MODULE 1

PLANNING AND DESCRIBING EDUCATIONAL GOALS

LESSON 1
PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. realize the importance of planning for instruction;
2. differentiate the levels of plans in teaching; and,
3. describe the overview of instructional plan using the systems approach.

Keywords and Phrases

• Education
• long range plan
• learning environment
• planning
• intermediate plan
• faculty
• teaching
• immediate plan
• curriculum
• learning
• classroom management
• social and life skills

INTRODUCTION
Education is a lifelong process. A teacher should continuously grow professionally to impart
knowledge, skills or understanding in accordance with the needs of the learners, needs of society based
on current trends and subject matter content based on local, national and international standards.

Planning for Instruction

Planning for instruction is a vital part of the education process. Through good planning
practices, a teacher is most likely to give proper and utmost attention to the various features of
instruction such as goals, subject matter, activities, materials, equipment, facilities, teaching and

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evaluation procedures. This will increase the likelihood of acquiring the desired learning outcomes that
will be acquired by the students.

Teaching requires three (3) levels of plans; the long-range plan which includes the whole course
of study; the intermediate plan which is achieved through the units of the course and the immediate
plan which determines specific lessons to be taught. Irrespective of the type of instructional plan, all
plans must be able to set goals and develop a rationale for instruction, define the objectives, construct an
evaluation mechanism, stratify units of study that will capture the contents of the course of study and
design lessons using a variety of educational models, paradigms and procedures.

The overall planning in education can be described using the systems approach. For the area on
“context-input” the quality indicators include the learning environment, characteristics of the students,
infrastructure, characteristics of faculty and staff. The teaching and learning process include the
curriculum offered by the school, teaching, content, the pedagogical climate, learning and classroom
management. The educated individual complete with knowledge, skills and abilities is the main output
in the whole process including attainment and achievement, added value of the school, ability to apply
learning, social, and life skills, satisfaction of students and parents and destination of its graduates. The
feedback loop indicates a cyclic flow of evaluating the whole process.

The process is depicted in the following diagram.

The process of teaching and learning must bring the learner to a meaningful engagement in the process of
learning. To the greatest possible extent, the learner should have a direct contact with what is to be

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learned. He should be given the opportunity to explain his own understanding and critically analyze
using his high order thinking skills. To insure that learning takes place, proper evaluation must be
undertaken to test the extent at which a student understands what was taught.

Thus, the teacher must have the capability to plan interesting student-centered and varied
activity lessons to promote a high degree of student involvement and participation.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
Planning is a vital part of teaching. Planning is important for the following reasons:

1. It is one of the most practical management tools for improvement.

2. It assists the teacher to better understand the objectives of education in all levels. It is
expected that the teacher shall be able to contribute to the attainment of the objectives
in the classroom and school both at the national and international levels.
3. It helps the teacher realize his roles in the attainment of the objectives of education. It is
the aim of education to encourage and guide the individual’s progress towards effective
functioning in society and specifically in areas that will help him function in areas and
activities in life – career, home, citizenship and wise use of leisure time.
4. It gives opportunities to teachers to become more resourceful in the selection of teaching
materials and methods.
5. It allows the teacher to become flexible considering students’ needs, mental abilities,
interests and motivation.
6. It eliminates trial and error in teaching through a better planning of methods, curriculum
materials and timeline. Alternates and options are available when needed.
7. It becomes one of the best opportunities for the teacher to learn and grow professionally
and organize his work.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental books on Instructional Plan
 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES / WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT

1. Define the keywords and phrases indicated. Indicate author and references when needed.
2. Differentiate the three (3) levels of plans in teaching. Give examples.
3. Present a “critique” or reaction to the systems approach describing the overall planning of
education presented in the module.

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 4. As a teacher, how do you plan your teaching? How does planning help you as a teacher?
5. Present a case study on how your school plans for instruction. Present the ideal situation,
current situation, gap analysis and your recommendation to improve instructional plans.

References/Bibliography
Bush, T. Bell, L. The Principles and Practice of Educational Management.
Paul Chapman Publishing Inc. California, 2005.
Gunter, Mary Alices, Estes, Thomas, Schwab, Jan, Instruction: A Model
Approach, Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1999
Lardizabal, Amparo S., Bustos, Alicia; Bucu, Luz, Tangco, Maura G. Principles and Methods of
Teaching. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc, 1985
Neil, John. “Making Sense of Style”. Educational Leadership, 1990.
Popham, W.J. Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon, 2005

LESSON 2
DEFINING EDUCATIONAL GOALS BASED ON LOCAL AND
NATIONAL STANDARDS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define educational goals based on local and national standards;
2. rationalize major trends in the development of educational goals in Asian countries;
3. show familiarity with the Philippines EFA goals 2015;
4. differentiate roles of DepEd, CHED & TESDA; and,
5. identify partners of the government in defining and setting educational goals.

Keywords and Phrases

 local standards
 social goals
 value system
 EFA goals 2015
 national standards
 religious goals
 trifocalization

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  instructional plans
 moral goals
 cultural goals
 DepEd
 CHED
 political goals
 beliefs
 TESDA

INTRODUCTION
Major trends in the development of educational goals in Asia reported each country’s educational
goals, policies and problems; how each culture, traditions, beliefs and value systems affect educational
goals, among others. Usually, the educational goals are translated into policies and programs. The goals
of education of each country usually present a mixture of moral, social, religious, political, economic and
cultural goals. Moral goals expect education to develop a person with all humane qualities. Cultural
goals appear to blend moral, religious and social goals. Generally, there is an overall desire to link
education as a tool for economic development, political, economic and cultural goals. Moral goals expect
education to develop a person with all humane qualities. Cultural goals appear to blend moral, religious,
and social goals. Generally, there is an overall desire to link education as a tool for economic
development. Political goals and economic goals are usually the bases for the formulation of educational
policies. In some countries, one of the major goals is to strengthen vocational and technical education to
produce the needed skilled manpower and labor force. For almost all countries in Asia, concrete policies
on equal opportunities for education and matching education with industry needs for employment are
generated from these two common educational goals.

