense category 'purchases' is correctly identified and coded from invoices and is
not confused with other categories, for example stationery, rates, gas and telephone.
Incorrect analysis and/or coding may be indicated where the expense category is
high or low in comparison with its budget to date.
Large variations between actual and budget on expense categories should be
examined further to verify that they are not due to errors in analysis, coding or
posting.
(ii) To verify the validity and accuracy of the journals posted to the nominal ledger I would carry
out the following tests.
x Firstly, I would check the opening balances at the start of the financial year from the
opening trial balance back to the closing entries on the previous year's accounts.
After this, each item would be agreed to the nominal ledger ensuring that both the
value and analysis are correct. These opening postings should be the first entries in
the new year as all nominal ledger balances should have been set to zero, and this
should be confirmed.
x Other cash book items would be agreed to the nominal ledger to confirm that
postings are correct as to value and expense category. Large items would require a
larger sample size and large, unusual or suspicious items should all be checked and
evidenced by supporting documentation or Board approval.
x The year-end balances of cash and bank on the nominal ledger should be agreed
with the year-end balances in the cash book. This would require the last month to be
scrutinised as the closing balances at all previous month-ends will have been agreed
already.
x The tests on petty cash payments transactions would include the following.
(1) Check that transactions are supported by vouchers and correctly posted to
the right nominal ledger account. This would include checking that
transactions are valid and coded to the correct expense category.
(2) Check that petty cash transactions are within any limits, regarding the type of
expenditure or maximum value, established by management.
(3) Agree that the petty cash balance in the nominal ledger at the end of each
month and at the financial year-end matches with the balance in the petty
cash book.

x The wages expense is posted manually to the nominal ledger from the monthly
payroll summaries by means of a journal. To verify that the journals are correctly
posted I would select several journals and check the following matters.
(1) The totals of the analysis columns on the monthly summary shown on the
spreadsheet should be posted to the journal, and forward to the nominal
ledger.
(2) The breakdown of wages expense into directors and the several departmental
categories will be checked. The correct identification of directors' pay is
important as this requires statutory disclosure. I would obtain the current list
of directors. I would add up the totals in the analysis columns to confirm the
summary total, and consider its reasonableness.
(3) Amounts owing at the year-end for income tax, accrued pay and other
deductions will be verified and any reconciliation drawn up by the bookkeeper
agreed.
(4) Any additions to, or amendments of, weekly wages records posted to the
nominal ledger through the adjustments journal will be fully investigated and
their validity established.
(5) The analysis of wages expense for the year will be compared with the budget
and an explanation will be sought for any significant variances.
x Adjustment journals are potentially a high-risk area and any tests would include the
following.
(1) Check that all the manually written adjustment journals were authorised by
the managing director and supported by documentation and proper
narratives.
(2) Check journals are posted in numerical order and there should be no missing
numbers gaps in the postings.
(3) Examine all large adjustments and the reasons given for the errors. These will
be traced to the nominal ledger to ensure that postings do correct the errors.
(4) Investigate closely recurring errors to establish their cause and whether these
can be avoided in future by management action.
(5) Examine the purchase ledger suspense account (payables suspense) and
trace all postings in and out.
(6) Where there was no account in the nominal ledger, agree back to the
purchase invoice, establish the account number and verify that the item has
been posted from the suspense account to the correct account.
(7) Where the adjustment is due to the wrong account number being used, agree
that the journal correctly transfers the item to the right account.
(8) Where the bookkeeper has created contra entries between the purchase
ledger and the sales ledger, check that the supplier/customer company
concerned is posted with a purchase ledger and sales ledger contra of the
same value.
(9) All other adjustments will be checked for validity and supporting
documentation.
Reasons will be established for postings that increase or reduce purchase ledger
balances.
x Year-end balances on the nominal ledger would be further tested as follows.
(1) Any balances remaining on the purchase ledger and sales ledger suspense
accounts should be itemised on a supporting schedule and the existence of
each item justified.
(2) Nominal ledger balances for the cash book, petty cash book, sales ledger and
purchase ledger should agree to, or be reconciled to, the cash book, petty
cash book, total sales ledger and total purchase ledger balances at the year-

end. I will investigate further to confirm that any difference is reconciled and
explained. It may be that further adjustments are required to reduce or
eliminate a difference.
(3) All non-current asset movements should be checked, including purchases,
sales, revaluations and depreciation.
(4) All outstanding liabilities should be verified and their size reviewed for
reasonableness.
(5) The bank reconciliation should establish the correctness of balances on all
types of bank account, ie loan, current, deposit, special transactions and so
on.
(6) A review of the financial statements would be carried out to ensure that
material changes in assets, expenses, revenues, liabilities and share capital
are justified and explained. Justification would be sought in both relative and
absolute terms.
(c) Opening balances
In accordance with ISA 510 Initial audit engagements – opening balances, the auditor shall read the
most recent financial statements and the previous auditor’s report for information relevant to
opening balances.
The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether the opening balances
contain misstatements that materially affect the current period’s financial statements, and whether
the accounting policies reflected in the opening balances have been consistently applied in the
current period’s financial statements.
If the auditor obtains audit evidence that the opening balances contain misstatements that
materially affect the current period’s financial statements, he shall perform additional appropriate
audit procedures to determine the effect on the current period’s financial statements.
If the auditor concludes that such misstatements exist in the current period’s financial statements,
they shall be communicated to the appropriate level of management and those charged with
governance.
13 Cheque payments and petty cash

(a) A Black MNO & Co
Managing Director 3 Green Street
Quicksand Co Anytown
12 Kelvin Street
Anytown Date
Dear Mr Black
You recently requested that we should advise you on good internal controls over cheque payments
and petty cash.
The main objectives of control over payments are to ensure that payments are made only in respect
of valid transactions and that they are suitably authorised. The following control procedures will
contribute toward attaining these objectives.
Cheque payments
(i) Cheques should be raised only on the basis of authorisation, for example a purchase invoice
which has been suitably authorised.
(ii) Cheques should be signed by people other than those who approve invoices.

(iii) There should be two independent signatories for each cheque, for instance, two directors
might act as signatories. Signatories should inspect the documents supporting the cheque
to ensure that the details agree. They should also mark the document so that it cannot be
reused.
(iv) Cheques should be restrictively crossed.
(v) Unused cheques should be kept in a secure place. Blank cheques should never be signed.
(vi) Cheques should be under sequential control and all numbers should be accounted for.
Spoilt cheques should therefore be retained.
(vii) When cheques have been signed, they should be despatched immediately.
Petty cash
(i) Petty cash payments should be made only on the basis of suitably authorised vouchers,
which should be under sequential control. Vouchers should be retained for subsequent
references. Where independent evidence is also available, for example invoices and receipts,
this should be retained.
(ii) An imprest system should be used to control petty cash. This means that the petty cash
float is maintained at a specific amount and is reimbursed at regular intervals on the basis
of vouchers showing the payments which have been made. It is suggested that the float
should be kept at a level of $300 and be reimbursed on a weekly basis.
(iii) The petty cash float should be subject to periodic surprise counts by a responsible person
not involved with the petty cash system. The balance in-hand should be reconciled to the
imprest account by reference to the vouchers not yet reimbursed.
(iv) The size of individual payments out of petty cash should be subject to a maximum to be
agreed by the directors.
(v) Staff should not be allowed to cash personal cheques or borrow from petty cash.
I hope that the above information is useful to you in designing your systems of internal control. If
you require any more information, please let me know.
Yours sincerely,
A Smith
(b) Mr Black presumably feels that involvement in cash and cheque controls will be time-consuming,
and that he is too busy to be involved in it. He may feel that he does not want to play a direct part in
the petty cash function. Because of the small amounts involved, he may wish to delegate this
function to another director. He should appreciate, however, that involvement at least in the
authorisation of cheque payments would help to ensure that he is aware of major transactions in
his business. He might consider the possibility of authorising cheques in excess of a given amount;
this would minimise the demands on his time, while exercising control and keeping him informed
of significant outgoings from the business.
Auditors may wish to consider whether Mr Black's lack of involvement may be symptomatic of
insufficient attention being given to financial matters by the board.
14 Using the work of a management’s expert