The Philippine educational system aims to:

• Provide a broad general education that will assist each individual in the society to attain his/her
potential as a human being, and enhance the range and quality of the individual and the group.
• Help the individual participate in the basic functions of society and acquire the essential
educational foundation for his/her development into a productive and versatile citizen.
• Train the nation’s manpower in the middle-level skills required for national development.
• Develop the high-level professions that will provide leadership for the nation, advance
knowledge through research, and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life.
• Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions through a system of educational planning.

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 The objectives of Formal Education at the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels as well as
those of non-formal education are specified in the Education Act of 1982. Brought about by educational
reforms is the trifocalization of the education sector.

The three governing bodies in the education sector are the CHED for tertiary and graduate
education, the DepEd for basic education and the TESDA for Technical Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) and middle level education. The Department of Education (DepEd) is the principal
government agency responsible for education and manpower development. The mission of the
Department is to provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible to all and lays the
foundation for life-long learning and service for the common good. The Department is primarily
responsible for the formulation, planning, implementation and coordination of the policies, standards,
regulations, plans, programs and projects in areas of formal and non-formal education. It also supervises
all basic education institutions, both public and private, education relevant to the goals of national
development.
There are three bureaus under the DepEd:
The Bureau of Elementary Education (BEE) is responsible for providing access and quality
elementary for all. It also focuses on social services for the poor and directs public resources and efforts
at socially disadvantaged regions and specific groups. The Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE) is
responsible for providing access and quality secondary education. Its aim is to enable every elementary
graduate to have access to secondary education. It improves access to secondary education by
establishing schools in municipalities where there are none and reviews the overall structure of
secondary education as regards curriculum, facilities, and teachers’ in-service training.
The Bureau of Non-formal Education (BNFE) is responsible for contributing to the
improvement of the poor through literacy and continuing education programs. Its aim is to provide
focused basic services to the more disadvantaged sections of the population to improve their welfare and
contribute to human resource development.
The Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports (BPESS) is responsible for physical
fitness promotion, school sports development, cultural heritage revival, natural heritage conservation,
and values development. Its aim is to inculcate desirable values such as self-discipline, honesty,
teamwork, sportsmanship, excellence and others and make the Filipino youth fit to respond adequately
to the demands, requirements, challenges and opportunities that the next century may bring.
The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was established
through the enactment of Republic Act No. 7796 otherwise known as the Technical Education and Skills
Development Act of 1994. This act aims to encourage the full participation of and mobilize the industry,

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labor, local government units and technical-vocational education and training (TVET) institution in the
skills development of the country’s human resources. TESDA formulates manpower and skills plans, sets
appropriate skills standards and tests, coordinates and monitors manpower policies and programs, and
provides policy directions and guidelines for resource allocation for the TVET institutions in both the
private and public sectors.
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is responsible for formulating and
implementing policies, plans and programs for the development and efficient operation of the system of
higher education in the country. Its coverage is both public and private higher education institutions as
well as degree-granting programs in all post-secondary educational institutions.
The right to education implies an entitlement of young people to a demanding and challenging
educational goals, standards and targets set by these educational agencies, in coordination with various
education stakeholders in the country. This gives the government the better charting of educational
goals in all levels of education.

Partners of the government in setting these goals, standards and targets include partners and
stakeholders, industry, professional organizations, school administrators, parents, alumni and civic social
groups. They represent the wider education community which makes a major contribution for a more
professional input in setting educational goals and foster a greater sense of ownership and internal
dynamism.

Our country has instituted major reforms that support “Education For All (EFA)” 2015 goals. It
has incorporated the EFA 2015 goals in various national development plans such as the Medium-Term
Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP) which is the blueprint towards economic development and the
Philippine National Action Plan to realize the objectives of EFA by the year 2015 which is the country’s
master plan for basic education. The MTPDP explicitly states that the goals of Philippine basic
education are anchored on EFA 2015.

The Philippine National Action for EFA 2015 goals was officially approved and adopted in
February 2006 providing an overarching policy framework to realize the vision of acquiring basic
competencies for all Filipinos.

The following constitutes the major EFA goals:

Goal 1: Improving and Expanding Early Childhood Care and Development

Goal 2: Ensuring Universal Access to Complete, Free and Compulsory Primary Education

Goal 3: Ensuring Young People and Adults’ Access to Appropriate Learning and Life Skills Program

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Goal 4: Improving Levels of Adult Literacy

Goal 5: Eliminating Gender Disparities in Elementary and Secondary Education

Goal 6: Improving Quality of Education

The Philippine educational system through DepEd, CHED and TESDA provides basic skills and
competencies for subjects in a particular field of study whether in elementary, high school, college,
graduate school or vocational and technical education. Example is the set of basic skills and
competencies for teacher training institutions.

Instructional plans or programs of study per course or discipline become the responsibility of the
school. Each school is in charge of defining educational goals, standards and targets cascading from
mandates of these bodies. This freedom gives schools great institutional autonomy to lay down their
curricula, plans of study, programs, teaching methods, time tables and other concerns. The study plans
become the operational tools for implementation of the national goals, standards and targets objectives,
skills and competencies. The production of instructional materials is encouraged which must be
approved by the textbook and evaluation committee. It also gives schools the right to evaluate students-
performance and reward outstanding ones.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links:
 The National Education Goals.GOALS 2000: A Progress Report
[Online] Available: http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001555/155516e.pdf
 http://deped.gov.ph
 Read supplemental documents and reports on the following:
 Organizational Structure and functions of DepEd, CHED and TESDA
 Status of EFA Goals 2015
 The PCER Report
 The Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan (2005-2010)
 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Define all keywords and phrases indicated. Indicate author/references when needed.
2. Present the highlights of the organizational structure and responsibilities of DepEd, CHED and
TESDA. (Based on the reading assignment)
3. List the goals/objectives of DepEd, CHED and TESDA (Based on the reading assignment)
4. For each of the EFA Goals 2015, discuss (Based on the Reading Assignment)

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 4.1 Status of overall accomplishments
4.2 Issues and challenges

References/Bibliography
Dunn, R., and K. Dunn. Teaching Secondary School Through Their Individual Learning Styles.
Boston: Ally and Bacon, 1993

Presidential Commission in Education Reform. Philippine Agenda for Educational Reform: The
PCER Report. PCER, Manila. 2000
Republic of the Philippines. The Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan 2005-2015,
Manila. 2004
Republic of the Philippines. Functionally Literate Filipinos: An Educated Nation (National Plan
to Achieve Education for All by the year 2015). Manila, 2005
Slavin, Robert E. Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Second Edition. Prentice Hall
Inc, 1988.

LESSON 3
DEFINING EDUCATIONAL GOALS BASED ON NEEDS OF THE
LEARNERS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define educational goals based on the learner’s needs; and,
2. become acquainted with Gardner’s concept of multiple intelligence.

Keywords and Phrases

 Learner
 multiple intelligence
 brain-based learning
 knowledge
 right brain
 learning styles
 skills
 left brain

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INTRODUCTION
Goals are broad generalized statements about what is to be learned. They refer to standards and
targets to be reached. The teacher’s ability to consider the needs of the learner’s in setting educational
goals is one of the good qualities of a teacher. These are expressed concepts of what students are like and
what they need.

The student should be an active participant in the learning process which should be fashionably
created to promote transmission of appropriate knowledge and skills from the teacher to the students. It
also suggests the need to consider the mental ability, readiness and other student’s characteristics in
setting goals and objectives.

Young people have different learning styles; usually one or two dominant styles which they are
most comfortable. It is important then to review student’s learning styles and how teaching methods
and student activities may address the range of teaching styles. This may measure the extent to which
teachers become responsive to student’s learning styles and the ways in which they seek to develop
students’ capabilities in utilizing different approaches for various learning activities.

LEARNING STYLES
Every child is unique. Conventional learning theories and traditional teaching methods tend to
overlook, or even ignore this basic truth.

Learning style is one aspect of a child’s innate uniqueness so we must learn to recognize,
acknowledge and respect every child’s individual learning style.

Dr. Kenneth and Rita Dunn (1999) define learning style as, “the way in which each individual
learner begins to concentrate, process, absorb and retain new and difficult information”.

An important factor in understanding learning style is understanding the brain functioning.

Both sides of the brain can reason, but by different strategies, and one side may be dominant. The left
brain is analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global. A successive processor (left
brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format—beginning with details leading to conceptual
understanding of a skill. A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the
general concept and then going to specifics.
Which type of Learner Are You?

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THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Almost a century ago, French psychologist Alfred Binet introduced the concept of “Intelligence
Quotient” (IQ) to the world. It has since become accepted and refined as the primary measure of person’s
learning capability. It has also since become the basis for categorizing individuals into imbeciles,
geniuses or any of the other classifications in between.
Only in recent years has human intelligence been slowly appreciated as a “many splendored
thing”. This insight was introduced in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner.
Following is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence:
1. Linguistic intelligence-ability to use words effectively both in oral form and in writing
2. Logical –mathematical intelligence- ability to use numbers effectively
3. Spatial intelligence - ability to perceive and to graphically represent the visual-spatial world
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence - ability to use one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings
5. Musical intelligence - ability to discriminate, transform and express musical forms
6. Interpersonal intelligence - ability to perceive the moods, intentions and feelings of others
7. Intrapersonal intelligence - ability to act on the basis of accurate self-knowledge
Students with different learning style preferences and different strengths in the intelligences
require different instructional approaches. All students need to learn in more than one way to develop
their potentials. The more the teacher knows about the learning styles and the intelligences of the

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students, the more he or she is able to plan a variety of instructional approaches and hence, educational
goals, standards and targets.