(a) In assessing the reliability of the legal advice obtained from a local solicitor on the outcome of the
claim by Netherfield Manufacturing, the auditors shall consider the following.
(i) The materiality of the claim is important as the significance to the company of the amount
involved would clearly affect the extent of the audit work required.
(ii) The qualification, experience, reputation and standing of the local solicitor would be
relevant. Presumably the solicitor would be qualified, but it would also be necessary to
consider his suitability to advise on this type of claim. The experience of the solicitor and his
firm and their reputation in this field of litigation would be an important factor in
determining the extent of reliance to be placed on the solicitor's advice. In particular,
consideration should be given as to whether the solicitor had advised the company in

respect of similar litigation in the past and how reliable his advice had proved to be on those
earlier occasions.
(iii) The independence of the solicitor must be checked as any suggestion that the solicitor or
his firm had any direct connection with the company or its management would tend to
reduce somewhat the reliability of the evidence provided.
(iv) The nature and extent of the evidence provided by the company to the solicitor, and on
which he has based his opinion, should be carefully reviewed to ensure that the solicitor's
decision appears to have been based upon all relevant facts available to the company.
(v) The solicitor's opinion should be examined and its reasonableness assessed, in the light of
the auditor's knowledge and experience of similar cases against both Ravenshead and other
clients engaged in similar activities.
(vi) If the auditors consider the amount of the claim to be material, and there is uncertainty in
relation to the outcome of the claim and/or the solicitor's evidence, they should consider
recommending to the client that a second opinion from an independent specialist in the field
be obtained. If the client was not agreeable to this action or if the auditors still considered
there to be material uncertainty, then a qualification of the audit report would probably be
required.
(b) The factors to be considered by the auditors in assessing the reliability of the valuation of
properties by an independent valuer would be as follows.
(i) The independence of the valuer should be considered in a similar way to that of the local
solicitor, and for the same reasons.
(ii) The qualification, reputation and experience of the valuer should be considered. The valuer
should be a qualified member of a professional valuation body with experience of valuing
similar properties within the same geographical area as the properties owned by
Ravenshead. If the valuer does not have experience of the type of properties held by the
company or of the areas in which they are located, then the importance of his evidence is
likely to be considerably reduced. The reputation of the valuer or his firm would also affect
the reliability of his evidence so far as the auditors are concerned, with the likelihood that
more reliance could be placed on a valuation made by a large firm with a good reputation,
than one obtained from a little-known small firm.
(iii) The actual valuation of the properties by the valuer should be carefully examined. The
auditors would need to satisfy themselves that a reasonable basis for the valuation had been
adopted. Typically, an open market value based upon existing usage would be expected.
(iv) Any change in the valuation of the properties since the time of the previous valuation should
be assessed. The validity of any significant changes in the valuation of the properties should
be considered in the light of any statistical or other evidence available for similar properties.
(v) The reasonableness of the valuations should be considered against any profits or losses
made on any properties disposed of in recent times, as this could be a good indication of
any tendency to over or under value the properties to a material extent, either being likely to
distort the truth and fairness of the financial statements.
(vi) The reasonableness of the valuations could also be considered by the auditors comparing
the valuations with those used by other clients holding similar properties in the same
locations.
(c) The matters to be considered when assessing the valuation of the work-in-progress by an internal
valuer would be as follows.
(i) How material is this asset in the financial statements: as it is likely to be highly material, it
needs to be valued accurately.
(ii) The basis of the valuation should be carefully checked to consider the extent to which it
appears to comply with the requirements of IAS 2 Inventories.
(iii) Recognition needs to be made of the fact that, as the valuer is an employee of Ravenshead,
this will reduce the reliability of the evidence provided. However this may be countered to a
certain extent by the fact that the valuer should have a more detailed knowledge of the

work-in-progress than it would perhaps ever be possible for an independent valuer to
obtain.
(iv) Confirmation should be sought that the valuer had actually visited all of the relevant sites, or
otherwise obtained satisfactory evidence as to the stage of completion of the inventory in
order to provide himself with a reliable basis for its valuation.
(v) The valuer's basis of determining costs should be ascertained and the auditor would need to
be satisfied as to the reliability of the company's records in this respect and, in particular,
that a consistently applied satisfactory basis of overhead recognition had been employed.
15 Elsams
(a) Use of computer programs to verify inventory
If physical inventory counting takes place at the year-end, it may be assumed that the results of the
physical inventory count are entered into, and valued by, the computer. If so, then it is important to
compare the results of the physical count with the book quantities. The client may have a computer
program to make this comparison. It would be possible for the auditor to check this comparison by
re-performance using his own specially written computer audit program or a computer audit
package. The auditor’s computer audit program or package, when run against the file of book
inventory, might also be used to carry out the following tasks.
x Select a monetary unit or random sample of book inventory items for the auditor to check
the physical count quantities.
x Select items with specific characteristics, e.g. no sale since a specific date, unit selling price
over a specified figure for further testing (test counts or obsolescence enquiries).
x Prepare an aged analysis of inventory items.
x Re-perform calculation of the FIFO cost of each inventory item, compare with the book
inventory figure and print details if there is a discrepancy.
x Cast the file of book inventory and print the total.
x Print details (product number, supplier, quantity, cost, date of supply) for a sample of
recent inventory receipts contained on the file of book inventory for substantiation against
suppliers’ invoices.
x Prepare summaries of inventory by branch, product number and location to assist in
analytical procedures on the inventory figure, especially when comparing with previous
years.
x Compare the unit FIFO cost of each inventory item with the unit selling price and print
details of all inventory items where unit selling price is the lower to assist in evaluating net
realisable value.
Limitations
Computer audit programs specific to the client are expensive to write. Computer audit packages
which are tailored to the client’s computer and file structure are less expensive. However, packages
are often only compatible with certain makes of computer. The audit software can work only with
the information contained in the computer files. For example, an inventory ageing cannot be
produced if the dates of inventory movements are not available. Clearly audit software cannot
perform audit tests where an element of judgment is involved. For example, it can produce an
inventory ageing analysis but the auditor must decide, on the basis of all available evidence, what
level of obsolescence provision is reasonable. Audit software requires the auditor to have a detailed
knowledge of the software and of the computer files to be used.
(b) Test data
Audit test data consists of data submitted by the auditor for processing by the enterprise’s
computer-based accounting system. It may be processed during a normal production run (live test
data) or during a special run separate from the normal cycle (dead test data). The auditor predicts

the results of processing the data and compares the prediction with the actual results. The primary
objective of test data is to test programmed controls. For example, if the program contains a
control which rejects overtime hours greater than 20 per week, then the test data might include the
case of 21 hours overtime to see if it is rejected. The basic principle of using test data is that if the
program processes the test data correctly, then the logic of the program and the program coding
works and will process the actual data correctly.
Difficulties
x When live test data is used there is difficulty in ensuring that the dummy data does not
become included in the actual data.
x When dead test data is used it may be difficult to ensure that the program tested is identical
with that used for the actual data.
x The initial time spent designing the test data is excessive in relation to the benefit it brings –
many auditors would rather devote that time to substantive audit work.
(c) Audit sampling
(i) Random selection ensures that all items in the population have an equal chance of selection,
e.g. by use of random number tables or computerised generator.
(ii) Systematic selection involves selecting items using a constant interval, the first interval
having a random start. When using this method, the auditor must be sure that the
population is not structured in such a way that the sampling interval corresponds with a
particular pattern in the population.
(iii) Haphazard selection is an alternative to random selection, as long as the auditor is satisfied
that the sample is representative of the whole population. This method requires care to
guard against making a selection that is biased. It should not be used if statistical sampling
is being carried out.
(iv) Block selection can be used to check whether certain items have particular characteristics.
However it may produce samples that are not representative of the population as a whole,
especially if errors only occurred during a certain part of the period and hence the errors
found cannot be projected onto the rest of the population.
16 Boston Manufacturing
(a) Risk in the tangible non-current asset audit
Control risk
The controls over non-current assets at Boston Manufacturing appear to be strong. The company
maintains and reconciles a non-current asset register and there are authorisation procedures in
operation. These controls should be tested, and if they prove effective, control risk could be
assessed low.
Inherent risk
The tangible non-current assets are material on the basis of the proposed materiality level. There
has been a substantial movement on the plant and equipment account this year, but this appears to
be supported by the information given by the management accountant. There appear to be no
disposals in the year, which may indicate that they have been omitted, or that obsolete items are
included in the register. It is also unclear whether land is being depreciated. It would be
inappropriate if it was being depreciated. Overall, the inherent risk seems to be medium.
Detection risk
Given that inherent risk has been assessed as moderate and control risk has been assessed as low,
detection risk will be assessed as higher. However, there is usually good evidence in relation to the
existence and valuation of non-current assets and these are the key assertions which the auditors