THE BRAIN AND LEARNING

Brain-based learning has been called a combination of brain science and common sense. Hart
(1983) called the brain “the organ of learning”. He advocated learning more about the brain in order to
design effective learning environments. Brain researchers Reante Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine
developed twelve principles that could be applied to the function of the brain to teaching and learning.
The principles are:
1. The brain is a parallel process. The brain is always performing many tasks at once, such as regulating
bodily functions, allocating attention and processing information from multiple sources. The
implication for instruction is that good teaching “orchestrates” the learner’s experience of many
things – what the learner sees, what the learner hears, and so on – simultaneously.
2. Learning engages the entire physiology. Whatever affects the physical well-being of the learner, from
lighting and temperature to the feelings of safety and cheer, affect learning. The implication for
instruction is that teachers must take “creature comfort” into account when planning and
orchestrating learning, must control those factors that can be controlled, and must do whatever
is possible to take advantage of, or alleviate, other factors.
3. The search for meaning is innate. Learning is necessarily an active brain process which is called
“meaning making”. The ingredients of meaning are prior knowledge and the new understanding
meaningful to the learner, but to engage with the learner in an active, collaborative construction
of meaning, much like that which occurs in everyday conversation.
4. The search for meaning occurs through patterning. Information to be learned becomes meaningful when
the learner is able to perceive or impose a pattern upon it. When the learner finds connections
between what is being learned and what is already known or when the learner can categorize
information into previously existing “slots”, then that information becomes meaningful. The
implication for teaching is that the teacher may facilitate learning by exploring connections and
categorizations with learners through a process of sorting and classifying.
5. Emotions are crucial to patterning. It might be said that caring drives cognition; that is, learners
think mostly deeply about and learn more easily those things they care about. The implication
for teaching is that the teacher must take students’ attitudes and dispositions into account in
planning instruction.
6. The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously. Right brain/left brain thinking is merely a
metaphor, a way of thinking about the way the brain learns. According to this metaphor, the left
half of the brain understands information into parts, or by taking information apart, whereas the
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 right half of the brain understands information in while information together. The left half
knows the words of the song, and the right half knows the tune. Fortunately, the human brain is
inclined to grasp parts and wholes simultaneously. The implication for teaching is that the
teacher must help learners keep perspective: teach the big picture and the parts that make it up,
both at the same time.
7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception. The brain processes information
straight on and from the side. Part of this process is what learners think they see, and part is
what they see without thinking. If this is not so, an activity such as driving a car would be much
more dangerous than it is. The implication for teaching is that the teacher must pay almost as
much attention to what students will experience indirectly as to what they will experience
directly.
8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes. The expression “to sleep on it”
reflects folk wisdom, insinuating that information needs to percolate before it can be understood.
Do you notice that trying hard to remember something may actually keep you from remembering
and that as soon as you stop trying so hard, you remember? This occurs because much of what
the brain does is completely unconscious and unknown to us. The implication for teaching is
that because understanding takes time, time for reflection and contemplation should be built
into instructional plans.
9. We have at least two different types of memory: a spatial memory system and a set of systems for rote learning.
The human brain is capable of both spatial learning and rote learning; the major difference is that
one kind of learning requires more effort than the other. The implication for teaching is that
where rote knowledge is required, the teacher will want to provide plenty of time for rehearsal
and application so that information will be firmly remembered.
10. We understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded in natural, spatial memory. Of all the
ways education might be improved, spatial learning would be at the top of most students’ and
teachers’ lists. Imagine that all reading, writings and discussion about living things stemmed
from the questions that arose from observations learners made about the world around them.
This exists in many classrooms today where teachers have grasped the implication that what a
learner can experience spatially, in three dimensions, can be understood in the abstract, but not
so easily the reverse.
11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. The brain responds to threat with a “fight or
fight” reaction – resist or remove oneself from the threatening circumstances. Challenge is
always accompanied by risk to one’s self-alertness”. The implication for teaching is that there is
no risk in what students are asked to comfortable about making such mistakes.

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 12. Each brain is unique. The implication for teaching is that teachers need to be completely open to
infinite possibilities in learners: that is, they should expect that there will be great diversity in
the comprehension of what they teach. Perhaps they will all have to give up the notion that
everyone will have the same answer or that there is only one answer worth having.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links:
 www.funderstanding.com/brain_based_learning.cfm
 www.learning_styles_oneline.com

 E-Journals/E-Books:
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Define all the keywords and phrases indicated. Indicate the authors and references when
necessary.
2. What is the main role of the teacher in the education process? How about the learner?
3. Enumerate the needs of the learner according to individual differences.
4. How do different learning styles affect the learner?
5. Give examples of educational goals and objectives that take into consideration the needs of the
learners? You may classify according to school goals and course subject goals. Cite your own
school and the subject you are handling.

References/Bibliography
Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences. Journal of Educational Research, 1999.

Calderon, Jose F. Foundations of Education. Rex Printing Co. Inc., 1998.

Dunn, R., and K. Dunn. Teaching Elementary Schools Through Their Individual Learning Styles.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1992

Dunn, R., and K. Dunn. Teaching Secondary School Through Their Individual Learning Styles.
Boston: Ally and Bacon, 1993

Dunn, R., and K. Dunn. The Complete Guide to Learning to Learning the Styles Inservice
System. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999
Gunter, Mary Alice. Estes, Thomas. Schwab, Jan. Instruction: Models Approach, Third Edition.
Allyn and Bacon, 1999.

Tenedero, Henry S. Breaking the IQ Myth: Learning Styles, Multiple Intelligences and
Emotional Learning in the Classroom Environment, 1998

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LESSON 4
DEFINING EDUCATIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES BASED
ON SUBJECT MATTER CONTENT

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. compare educational goals with educational objectives;
2. compare educational goals/objectives in all levels of education.;
3. differentiate types of educational objectives;
4. analyze Bloom’s Taxonomy of behavioral objectives;
5. integrate content standards and curriculum standards in crafting subject matter goals;
and,
6. realize the role of teachers in modifying and varying strategies and activities.

Keywords and Phrases

 educational goals
 proficiency level
 behavioral objectives
 educational objectives
 content standards
 curriculum standards

INTRODUCTION
More specific than the goals of education that society demands are the goals relating to subject
matter content. Subject matter goals are usually expressed in terms of the proficiency levels expected of
learners. These can be very specific statements of what students should know and be able to do (content
standards) and the prescribed contents set for the discipline (curriculum standards). Teachers have
relatively more freedom in determining precisely what goals and objectives will be realized after each
lesson is taught. The teacher must consider not only the subject matter in relation to the discipline, but
also the teaching goals and readiness, needs and interests of the students.
In setting educational goals and objectives, the major challenge is to fit the content of the subject
matter to several variables related to the learners (e.g. age, mental ability, gender, etc.) The teacher must
be able to decide what is appropriate for a particular group and for individuals within that group.

EDUCATIONAL AIMS PER LEVEL

Pre-Primary Education

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 Pre-school education aims to develop pupils in all aspects towards total development (physical,
social, emotional, and cognitive) to prepare them for adjustment with life situations and the demands of
formal schooling. The children’s potential could be maximized through a variety of carefully selected
joyful and meaningful experiences considering their interests and capabilities during ages between 4-6
years old. The curriculum focuses on the following goals and objectives.
• Physical development through fine motor coordination using supervised outdoor play
and manipulative activities like games, sizes, colors, shapes etc. Rest is also part of
physical development.
• Personal-social development. This involves skills and social development such as health
habits, following rules, orders and arrangements. Learning about the family and other
people is also a part of social development.
• Affective development. This includes experiences that help pupils develop love for God,
love of self and love for others. This also includes knowing about the community and
development of their awareness of their own feelings. It also includes knowing what is
right or wrong.
• Cognitive Development. This includes the development of communication skills and
sensory-perceptual and numeracy concepts and skills. Communication skills refer to
competencies in expressing ideas and feelings both in English and Filipino (oral
expression and basic readiness skills of listening, pre-reading and writing). Sensory-
perceptual and numeracy skills refer to the ability to observe discriminate, compare and
classify, and to understand, count, read and write numbers.
• Some activities that could be done are singing songs, reciting poems, telling stories,
having informal conversations and sharing of experiences.
• Creative-aesthetic development. This includes exploration of sounds, music and
rhythms, and the development of children’s creative expression through drawing,
painting and other manipulative activities.
Primary Education

Elementary education provides basic education to pupils aged 7-12. The elementary course
comprises six years (in some private schools, seven years), the first four years termed primary grades and
the last two years, intermediate grades.

The overall goal of elementary education is to enable pupils to acquire a basic preparation that
will make them disciplined, enlightened, self-reliant, God-loving, creative, versatile, and productive
citizens in a national community. The main objectives of elementary education are:

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 • To provide knowledge and develop the skills, attitudes and values essential to the children’s
personal development necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and changing
social milieu.
• To provide learning experiences aimed at increasing the children’s awareness of and
responsiveness to the demands of society, and to prepare them for constructive and effective
involvement.
• To promote and intensify the children’s knowledge of, identification with, and love for the nation
and the people to which they belong; and,
• To promote work experiences aimed at developing and enhancing the children’s orientation to
the world of work and creativity, and to prepare them for an honest and gainful work.
Secondary Education

Secondary education (high school) is a continuation of the basic education provided at the first
level. It is expanded to include learning (general education) and training in basic employable skills
(vocational/technical education). This covers a period of four years of formal schooling and is addressed
to students aged 13-16.

The New Secondary Education Curriculum was implemented in 1992/1993. The major subject
areas are Science, Mathematics, Technology, Filipino, English, and Civics/National Culture. Technical
and Vocational Education was also revised and adapted to technological progress and employment needs
in recent years.

Tertiary Education

Tertiary Education (higher education) provides prescribed courses of studies which are credited
towards degrees in academic disciplines or professions. It includes two-year post-secondary technical
and vocational courses, various professional courses, and general higher education, including graduate
and post-graduate studies (for students aged 17-25). Normally, a baccalaureate degree takes four years.
Graduate and Post-graduate courses normally take two to three years to complete.

Vocational-Technical Education

Vocational and technical education covers five main fields, namely, trade (technology,
communication, electronics, computers, transportation, etc.), agriculture, fisheries, home industries, and
non-traditional courses. These comprise more than 250 different courses of six months’ to three years’
duration. These courses include formal school work in the field of specialization and related academic

17
subjects. In the one-, two- and three-year courses, these are combined with supervised industrial training
in a cooperating firm.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Unlike educational goals, educational objectives are more specific. Following are types of educational
objectives:
• Developmental Objectives
- These are suggested for pre-school education and special education. These should be
pursued in the development of the child such as skills, attitudes and values.
• Final Objectives
- These are usually referred to as attainment targets, usually subject-based, for primary
and secondary education. They refer to minimum knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• Cross-curricular Final Objectives
- These refer to social skills, learning to learn, environmental education, and
democratic citizenship. These objectives go beyond the specific subjects and they
form part of the total development of an individual.
• Basic Skills and Competencies
- These are objectives for subjects belonging to a particular field of study whether in
general education, secondary, vocational or technical education.
• Curriculum Design
- The approach to curriculum design is usually based on content topic and
competency. The DepEd prescribes competencies in learning. Competencies for the
subject areas in all grade levels for elementary and all year levels for high school.
- The Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Education develops and publishes these
learning competencies for utilization of all schools in the country. The teacher has
the academic freedom to be creative in the implementation of these competencies.
They are encouraged to enrich and adapt as long as students will be able to learn the
minimum competencies required for each subject. Values education, for one, is being
incorporated in all subjects, giving leeway, to use the time for values education as a
subject to advance courses in some subjects like English, Math and Science to
strengthen these subjects. Thus, schools have the option to modify the curriculum in
terms of content, sequence and teaching strategies in order to ensure that objectives
respond to the needs of learners and the program itself. The prescribed learning
competencies do not include teaching. strategies/methods and learning activities.