are interested in. There will also be scope to carry out good analytical procedures, such as proof-
in-total of depreciation.
Conclusion
The audit of non-current assets appears to be medium to low risk.
(i) Existence
In many cases it is self-evident that land and buildings exist. However, it is important for the
auditors to verify all components of land and buildings contained within the statement of
financial position, if they are on a site different to the one which the auditors are primarily
attending, for example. Land and buildings should also be verified to title deeds to ensure
that they not only exist, but that they are owned by the client.
The other classes of asset should be inspected. A sample of assets from the register should be
agreed to the physical asset. There may be scope to rely on the work that the management
accountant has undertaken here. The auditor should check a reconciliation which the accountant
has performed. The auditors should make use of any identification marks on assets recorded in
the register, for example, security tags or bar codes which are kept on assets to distinguish
them. The auditor should inspect the condition of the assets and ensure that they are in use.
The motor vehicles should be reconciled in terms of number of vehicles existing at the
opening and closing positions. Again, to ensure that they not only exist, but are owned by
the company, the auditors should check the registration documents to ensure that the
company is the registered owner.
For all the above assets, the external auditor should also review the insurance provision for
the assets. This gives third party evidence of the existence of assets as the insurer would
not insure an asset which did not exist.
(ii) Valuation (excluding depreciation)
Land and buildings appear to be stated at historic cost as the schedule does not contain the
words 'at valuation'. The auditors should confirm that this is the case with the management
accountant. The cost can then be agreed to brought forward figures as there have been no
additions in the year. These figures will have been audited in the previous year. If the assets
are held at valuation, the auditors must ensure that the requirements of IAS 16 in relation to
revaluations are being complied with.
Similarly, as there have been no movements in the year, motor vehicles can be agreed to
the opening position.
To audit the valuation of plant and computers, the auditors should agree the opening
position. They should then obtain a schedule of additions to non-current assets, which can
be agreed to purchase invoices to verify valuation.
Lastly, the auditors should investigate whether the cost figures include any fully-written
down assets. This is implied by the fact that the depreciation charge on plant excluding
additions is low. If so, the auditor should find out whether these assets are still in use, and
if not, consider whether they should be excluded from the cost and accumulated
depreciation figures contained within the notes to the accounts. Excluding them would have
a net effect on the reported figure of $0.
(iii) Completeness
The schedule of non-current assets prepared should be reconciled to:
x The opening position (that is, the previous statement of financial position)
x The closing position (what is disclosed in the financial statements)
x The underlying records (the nominal ledger)

If the non-current asset register contains details of the cost and accumulated depreciation
of each asset, the register should also be reconciled to the schedule. Explanations should
be sought for any differences.
The additions of the schedule should also be checked to ensure that the opening and
closing positions reconcile within the schedule.
The auditors should also carry out a test on some of the individual additions, tracing the
transaction through the system, from purchase orders to delivery notes and invoices and
through the ledgers to the financial statements to ensure that additions have been included
completely.
(c) Depreciation
(i) Appropriateness
The appropriateness of the rates should be considered and discussed with management.
Relevant factors to consider are matters such as:
x The replacement policy for the asset
x The pattern of usage in the business
x The purpose of the asset being owned
In this instance, the auditors should establish the rationale behind the depreciation rates
applied, particularly in the case of plant. In the case of the plant purchased this year, the
depreciation rate applied is 10%. However, the assets have been purchased in relation to an
8 year project, so 12.5% might be a more appropriate rate.
(ii) Audit procedures
Depreciation on buildings can be verified by agreeing the purchase date of the buildings to
last year's file or historic invoices/purchase documents and the valuation applied to the
building portion.
For the other classes of asset, depreciation should be agreed for individual assets, as it is
not possible to agree them in total. The auditors should obtain a breakdown of the charges
for the year. They should be able to recalculate the depreciation from details in the non-
current asset register and compare the results.
17 Wandsworth Wholesalers
(a) I would have checked the following matters at the pre-year end inventory count.
(i) Counting staff, although not the usual custodians of the inventory, were competent. They
were briefed before the count and given sufficiently detailed written instructions. They were
assigned marked areas to count.
(ii) No inventory was moved during the count. If inventory had to be moved, then the count
supervisor would make a detailed note of quantities, inventory numbers and goods
dispatched notes.
(iii) The inventory was clearly identified and well laid out. The counters should work in an
organised way, with one counting and one checking. Each inventory line or area should be
marked or tagged when counted to avoid any double counting.
(iv) Count sheets should be pre-numbered if possible, to ensure that they are all returned.
Numbers should be in ink, not pencil.
(v) Management (or internal audit) should perform test counts throughout the inventory count.
Any discrepancies should be investigated and resolved, usually by a recount.
(vi) Slow moving, obsolete and damaged inventory should be marked as such on the inventory
count sheets in as much detail as possible to highlight inventory which possibly should be
valued at net realisable value.

(vii) The management present should initial all the inventory sheets after performing random
tests to check that all items of inventory have been counted.
I should record the following matters during my attendance at the inventory count.
(i) Perform test counts, selecting items from the floor to check to the sheets and vice versa. I
would record all these tests (including inventory numbers, inventory sheets and so on) and
any discrepancies I find should be investigated by the count staff and management present
at the time.
(ii) Record all the inventory sheet numbers used in the count.
(iii) Record the last goods received note number received and the last goods dispatched note
number issued prior to the inventory count.
(iv) Complete an inventory count checklist.
(v) Record any problems or unresolved discrepancies. This would include obsolete, slow
moving or damaged inventory and any inventory movements during the inventory count.
(b) (i) To test cut-off at the inventory count on 13 October I would perform the following checks.
(1) Sales cut-off. Select a few goods dispatched notes from immediately both before
and after the inventory count. Check that they have been recorded in the book
inventory records in the appropriate period as being dispatched before or after the
inventory count date.
(2) Purchases cut-off. Select a few goods received notes from immediately both before
and after the inventory count. Check that they have been recorded as received in the
appropriate period, either before or after the inventory count date.
(ii) At the year end it will be necessary to perform full cut-off tests, rather than just a check on
the computerised book records as in (b)(i) above. After performing these tests for
transactions about the year-end, the following additional tests will be carried out.
(1) Sales cut-off. Trace the goods from the GDNs to the relevant sales invoices and
check that those invoices were posted to the sales ledger either before or after the
year-end, as appropriate.
(2) Purchases cut-off. Trace the goods from the GRNs to the relevant purchase invoices
and check that the invoices have been recorded in the purchase ledger in the correct
period, as appropriate. Invoices which relate to the period prior to the year-end may
not have been received in time to be posted in the ledger. In these cases such
invoices should be included in the purchase accruals at the year-end.
(c) The following checks are relevant.
(i) Trace the check counts I performed at the inventory count to the inventory sheets, and from
there to the book records. Some small adjustments may have been made to the book
inventory. These discrepancies, if not material, may be explained by small differences found
at the inventory count.
(ii) Investigate any material discrepancies between the inventory-sheet quantities counted at the
inventory count and the book inventory records. Adjustments between the inventory count
date and the year-end should also be investigated.
Large differences should be explained by the results of the inventory count. Evidence should
be seen that further check counts were performed to ensure the inventory counts were
correct. There should also be evidence that the management of the company have
investigated large differences.
(d) As well as the tests detailed above in relation to the inventory count and cut-off, I would perform
the following checks.
(i) Vouch the quantities used in the year and valuation to the book inventory records. This test
should also be performed in reverse.