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 Again, the creativity of the teachers in choosing the appropriate teaching/learning
activities is vital.
- A well-planned curriculum and a well-balanced set of learning activities are
necessary, although they may vary per level of education.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives

This is a revised version of Benjamin Bloom’s work with the addition of the Psychomotor Domain
as developed by Anita Harrow (1972). Dr. Bloom’s intent was to develop a classification framework for
writing educational objectives. The questions and examples were added by Tom Allen to make the
taxonomy more useful for teachers as a tool to facilitate appropriate questioning.
Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge: recognize or recall information.
Words typically used: define, recall, recognize, remember, who, what, where, when, arrange,
duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, relate, repeat.
2. Comprehension: demonstrate that the student has sufficient understanding to organize and
arrange materials mentally.
Words typically used: describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, put in your own words,
explain, classify, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, review, select, and translate.
3. Application: a question that asks a student to apply previously learned information to reach
an answer. Solving math word problems is an example.
Words typically used: apply, classify, use, choose, employ, write an example, solve, demonstrate,
dramatize, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve.
4. Analysis: higher order questions that require students to think critically.
Words typically used: identify motives/causes, draw conclusions, determine evidence,
support, analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, distinguish,
examine, test.
5. Synthesis: higher order question that asks the student to perform original and creative
thinking.
Words typically used in synthesis questions: predict, produce, write, design, develop,
synthesize, construct, assemble, collect, compose, create, formulate, prepare, set-up, propose.
6. Evaluation: higher level question that does not have a single correct answer. It requests the
student to judge the merit of an idea, a solution to a problem, or an aesthetic work.
Words typically used: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, estimate, judge,
predict, rate, select, support, value, evaluate.

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Affective Domain

The affective domain addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values and emotional
sets. The original purpose of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives was to provide a tool for
classifying instructional objectives. The taxonomy is hierarchical (levels increase in
difficulty/sophistication) and cumulative (each level builds on and subsumes the ones below). The
levels, in addition to clarifying instructional objectives, may be used to provide a basis for questioning
that ensures that students progress to the highest level of understanding. If the teaching purpose is to
change attitudes/behavior rather than to transmit/process information, then the instruction should be
structured to progress through the levels of the affective domain.

1. Receiving. The student passively attends to a particular phenomenon or stimulus

[classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.] The teacher’s concern is to focus student’s
attention to the lesson. Intended outcomes include the pupil’s awareness that a thing exists.
Sample objectives are: listens attentively, shows sensitivity to social problems. Some
behavioral terms used are to ask, choose, identify, locate, point to, sit erect, etc.

2. Responding. The student actively participates, thus he not only attends to the stimulus but
reacts in some way. Sample objectives are: completes homework, obeys rules, participates in
class discussions, shows interest in the subject, enjoys helping others, etc. Behavioral terms
include: to answer, assist, comply, discuss, help, perform, practice, present, read, report,
write, etc.

3. Valuing. It is the worth a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior.

It ranges from acceptance to commitment (e.g. assumes responsibility for the functioning of a
group) attitudes and appreciation. Sample objectives are: demonstrates belief in democratic
processes, appreciates the role of science in daily life, shows concern for others’ welfare,
demonstrates a problem-solving approach, etc. Behavioral terms may be: differentiate,
explain, initiate, justify, propose, share, etc.

4. Organization. This is to bring together different values, resolving conflicts among them, and
starting to build an internally consistent value system—comparing, relating and
synthesizing values and developing a philosophy of life. Sample objectives are: recognizes
the need for balance between freedom and responsibility in a democracy, understands the
role of systematic planning in solving problems, accepts responsibility for own behavior, etc.

20
 Behavioral terms are to: arrange, combine, compare, generalize, integrate, modify, organize,
synthesize, compare, order, prioritize, etc.

5. Characterization. At this level, the person has held a value system that has controlled his
behavior for a sufficiently long time that a characteristic “life style” has been developed.
Sample behavior is pervasive, consistent and predictable. Objectives are concerned with
personal, social, and emotional adjustment: displays self reliance in working independently,
cooperate in group activities, maintains good health habits, etc. Behavioral terms are to:
internalize, personalize, demonstrate, exhibit, etc.
Psychomotor Domain
Instructional objectives and derived questions/tasks typically have cognitive/affective elements,
but the focus is on motor skill development. The suggested areas for use are speech development, reading
readiness, handwriting, and physical education. Other areas include manipulative skills required in
business training [e.g., keyboarding], industrial technology, and performance areas in science, art and
music.
1. Reflex movements. Segmental, intersegmental, and suprasegmental reflexes
2. Basic-Fundamental movements. Locomotor movements, non-locomotor movements,
manipulative movements
3. Perceptual abilities. Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile discrimination and coordinated
abilities
4. Physical abilities. Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility

5. Skilled movements. Simple, compound, and complex adaptive skills

6. Nondiscursive communication. Expressive and interpretive movement. Sample general
objectives: writes smoothly and legibly; accurately reproduces a picture, map etc.; operates a
[machine] skillfully; plays the piano skillfully; demonstrates correct swimming form; drives
an automobile skillfully; creates a new way of performing [creative dance]; etc.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental documents on
- Minimum Learning Competencies (Elementary)
- Minimum Learning Competencies (Secondary)
 Read supplemental books on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Behavioral Objectives
 E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

21
EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Define all keywords and phrases indicated. Cite author/reference when needed.
2. Give two (2) examples for each of the different types of educational objectives:
developmental objectives, final objectives, cross-curricular final objectives, basic skills and
competencies.
3. In the following exercise, mark each activity with an A and each objective with an O.
a. The students will be able to count from 100 to 1000.
b. The students will view a video on photosynthesis.
c. The students will assemble a simple motor to operate a rice husking machine.
d. The students will be able to describe the life cycle of a butterfly.
e. The students will be able to discuss the evolution of man
f. The students will be able to display sportsmanship and confidence in the basketball
game.
g. The students will answer the exercises in the chemistry workbook.
h. The students will read the story of “Scarlet”.
i. The students will be able to print the Roman Numeral System and its equivalent in
the Hindu-Arabic System.
j. The students will watch the intramurals in the school.

4. Write two (2) objectives for each of the six (6) categories used to describe cognitive
learning.
Ex. Application
Objective: The students will be able to solve problems using the interest formula.
5. Write two (2) objectives for each of the five (5) categories of the affective domain.
References/Bibliography
Bloom, Benjamin S. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational
Goals. New York, 1986.
Davies, Ivor. Objectives in Curriculum Design. England: McGraw Hill, UK, 1986.
Gunter, Mary Alice. Estes, Thomas. Schwab, Jan. Instruction: Models Approach,
Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
Lumby, J. Framing Teaching and Learning in the Twenty-First Century. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing, 2001.
Middlewood, D. and Burton, N. Managing the Curriculum. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing, 2001.

22
 Preedy, M. and Faulkner, S. Teaching and Learning, Professional ExperienceGuide.
Buckingham: Open University Press, 1998.

LESSON 5
DEFINING EDUCATIONAL GOALS BASED ON NEEDS OF
SOCIETY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. be able to distinguish examples of macro goals;
2. define educational goals based on perspectives about purposes, concepts, and needs of society;
3. link goals and activities of both teachers and students with how they relate to developments
in the wider society; and,
4. outline fundamental responsibilities of higher education in response to societal needs.

Keywords and Phrases

 macro goals
 ethical standards
 economic factor
 social factors
 productive employment
 technological factors
 political factors
 good citizenship

INTRODUCTION
Change could be explicit or implicit in each of the goals of education. Meeting the demands of
changing societal needs is a driving force in the strengthening of institutions.
These are set of broad educational goals applicable to all courses and towards which educators
are expected to direct their instruction. Following are examples of macro goals:
Develop skills, attitudes and values necessary for personal development.
1. Develop competencies in the basic learning, social and life skills.
2. Develop ethical standards of behavior.
3. Develop skills for productive employment.
4. Achieve progress commensurate with one’s ability.

23
 5. Become aware and appreciate experiences for responsiveness to the demands of society.
6. Promote love of country and people to which they belong.
In higher education, the most important educational goal is to optimize learning by students and
by society in general, to educate an increasingly diverse group of learners in a multicultural society to
become effective citizens capable of meeting challenges they will meet in their daily lives.
Educational institutions are challenged to maximize learning to prepare graduates who can live
effectively in a complex society. Learning must be extended beyond the four walls of the classroom to
include matching curricula and practices with needs of industry, business, corporations and society.
This entails an increased sense of responsibility and accountability to the country. It also makes clear for
institutions to achieve learning outputs/outcomes and meet educational standards that address societal
needs.
Social, economic, political and technological forces pose new and critical challenges in society.
We see both opportunities and threats brought about by these societal forces in local, regional, national
and international levels. Education must reinvent for increased responsiveness to society’s core
challenges in the years ahead.

Demands of Changing Societal Needs

Given these societal changes specifically, higher education has several responsibilities to help
ensure the continued well-being of country today. These responsibilities are:
 To provide curriculum programs that will equip the graduates with the necessary skills and
capabilities required in a global and increasingly competitive economy;
 To strengthen intellectual and organizational capabilities to address challenges of the country
and the global society;
 To prepare students to be productive and economically competitive;
 To provide graduates with critical thinking skills and expression; and,
 To educate students towards good citizenship in a democratic society.
There are several purposes and concepts beyond these responsibilities that higher education
should shoulder. Any successful strategy or method must consider various approaches to put together
empowered people to achieve a particular purpose. A new concept of coordination and governance is
necessary to craft a new agenda to answer societal needs.

Shared Leadership in Education

Linkage between education leaders and members of the private business sector is necessary to
discuss changing needs and changing economic environment. Exchanges of ideas and perspectives can
substantially improve responsiveness towards shared leadership and purpose to maximize strengths of
institutions and demonstrate success in fulfilling goals of higher education.

24
 There is an urgency for a tripartite collaboration among the government, business leaders and
universities to meet the educational needs of society and to sustain the country’s vitality. The
government should set clear expectations and hold institution’s accountable for achieving these goals.
The government should, however, support financially the institutions for them to attain the educational
and societal goals.

Education leaders should build a partnership with business leaders in the design and delivery of
curricular programs that meet the skills requirement of workers in the industry. Higher education
institutions, on their part, can evaluate if they are educating graduates to be effective in the workplace.

The challenges of the century are enormous and new horizons with broader perspectives are
imperatives in seeking to be effective in this more complex world.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental documents on
- “Engaging Higher Education in Societal Challenges of the 21st Century” [online]
http://highereducation.org/reports/wegner/index.shtml
 E-Journals/E-Books:
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Define all keywords and phrases indicated. Cite author/reference when needed.
2. Specify the role/s of the government, business and institutions in engaging higher education
in societal challenges.
3. Fill out the matrix on opportunities and threats of social, technological, economic and
political factors affecting education at the local, national and international levels

References/Bibliography
Dimmock, C. and Walker A. Globalization and Societal Culture. London: Falmer Press. 2000.
Gunter, Mary Alice. Estes, Thomas. Schwab, Jan. Instruction: Models Approach, Third
Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
Lumby, J. Framing Teaching and Learning in the Twenty-First Century. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing, 2001.
Ponder, D. Restructuring Schools for Collaboration. Albany, NY: University of New York
Press, 1998.
Preedy, M. and Faulkner, S. Teaching and Learning, Professional Experience Guide.
Buckingham: Open University Press, 1998.