(ii) An overall check of complete book inventory against the amounts used in the valuation
might be attempted using a computer program if the book inventory records are held on
file. The program might produce all material discrepancies.
(iii) Investigate all material adjustments to the book inventory records at the year-end.
(iv) Investigate the level of adjustments made to book inventory records throughout the year.
Consider whether the adjustments are small enough to give comfort that the book inventory
records are reasonably accurate.
(v) Review the inventory counts from throughout the year to ensure that all inventory lines have
been counted at least once during the year.
(vi) Review the book inventory records at the year-end and check for any negative inventory
quantities. Where such negative figures have occurred, there should be evidence that the
managers of the company have investigated the reasons for them, and that the figures have
been adjusted to the actual physical amount.
18 Sitting Pretty
(a) Importance of the inventory count
The inventory count provides important audit evidence as to the existence and completeness of
inventory included in the financial statements.
In this case, the inventory count is particularly important because the company does not maintain
perpetual inventory records. As no perpetual records are maintained, the only basis for the
inventory entries in the financial statements is the result of this inventory count.
Inventory is generally material to the statement of financial position of a manufacturing company
and is also one of the higher risk areas on the statement of financial position. The inventory count
provides important audit evidence reducing the risk of material misstatement in relation to
inventory.
(b) Planning for attendance
Gain knowledge: I must review the notes of last year's inventory count and I must contact the
factory manager to obtain details of this year's. I must review this year's details to ensure that the
inventory count appears to be planned efficiently and effectively.
Assess key factors: There are various key factors given in the scenario:
(i) Nature and volume of the inventory. There should be no WIP, so I will count raw materials
(approximately 10% of the inventory) and finished goods. However, raw material plastic
should be low because a delivery is required to continue with production.
(ii) Possible obsolescence. I must make a note of the number of old chair legs maintained in
raw materials as these are now obsolete, a new specification having been agreed.
(iii) Cut-off issues. I need to ensure that the delivery on the day is isolated and that I obtain
details of the delivery made during the inventory count. I need to determine whether this
should be included as deliveries for the year, but most of all ensure that it does not get
counted twice (as it arrives, and if it is put into stores). I should also obtain copies of the
relevant documents, for example, the last invoices in the year and the last goods received
and despatched notes.
(iv) Off-cuts. I need to consider whether any off-cuts are maintained on site and whether these
are being included in the inventory count. As the company receives a discount relating to
them, they are unlikely to be considered Sitting Pretty's legally and so should not be
included.
(v) Staff issues. It appears that the inventory count is undertaken by the people who work in
the factory and handle the inventory on a daily basis. This is not best practice, although in
practical terms it is difficult to avoid. However, I should discuss this with the factory

manager to assess whether staff can be allocated to counting inventory they have not
produced. Also, as the staff are allowed to go home as soon as the inventory count is
completed, there is a risk that the inventory count will be rushed and mistakes will be made.
Plan procedures: I need to determine my sample sizes and whether there is a need for expert
assistance at this inventory count.
(i) Procedures. I will carry out test counts, checking from a sample of physical items to the
count sheets and a sample of count sheet items to the physical items.
(ii) Samples. There are no higher value items that I should concentrate particularly on.
Materiality for the year has been set at $5,000 currently. Dividing last year's figures for
inventory by this materiality level would give a sample size of six items for raw materials
and 34 items for finished goods. I need to determine the batches in which inventory is
valued to ensure that I count the correct items. I need to assess the levels of inventory when
I arrive to ascertain whether this remains appropriate.
(c) Cut-off at final audit
General procedures
The audit team should take a sample of delivery notes for sales and purchases on either side of
the year-end and trace these to invoices and ledgers and inventory records to ensure that sales
and purchases have been included in the correct period and that inventory is accounted for
where appropriate (that is, sales have not been counted twice and purchases have been included
in inventory). As the factory has been shut down, there is a lower risk that sales cut-off is
inappropriate than purchases cut-off.
Inventory count delivery
Once it is determined whether this delivery should count as this year's inventory (which it should if
the inventory count was the year-end date), the delivery information should be traced to purchase
invoices and ledgers to ensure that the purchase is recorded in the year and that the creditor is
accounted for in the year. The inventory should then also be included.
Other matters
If inventory returns are material, the returns after the year-end should be reviewed to ensure that
items are not included as sales in the year and that the inventory is added to the inventory figure
unless it is now obsolete, whereupon it should be written-off.
(d) Valuation of inventory
The auditors should obtain the client's working papers relating to the valuation of inventory. Items
which the auditor sampled at the inventory count should already have been verified to the inventory
count records as part of the verification of existence.
Cost
The auditors should then trace a sample of items to purchase invoices to ensure that cost has
been correctly applied. Cost of purchase excludes trade discounts and rebates, so the auditors
should ensure that the valuation cost excludes the 10% discount received for returning the off-
cuts of plastic.
The auditors should then ensure that for a sample of finished goods items, costs of conversion
(comprising costs of labour and overheads) have been included. This should be on a comparable
basis to the previous year and therefore can be audited by analytical review.
Net realisable value
The auditors should ensure that cost is lower than net realisable value by tracing their sample to
after-date sales. If no invoices are yet available, the auditors can make confirmations by reviewing
sales orders and price lists.

Obsolete
Lastly, the auditors should ensure by review and by discussion with management that inventory
which has been identified as obsolete at the inventory count has not been attributed value and has
been scrapped.
Analytical procedures
The auditors will undertake general analytical procedures to ensure that the inventory figure stacks
up. This could include calculating ratios such as inventory turnover and ensuring that they tally
with the facts that have been presented them in the course of the inventory audit.
19 Bright Sparks
(a) Conclusions to be drawn as a result of the interim audit
The following weaknesses exist in the company's systems.
(i) In any system of internal control, one person should not be able to process a whole
transaction from start to finish:
(1) Authorisation
(2) Execution
(3) Recording
The most serious deficiency in the company's system is that warehousemen can:
(1) Sell goods
(2) Receive cash from cash sales
(3) Raise sales invoices for credit sales
(4) Raise credit notes
Moreover, there appears to be no procedures in place for checking any of their work. Since
the accounting records are written up on the evidence of these invoices and credit notes,
any errors made by the warehousemen will be carried into the records. It may also be the
case that the issue of credit notes is not authorised by a senior member of staff.
Possible consequences
(1) Errors on invoices may not be detected except by customers
(2) Risk of unauthorised or fraudulent invoices or credit notes being raised without
detection
(3) Risk of goods leaving the premises without being invoiced, whether through error or
fraud (this is particularly dangerous in a business such as this, with a variety of
high-value items)
(4) Time wasted by needless disagreements with customers about amounts owing
(ii) There appears to be a weakness in the recording of cash received by the company. The
dates recorded in the books are presumably the dates when the entries were written up. If
so, there is clearly an excessive delay in recording cash received, and possibly also in
banking it. There may also be no record of cash received made when incoming mail is
opened.
Possible consequences
(1) Errors and defalcations can arise where a cash received system is weak.
(2) The longer the gap between receipt and recording, the more likely it is that
discrepancies can occur.
(3) Specific possibilities:
x Falsification of records leading to misappropriation of cash (teeming and
lading)

x Mislaying of cheques if not banked promptly
x Errors in the records, especially concerning dates
(iii) Stricter control is needed over the granting of cash discounts (assuming that it is the actual
receipt of cash which is later than the due date, not merely the late recording of same).
Possible consequence
Discounts given to a standard list of customers who may be friends of staff or regular
customers, not necessarily prompt payers.
(b) Audit work on trade accounts receivable at the final audit
(i) Second circularisation
(1) Consider circularising all trade receivables accounts, or at least a larger sample than
before of accounts not circularised at 30 September.
(2) Circularise and investigate disagreeing replies. Discover if reasons are similar to
those given at 30 September circularisation.
(ii) To gain further evidence about the rights and obligations and existence of receivables
(1) Check the sales invoices which make up the balances with backing documentation,
for example purchase orders and despatch notes (if the latter exist)
(2) Ascertain extent of cash received from customers after the year-end; reconcile the
individual invoices to ensure that no discrepancies exist
(3) Obtain explanations for invoices remaining unpaid after subsequent invoices have
been paid
To gain evidence about the valuation of receivables, I would review the cash received after-
date and would also carry out the following tests.
(1) Check calculation of outstanding invoices
(2) Carry out further tests on settlement discounts and ascertain whether the position
has improved or deteriorated since the time of the interim audit
(3) Confirm necessity/adequacy of provision against write-off of specific debts by review
of correspondence, solicitors' debt collection, agencies' letters, liquidation
statements
(4) Consider whether amounts owed may be not recovered where there have been round
sum payments on account or invoices unpaid after subsequent invoices paid
(5) Review customer files/correspondence from solicitors and circularisation results for
evidence of potential bad debts
(6) Confirm any general provisions for bad debts, considering how well previous year's
provision considering predicted actual bad debts and whether the formula used is
reasonable and consistent with previous years
I would check the completeness of receivables by carrying out cut-off tests at 31 December
to ensure that all goods leaving the premises by that date (and only those) have been
included in sales. I would also check that all returns of goods after the year-end relating to
20X0 sales have been correctly recorded.
Other general tests include:
(1) Agree the opening balance on the sales ledger control account with the previous year's
working papers to ensure all the necessary adjustments were put through last year
(2) Scrutinise sales ledger control for unusual entries
(3) Check list of trade account receivables balances to and from sales ledger, and
reconcile with sales ledger control account

(4) Carry out analytical procedures, particularly reviewing changes in the receivables
turnover period, and changes in the age profile of receivables
(5) Check that trade receivables have been separately disclosed in the notes to the
accounts
20 Audit of cash and bank

(a) Characteristics of bank confirmation letter
– The client must give its permission in writing to the bank for disclosure of information to
the auditors.
– The bank letter must refer to the client's letter of authority and the date of that letter.
– The bank letter should reach the bank at least two weeks before the year-end date and
should state the year-end date and the previous year-end date.
(b) Items requested in the bank confirmation letter
– Balances due to or from the client on current, deposit and loan accounts
– Nil balances on accounts
– Accounts closed during the year
– Maturity and interest terms on loans and overdrafts
– Confirmation of contingent liabilities on guarantees etc
– Confirmation of securities and other items in safe custody
– Any offset or other rights or encumbrances
– Collateral given or received
(Note: Only six were required.)
(c) The bank reconciliation is carried out because the balance on a company's general ledger cash
account is unlikely to match the figure in the year-end bank statement because of timing
differences for cheques and other payments and receipts clearing. The bank reconciliation is an
exercise to compare the balance per the ledger and the balance per the bank statement and
therefore to confirm the accuracy of the figure on the company's statement of financial position.
21 Understatement
(a) (i) It is more likely that payables will be understated than overstated because of the nature of
the evidence available to indicate that liabilities exist.
It is relatively simple to ensure whether a recorded liability has been correctly accrued at the
year-end. However it is more difficult to identify liabilities which have been omitted from
payables.
(ii) The auditor's difficulty in ensuring that payables are not understated arise precisely because
of the circumstances described above. The auditor can test accrued invoices to ensure that
they are a valid liability of the company at the year-end date. However, identifying liabilities
which have been omitted at the year-end presents a more difficult problem. As there may be
no direct evidence of the liability (say an invoice) understatement may have to be identified
using indirect evidence for example unmatched pre-year end goods received notes, post-
year end cash book entries.
(b) Audit work to verify trade payables and purchase accruals would be as follows.
(i) Purchases cut-off
As goods received notes are not used the normal procedures for auditing cut-off will need
to be adapted.
(1) Examine purchase invoices on either side of the year-end to dated suppliers delivery
note to ensure invoices have been correctly accrued. (Where the goods received

department have not date-stamped the delivery date it will be necessary to use the
suppliers despatch date.)
(2) Enquire if the goods received department or bought ledger department are holding
any unmatched delivery notes (those without an invoice) relating to the period before
the year-end.
(ii) Completeness, existence and ownership
(1) Select invoices from the trade payables listing and trace to supporting
documentation to ensure that the purchase was for the purpose of the business.
(2) Reconcile a sample of suppliers' statements with purchase ledger balances. This will
highlight any purchases that have been omitted. Where there are major accruals for
which statements are not available it may be necessary to carry out a payables’
circularisation. (A circularisation is not normally the primary procedure to be
selected as the supplier’s statement provides more effective evidence and a
reconciliation is simpler to carry out than a circularisation.)
(3) Review balances for unusually low balances with major suppliers.
(4) Compare the ratio of trade payables to purchases and inventory with the previous
year's figures.
(5) Match cash payments posted in purchase ledger accounts before and after the year-
end to cash records to ensure they were posted in the right period.
(iii) Trade payables listing
(1) Agree the total unpaid invoices and credit notes to balances on the aged payables
listing.
(2) Agree the total of balances on the aged payables listing to the purchase ledger
control account.
(3) Agree the list of balances to individual ledger accounts and vice versa.
(4) Review the listing for large payable balances and enquire into reasons for them and
action being taken.
(5) Review the control account around the year-end for unusual items.
(c) Sundry payables and accruals is an area that lends itself to analytical review and reconciliation
techniques, except for liabilities such as income tax and sales tax which should be checked in
detail.
(i) From the sundry payables and accruals listing confirm that the calculation of accruals is
reasonable and verify to subsequent payments. Income tax and related deductions liabilities
should also be verified to payroll.
(ii) Scrutinise post year-end payments/invoices received to check for understatement of sundry
payables and accruals.
(iii) Ascertain whether any expenditure is likely to be invoiced a long time after the goods or
services are received.
(iv) Compare sundry payable and accruals with prior year balances and inquire into significant
variations.
(v) Check that the sales tax accrual is disclosed at correct amount by vouching to returns and
accounting records.
(vi) Ensure that no non-deductible tax is reclaimed on the return, by scrutinising it.
(vii) Vouch payments or refunds of sales tax to cash book from sales tax returns.
(viii) Obtain sales tax returns for the period and check that they have been properly prepared and
filed promptly.

(ix) Test sales tax totals from prime records to monthly/quarterly summaries and test cast
summaries and scrutinise for unusual items.
(x) Review correspondence with taxation authority and results of any recent control visits.
22 'Tap!'
(a) Audit risks
There is a higher audit risk associated with a charity as in the event of problems arising and
litigation taking place, the audit firm could experience a significant amount of bad publicity.
Inherent risks
(i) Cash. The charity operates with a high number of cash and cheque transactions. A
substantial part of their income comes from cash donations. Put another way, it is likely
that very little of their income comes from direct bank transfers. Also, it is likely that many
of the expenses which 'Tap!' incurs are also cash expenses. Cash is risky for audit
purposes because it is susceptible to loss, miscounting or misappropriation.
(ii) Charity. The theatre company is a charity, and is therefore subject to a high degree of
regulation. This raises the risk for our audit.
(iii) Accounting specialist. The charity employs an administrator, but there is no mention of an
accountant. It is unclear who is going to draft the charity accounts (which must comply
with specialist requirements) but it does not appear that a specialist exists to undertake this
job. This increases the risk of errors existing in the accounts.
(iv) Completeness of income. As the charity appears to have no control over the primary
collection of income from box office receipts, there is a significant risk that income is
understated and that the theatres have not accounted properly to the theatre.
(v) Disclosure of income. The disclosure of income must be considered. It is unlikely to be
appropriate to show the 'net income from theatres' figure. Rather, the gross income less
commission should probably be disclosed.
(vi) Expenditure. The charity expenses may be well-recorded, or they may be difficult to
substantiate – this is not clear. It may also be difficult to substantiate payments made to
build wells in Africa. We currently have no knowledge about how that aspect of the charity
operates. It will be important to check that expenditure is made in accordance with the trust
deed. Some essential administrative expense will not necessarily be conducive to the aims
of the charity. We must ensure that it is all analysed correctly.
Control
There currently appear to be no controls over cash in the charity.
Detection
This is a first year audit, so there is little knowledge of the business at present. It is also the first
ever audit of the charity, so the comparatives are unaudited. We must make this clear in our
report, and we will need to undertake more detailed work on the opening balances. As the charity
is to a large degree peripatetic, we may find audit evidence difficult to obtain, if it has not been
properly returned to the administrative offices.
Conclusion
This appears to be a high risk first year audit. It is likely to result in a modified audit opinion.
Income from box office takings
Income from box office takings can be verified to the statement from the theatre and the bank
statements to ensure that it is complete. The commission can be agreed by recalculation.