25
 1. Which has the greatest potential impact?
2. Which has the most serious threat?

LESSON 6
DEVELOPMENT OF A RATIONALE

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define a rationale;
2. explain the values and assumptions underlying the rationale;
3. list down and discuss the components of a rationale; and,
4. write a rationale.

Keywords and Phrases

 rationale
 intended learning outcomes
 values and assumptions
 learners
 society-centered
 subject matter

26
  child-centered
 society

DEVELOPING A RATIONALE
A rationale is a statement that makes explicit the values and educational goals underlying the
teaching process. The values and assumptions for a rationale include the place of the person in society,
the role of education in society, the nature and purpose of society, the choice of what knowledge is most
useful to society and the purpose for which it should be useful.
A rationale is usually a statement of reasons for the choice of goals, objectives and subject matter.
Sources of Rationale

A well-written rationale is an integral part of the curriculum plan. It shows the integration of
three areas to the curriculum design: The learner, subject matter and society. The teacher develops a
rationale with these areas in mind and at the same time considers the influence of attitudes, beliefs,
values and knowledge in the overall contents of the rationale.
In consideration of the learners, the teacher determines appropriate strategies and approaches to
address the individual differences of the students in terms of abilities, interests, learning other styles,
needs, gender, economic status and factors affecting student performance.

27
 These factors are the bases for selecting educational goals based on the conceptual framework
that the education’s output should be a well-educated individual complete with knowledge, skills and
abilities and equipped with learning, social and life skills.
Knowledge of the subject matter has a meaningful influence on the teacher’s ability to plan her
curriculum. Having a knowledge of the subject matter will ensure her ability to express the problem
contained in the course. It is very important that she possesses a clear understanding of the problem
which is necessary in the crafting of a solution or a number of solutions. The problem must be identified,
formulated and explained to be able to formulate and design a model for a possible solution. The
rationale must reflect the teacher’s beliefs on a particular subject and the approaches to be used to
warrant that a course will be delivered and the student will realize the value the subject matter has for
him.
A rationale must consider the needs of society. It places the student as member of the society.
Societal needs and values are reflected in the course goals and objectives. A rationale that considers not
only societal needs but also the role of an individual in society considers self-fulfillment and the needs of
the individual in society. Both individual and society play an important part in the teacher’s values and
clearly reflect an interrelationship between the two value areas.
The three value areas such as the learner, society and subject matter shall compose the general
statement of educational goals and attributes of a well-educated individual. A rationale justifies a
course’s intended learning outcomes in relation to the teacher’s beliefs, values, knowledge and attitudes
toward the learner, the society and the subject matter within the framework of educational goals.
In defining or setting educational goals, it is important to include the following: description of
the consequences of education on the individual which should be expressed in general terms; a statement
of characteristics that could be achieved through learning; and, a list of achievable goals and the benefits
one can derive from education.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental documents on Developing a Rationale
 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Define all keywords and phrases indicated. Cite author/reference when necessary.
2. How should a rationale be developed in the teaching of a subject? (you may select your own field
of study)
3. Craft an example of a rationale in the field of study you have chosen in #2

28
References/Bibliography
Gunter, Mary Alice. Estes, Thomas. Schwab, Jan. Instruction: Models Approach, Third Edition.
Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
Lumby, J. Framing Teaching and Learning in the Twenty-First Century. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, 2001.

Middlewood, D. and Burton, N. Managing the Curriculum. London: Paul Chapman Publishing,
2001.

Ponder, D. Restructuring Schools for Collaboration. Albany, NY: University of New York
Press, 1998.
Preedy, M. and Faulkner, S. Teaching and Learning, Professional Experience Guide.
Buckingham: Open University Press, 1998.

MODULE 2
DETERMINING EVALUATION STRATEGIES AND
EVALUATION OF LEARNING OUTCOMES
IN EDUCATION
LESSON 1
DETERMINING EVALUATION STRATEGIES

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss evaluation strategies of objectives in the three domains, namely:
• Cognitive domain
• Affective domain
• Psychomotor domain
2. realize the importance of evaluating learning objectives in the three domains.

Keywords and Phrases

 Learning evaluation
 Cognitive
 Domain
 Psychomotor
 Affective

29
INTRODUCTION
Learning objectives provide a brief description of the expected learning outcomes. Expressed in
behavioral terms, it specifies the basis and conditions to ensure that students will perform well. In
developing cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives, the teacher selects what should be included
in the instructional design. The instructional approaches should match the clearly defined objectives and
the design of evaluation should also coincide with the design of instruction.

Objectives in the three domains – cognitive, affective and psychomotor – require different types
of evaluation processes.

• Evaluating Cognitive Objectives

Written examinations are the best methods to evaluate cognitive learning. Other ways are class
discussions, project method and simulation activities.

In the sample of verbs in each of the categories of cognitive domain, every objective, except for
the objectives at the knowledge level, is a procedural or process objectives. Other categories or levels
which require process of reasoning are comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Evaluation procedures must match the learning objectives. For instance, if the instructional
objective is to identify the parts of the body, a test to describe the functions is inappropriate. Evaluation
of the objective should require that the students recognize the parts