It might be necessary to circularise a number of the theatres and request confirmation of the
seats sold for each performance to ensure that income is completely stated on the return from the
theatre. (However, if theatres have been defrauding the charity, they are unlikely to confirm this to
the auditors. This may have to be an area which is aided by stronger controls over income.)
Income from buckets (theatres and streets)
We must discover whether the charity fills out 'counting sheets' when the buckets of money are
originally counted. If so, the money in buckets can be verified from the original sheet to the
banking documentation.
However, in the absence of strong controls over the counting, it will be impossible to conclude
that this income is complete.
Income from other donations
Donations made over the phone should have been noted on documents and then retained at the
administrative offices. Donations made by post should have original documents. A sample of these
should be traced to banking documentation and bank statements.
Again, in the absence of originating documentation, it will be difficult to conclude that income is
fairly stated.
(c) Controls over cash
Income from box office takings
It would be a good control over completeness of income to request a schedule of seats sold from
the theatres for every night a performance is given. This is likely to be information that theatres can
print off their systems with no trouble. This will lead to the theatre company having more
assurance as to the completeness of income.
Income from buckets
As this income is highly susceptible to loss or misappropriation, strong controls should be put in
place:
(i) Number of people. If possible, the charity should assign two people to each bucket during
the collection phase and two people should count the money in the bucket at the end of the
day. These people will act as a check on each other to ensure that cash is kept more
secure.
(ii) Security. The security arrangements for buckets should be strong. The charity could invest
in a transportable safe in which to store the money between collection and banking. It
might also be wise to use collecting tins rather than buckets, as this simple measure would
ensure that the cash was less open to the public. The cash should also be banked
frequently. It should not be kept unbanked for longer than 24 hours after collection.
(iii) Recording. A record should be made of cash counts and it should be signed by both the
people that undertook the count. These can provide an initial record of the cash takings.
Other income
The controls over other income will be restricted by the number of staff at the provincial office. It
appears that only the administrator may work there regularly. If this is the case, it is going to be
difficult to introduce supervision into the cash operations.
All phone donations should be recorded on pre-numbered documentation so as to give evidence
of completeness.
As the administrator largely works alone, it would be a good idea for the Board of Trustees to carry
out a cyclical review of the work of the administrator. This would provide useful protection from
problems for both the charity and the administrator.

23 Going concern
Workings
The following significant accounting ratios are based on the accounts provided in the question.
20X2 20X3 20X4 20X5 20X6

Gross profit (%) 23.50 10.90 14.20 20.20 19.70
Other expenses: sales (%) 14.10 10.90 14.40 14.40 15.30
Interest: sales (%) 0.90 1.10 5.20 5.50 6.20
Net profit (%) 8.50 (1.10) (5.40) 0.30 (1.80)
Current ratio 1.39 0.91 0.73 0.73 0.76
Liquidity ratio 0.80 0.59 0.46 0.37 0.34
Leverage (%) 84.71 57.14 9.52 9.45 4.83
Inventory (months) 1.68 2.28 2.26 2.77 3.57
Receivables (months) 1.75 3.66 3.24 2.26 2.32
Payables (months) 2.26 5.43 4.43 4.43 5.09
Notes
Year - end inventory
Inventory age = × 12
Cost of sales
Year - end receivables
Receivables' age = × 12
Sales
Year - end payables
Payables' age = × 12
Sales
Shareholders' equity Long - term loans Bank overdraft Lease
Leverage =
Shareholders' equity
(a) The various factors in the accounts which may be indicative of going concern problems are as
follows.
(i) Only losses or low profits are being made and the company is not generating sufficient
funds to finance the expansion required
(ii) There has been a dramatic increase in the level of overdraft over the last year and there
seems little prospect of the borrowing being reduced and the security is threatened.
(iii) There are signs of overtrading as the expansion has been financed by borrowings and the
increase in current assets is being financed by trade accounts payable.
(iv) The leverage is low and decreasing, with very little security being available for the loans.
(v) There is a low current ratio and short-term funds are being used to finance long-term
assets.
(vi) The liquidity ratio is low and decreasing and the company's ability to meet its liabilities on
demand must be very questionable.
(vii) Inventory levels are increasing, suggesting that one or more of the following problems may
exist: deteriorating sales, poor inventory control, obsolete or slow-moving inventories.
(viii) The value and age of trade accounts payable are increasing: some suppliers must be having
to wait a considerable time before being paid and it can only be a matter of time before
pressure is put on the company by one or more of its creditors.
(ix) High and increasing interest charges make the company very vulnerable, especially in a
period of recession and high interest rates.
(x) The fluctuating gross profit would suggest that the company's profit margins are under
pressure. The present level of gross profit does not seem sufficient given the company's
high level of expenses.

(b) The other important steps to be taken by the auditors in determining whether or not the company
may be properly regarded as a going concern at the year-end would include:
(i) Review carefully the cash and profit forecasts for the next year to see if they suggested any
improvement in the company's position
(ii) Seek some evidence that the company's bank is prepared to continue supporting the
company
(iii) Review the level of post year-end trading to see if this supports the forecasts and show any
signs of improvement in the company's position
(iv) Examine correspondence files for any evidence that suppliers might be putting pressure on
the company for repayment of monies owing
(v) Consider how the company's position compares with similar companies in the same
business
(vi) Discuss generally the situation with management and review any recovery plans which they
may have in mind
24 Audit review and finalisation

(a) The auditor shall perform audit procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
that all events up to the date of his report that may require adjustment or disclosure in the financial
statements have been identified. These procedures should take place as near as possible to the
date of the auditor’s report. They would include, for example, reading minutes of meetings with
shareholders and audit committee meetings, reviewing the entity’s latest interim accounts, and
reviewing procedures that management have for identifying subsequent events. The auditor shall
request management and those charged with governance to provide a written representation that
all subsequent events requiring adjustment or disclosure have been adjusted or disclosed.
The auditor has no obligation to undertake audit procedures or make inquiries regarding the
financial statements after the date of the auditor’s report. Between this date and the date of issue of
the financial statements, it is the management’s responsibility to inform the auditors of any facts
that might affect the financial statements. If such facts do arise which the auditor becomes aware
of, he shall consider whether the financial statements need amending, discuss the matter with
management and take appropriate action. If the financial statements are amended, a new audit
report must be issued. If management refuses to make any amendments required, the auditor shall
modify the opinion.
After the financial statements have been issued, the auditor has no obligation to make any inquiry
regarding the financial statements. Where the auditor becomes aware of facts that may affect the
financial statements after they have been issued, he shall consider whether they need to be revised
and shall discuss with management and take appropriate action. If amendments are made to the
financial statements, the auditor shall issue a new audit report which shall include an emphasis of
matter paragraph referring to a note in the financial statements that discusses the reason for the
revised financial statements in more detail.
(b) Written representation letter:
– Addressed to the auditor.
– Signed and dated, normally the date of the auditor’s report.
– Acknowledgement from management for the design and implementation of internal control
to prevent and detect error.
– A statement that management believes that the effects of uncorrected misstatements are
immaterial, both individually and in aggregate. The letter should contain a summary of these
items.

– A statement confirming the completeness of information provided regarding the
identification of related parties.
– A statement that the financial statements are free from material misstatements, including
omissions.
– A statement that the management have made available to the auditors all books of account
and supporting documentation and all meetings of minutes of shareholders and the Board
of directors.
– A statement that the entity has satisfactory title to all assets and there are no liens or
encumbrances on the entity’s assets, except where disclosed in the notes to the accounts.
– A statement that all liabilities, both actual and contingent, have been disclosed in the
accounts, as well as any guarantees to third parties.
– A statement that there have been no events subsequent to the year-end which require
adjustment or disclosure in the accounts, other than where specifically disclosed in the
accounts.
(c) The auditors must perform and document an overall review of the financial statements before they
can reach an opinion. This review gives the auditors a reasonable basis for their opinion on the
financial statements. At the review stage, the auditors consider compliance with accounting
regulations, consistency and reasonableness and application of accounting policies.
Analytical procedures are a very useful tool at this stage of the audit. They can be used to calculate
important accounting ratios, changes in products or customers, price and mix changes, variances, trends
in production and sales and variations caused by industry or economic factors. Any significant fluctuations
and unexpected relationships must be investigated through inquiries with management and obtaining
appropriate audit evidence relevant to management’s responses, and performing other audit procedures
considered necessary in the circumstances.
25 Wiseguys National Bakeries

(a) Freehold property
In past years this property has been shown in the statement at its original cost, whereas it is now
restated at $1,250,000 as professionally valued during the year. The auditor is satisfied as to the
basis of the revaluation, adjustment to and disclosure made in the financial statements. As a result
of the audit evidence obtained no further reference to the property revaluation will be required in
the auditor’s report.
(b) Allowance for doubtful debts
No part of the debt of $45,000 due from XYZ Co will be recovered by the company. Since the
financial statements which the directors have approved include no allowance for this debt, it will be
necessary for the auditor’s report to state that:
(i) No allowance has been made against an amount of $45,000 owing by the customer.
(ii) They believe such amount to be irrecoverable.
(iii) In their opinion, except for the failure to make such allowance, a true and fair view of the
state of the company's affairs and its results is given by the financial statements.
(c) Loan to a director
Since the director's indebtedness of $22,000 which subsisted during a six week period, has not
been disclosed in the financial statements in accordance with IAS 24 Related party disclosures, the
auditors are obliged to include in their report an explanatory paragraph giving the required
disclosure.
The particulars include:
(i) The amount of the loan and any interest
(ii) The zero outstanding balance at the year-end

(iii) Terms and conditions
The auditor’s report will conclude with the statement of their opinion that the financial statements,
except for the information specified above, give a true and fair view.
26 Builders Merchants
(a) This represents a potential material limitation on scope because the 'missing' inventory represents
12% of the total. The auditor would expect all inventory counting sheets to be available. The
auditor’s opinion would be modified.
The auditor’s report would include a basis of qualified opinion paragraph before the opinion
paragraph which would refer to the fact that the inventory counting sheets for this depot were lost.
The qualified opinion paragraph would state that "except for" adjustments that may have been
necessary in relation to this inventory, the financial statements present fairly, in all material
respects (or give a true and fair view).
The auditor’s report would also state that in relation to inventory quantities:
– All information and explanations considered necessary were not obtained; and
– The auditor was unable to determine whether proper accounting records were kept.
(b) This represents a material misstatement. The debt represents 8% of the total receivables balance
and 45% of the profit for the year.
The auditor’s opinion would be qualified.
The basis of qualified opinion paragraph would refer to the fact that the customer is in liquidation
and there is little prospect of payment. It would also state that net assets and profits are overstated
by $45,000.
The qualified opinion paragraph would state that "except for" the absence of this allowance the
financial statements present fairly, in all material respects (or give a true and fair view).
(c) As the client is listed, its financial statements should include a statement of cash flows.
The auditor’s opinion should therefore be qualified as the financial statements are materially
misstated. This disagreement is not pervasive to the financial statements, it is limited to the
statement of cash flows, so this would be a qualified opinion.
The basis of qualified opinion paragraph will refer to the fact that the financial statements do not
contain a statement of cash flows and include the figures required, and the qualified opinion
paragraph will state that the financial statements give a true and fair view and have been properly
prepared in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework except for the omission of
a statement of cash flows.
(d) The auditors need to determine whether the legal claim is a material matter and even whether it is
pervasive to the financial statements as a whole. For example, if the customer involved is a major
customer, it could be that an adverse outcome could affect the going concern basis of the
company.
It appears that the disclosure in the financial statements is adequate and there appears to be no
basis on which to make a provision in the financial statements. However, the auditor’s report will
be affected by the fact that there is an uncertainty affecting the business. The auditor will have to
decide whether the inherent uncertainty is fundamental to users’ understanding. If so, the auditor’s
report should include an emphasis of matter paragraph beneath the opinion paragraph with details
of this matter. It should also state that the auditor’s opinion on the financial statements is not
modified in relation to this matter.

Index
393
394
Note. Key Terms and their references are given in bold.
Clarity project, 31
Accepting appointment, 61 Close business relationships, 53
Accountability, 5, 6, 7 Code of ethics and conduct, 50
Accounting estimate, 200 Combined Code, 38, 39, 42, 77
Accounts payable, 269 Comparative financial statements, 327
Adjusting events, 297 Comparative information, 326, 327
Adverse opinion, 317, 318
Comparatives, 327
Advocacy, 52, 59
Compilation engagement, 12
Agents, 7
Compliance with International Financial
Agreed-upon procedures, 12 Reporting Standards, 324
Analytical procedures, 101, 102, 107, 134, 193,
Computer-assisted audit techniques, 150, 205
195, 305
Confidentiality, 51
Analytical review, 250
Confirmation, 134
Anomalous error, 203
Confirmation of receivables, 247
Anomaly, 203 Confirmation of trade payables, 271
APB's Ethical Standards, 61 Conflict of interest, 60
Application controls, 152, 153 Constructive obligation, 275
Appointment decision chart, 63 Contingent asset, 275
Appointment ethics, 62 Contingent fees, 55
Appointment of auditors, 21
Contingent liability, 275
Appropriateness, 131
Control activities, 145
Assurance, 5, 12
Control environment, 143
Assurance engagement, 4, 8
Control risk, 96
Audit, 4, 8
Corporate finance, 58
Audit committee, 41
Corporate governance, 36, 77
Audit documentation, 121
Corresponding figures, 327
Audit evidence, 130, 131
Cost, 227
Audit exemption, 19
Cost of conversion, 227
Audit plan, 118, 120
Current audit files, 123
Audit planning, 118
Custom audit software, 206
Audit procedures, 133
Audit report, 18, 211, 314, 323
Audit risk, 96, 97 Deficiency in internal control, 150
Audit risk model, 96 Detection risk, 96, 97
Audit sampling, 201, 202 Directional testing, 194
Audit software, 206 Disclaimer of opinion, 317, 318
Audit strategy, 118, 119 Dividends, 278
Auditor’s expert, 207 Documentation of risk assessment, 113
Auditor's point estimate, 200
Auditor's range, 200
Authority attached to ISAs and other
E-business, 103
Eligibility to act as an auditor, 26
pronouncements, 28
Emphasis of matter, 315, 317, 323, 324
Emphasis of matter paragraph, 323
Bank letter, 259 Enforcement mechanisms, 61
Best value, 83 Engagement letter, 66
Block selection, 203 Estimation uncertainty, 200
Business risk, 79, 98 Exception, 249
Expectations gap, 329
Expert, 207
Cash, 262 External audit, 4
Cash and bank cut-off, 260
External confirmations, 247
Cash count, 263
Cash system, 170
Index 395
Internal auditors, 9, 40
Fair, 11 Internal control, 143
Familiarity, 52, 59 Internal control effectiveness, 43
Family and personal relationships, 54 Internal Control Evaluation Questionnaires, 149
Fee dependence, 56 Internal control in small companies, 146
Fee negotiation, 62 Internal Control Questionnaires, 149
Final audit, 120 International Auditing and Assurance Standards
Financial audit, 83 Board, 27
Financial interest, 53 International Federation of Accountants (IFAC),
Financial statement assertions, 132 25
Fraud, 79, 108 International Standards on Auditing, 27
Fraud risk factors, 108 Intimidation, 52, 60
Fraudulent financial reporting, 108 Inventory count, 229
Fundamental principles of professional ethics, Inventory cut-off, 234
50 Inventory held by third parties, 232
Inventory system, 168
G eneral IT controls, 152 Inventory valuation, 235
Generalised audit software, 206 ISA 200 Objective and general principles
Gifts and hospitality, 55 governing an audit of financial statements, 95
Going concern, 299 ISA 210 Agreeing the terms of audit
engagements, 66
Going concern assumption, 299
ISA 230 Audit documentation, 121
ISA 240 The auditor’s responsibilities relating to
Haphazard selection, 203 fraud in an audit of financial statements, 109
Human resources, 85 ISA 250 Consideration of laws and regulations
in an audit of financial statements, 111
ISA 260 Communication with those charged
IAPS 1000 Inter-bank confirmation procedures, with governance, 44
259 ISA 265 Communicating deficiencies in internal
IAPS 1013 Electronic commerce – effect on the control to those charged with governance and
audit of financial statements, 103 management, 150, 329
IAPS 1014 Reporting by auditors on compliance ISA 300 Planning an audit of financial
with International Financial Reporting statements, 118
Standards, 324 ISA 315 Identifying and assessing the risks of
IAS 10 Events after the reporting period, 297 material misstatement through understanding
IAS 2 Inventories, 227 the entity and its environment, 100, 143
IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and ISA 320 Materiality in planning and performing
contingent assets, 276 an audit, 98, 307
Inconsistency, 325 ISA 330 The auditor’s responses to assessed
Independence, 52 risks, 106, 120
Information system, 144 ISA 402 Audit considerations relating to entities
Information system relevant to financial using service organisations, 210
reporting, 144 ISA 450 Evaluation of misstatements identified
Information technology, 83 during the audit, 307
Inherent risk, 96 ISA 500 Audit evidence, 131
Initial audit engagement, 326 ISA 501 Audit evidence - additional
Initial communication, 64 considerations for specific items, 276
Inquiry, 134 ISA 501 Audit evidence – additional
Inspection, 102, 134 considerations for specific items, 229
Intangible non-current assets, 222 ISA 501 Audit evidence – specific considerations
Integrity, 50, 52 for selected items, 229, 276
Intended users, 8 ISA 505 External confirmations, 247, 259
Interim audit, 120 ISA 510 Initial audit engagements – opening
Internal audit, 62, 208, 210 balances, 326
Internal audit assignments, 81 ISA 520 Analytical procedures, 195
Internal audit reports, 85 ISA 530 Audit sampling, 202
Internal auditing, 9, 77
396 Index
ISA 540 Auditing accounting estimates,
including fair value accounting estimates, and
Negative assurance, 12
related disclosures, 200 Negative confirmation request, 247
ISA 560 Subsequent events, 297 Net realisable value, 227
ISA 570 Going concern, 299 Non-adjusting events, 297
ISA 580 Written representations, 303 Non-current asset register, 217
ISA 610 Considering the work of internal Non-current liabilities, 274
auditing, 208 Non-executive directors, 41
ISA 610 Using the work of internal auditors, 208 Non-response, 249
ISA 620 Using the work of an auditor’s expert, Non-sampling risk, 202
207 Non-statistical sampling, 202
ISA 700 Forming an opinion and reporting on Non-statutory audits, 5
financial statements, 290, 314 Not-for-profit organisations, 282
ISA 700 The independent auditor’s report on a
complete set of general purpose financial
statements, 290
Objectivity, 50, 52
ISA 700 The independent auditor's report on a Obligating event, 275
complete set of general purpose financial Observation, 102, 134
statements, 314 Opening balances, 326
ISA 701 Modifications to the independent Operational audits, 84
auditor's report, 317 Opinion, 4
ISA 705 Modifications to the opinion in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
independent auditor’s report, 315, 317 Development, 37
ISA 706 Emphasis of matter paragraphs and Other information, 325
other matter paragraphs in the independent Other matter paragraphs, 323
auditor’s report, 323 Outsourcing, 86
ISA 710 Comparatives information – Overall responses, 106
corresponding figures and comparative Overall review, 305
financial statements, 327 Overdue fees, 55
ISA 720 The auditor’s responsibility in relation Overhead absorption, 236
to other information in documents containing
audited financial statements, 325 P ayroll system, 175
Performance materiality, 99
Legal obligation, 275 Permanent audit files, 123
Liability, 275 Perpetual inventory, 230
Limitations of accounting and control systems, Pervasiveness, 317
147 Population, 202
Loans and guarantees, 55 Positive confirmation request, 247
Lowballing, 56, 62 Practitioner, 8
Preconditions for an audit, 66
Preface to the International Standards on Quality
Management’s expert, 131, 207 Control, Auditing, Review, Other Assurance
Management's point estimate, 200 and Related Services, 28
Marketing, 84 Procurement, 84
Material inconsistencies, 325 Professional behaviour, 51
Material misstatements of fact, 326 Professional competence and due care, 51
Materiality, 11, 98, 99 Professional judgement, 95
Misappropriation of assets, 108 Professional scepticism, 95
Misstatement, 307 Provision, 275
Misstatement of fact, 325 Purchases system, 164
Modified opinions, 317
Monetary Unit Sampling, 203
Monitoring of controls, 146, 150 Qualified opinion, 317, 318
Index 397
Small entity, 19
Random selection, 203 Specimen letter on internal control, 330
Ratio analysis, 197 Stakeholders, 6, 37
Reasonable assurance, 11 Statements of recommended practice, 283
Reasonableness test, 197 Statistical sampling, 202
Recalculation, 134 Statutory audit, 4, 18
Recognised Qualifying Bodies, 24
Stewardship, 5, 6, 7
Recognised Supervisory Bodies, 24
Stratification, 202
Recognised Supervisory Body, 23
Subsequent events, 296
Recording accounting and control systems, 149
Substantive procedures, 107, 134, 193
Recurring audits, 67
Sufficiency, 131
Regulation of auditors, 23
Suppliers’ statements, 271
Regulation of internal auditors, 78
Systematic selection, 203
Removal of auditors, 22
Remuneration, 22
Reperformance, 134 Tangible non-current assets, 216
Report to management, 150 Tendering, 61
Reports to management, 329 Test data, 206
Reserves, 278 Tests of controls, 106, 134
Resignation of auditors, 22 Tests of detail, 107, 193
Responsible party, 8 Tolerable misstatement, 204
Retention of working papers, 124 Tolerable rate of deviation, 204
Revenue and capital expenditure, 179 Treasury, 84
Review, 8 Trend analysis, 197
Review engagement, 8, 9, 12 True, 11
Review reports, 85 Truth and fairness, 11
Rights and duties, 20 Turnbull, 41
Risk assessment, 144 Turnbull guidance, 79
Risk management, 43
Risk-based approach, 96
Uncorrected misstatement, 307
Unmodified opinion, 315
Sales, 250 User auditor, 210
Sales system, 160 User entity, 210
Sampling risk, 202
Sampling unit, 202
Segregation of duties, 146 Valuation, 58
Self-interest, 52, 53 Value for money, 81
Self-review, 52, 57
Sequence or block selection, 203
Service auditor, 210
Walk-through tests, 149
Working papers, 121
Service organisation, 210
Working procedures of the IAASB, 29
Share capital, 278
Written representations, 110, 303 307
Significant deficiency in internal control, 150
Significant risks, 105, 107
Small company audit exemption, 19
398 Index
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
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In this edition approved by ACCA

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FOR EXAMS IN 2010

ISBN 9780 7517 7609 6

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

We are grateful to the Association of Chartered Certified

Your learning materials, published by BPP

Part A Audit framework and regulation

Part B Internal audit

Part C Planning and risk assessment

Part D Internal control

Part E Audit evidence

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x Photocopying our materials is a breach of copyright

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Testing what you can do

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Study Guide Links the chapter content with ACCA guidance.

Highlights how examinable the chapter content is likely to

Give you essential practice of techniques covered in the

Case Study Provide real world examples of theories and techniques.

A full list of the Fast Forwards included in the chapter,

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Found at the back of the Study Text with more

2 What skills are required?

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AUDIT FRAMEWORK AND REGULATION

Audit framework and

Topic list Syllabus reference

If you want to get free study material of CAT,

1 The purpose of external audit engagements

1.1 Objective of external audit

1.1.1 Statutory and non-statutory audits

1.1.2 Advantages of the non-statutory audit

2 Accountability, stewardship and agency

2.1 The nature and development of audit and other assurance

Directors Shareholders Employees

Creditors The public Taxation authorities

Internal controls Risk policies

2.3 Assurance provision

3 Types of assurance services

3.1 Review engagements

3.2 Internal audit reviews

4 Assurance and reports

INDEPENDENT AUDITOR’S REPORT

4.2 Limitations of audit and materiality

Risk Audit opinion Standard format

What to Auditing is not Audit report

4.3 Levels of assurance

Number Level Marks Time

Topic list Syllabus reference

1 Objective of statutory audits and the audit opinion

1.1 The statutory audit opinion

18 2: Statutory audit and regulation ~ Part A Audit framework and regulation

1.2 Small company audit exemption

Key term A small entity is any enterprise in which: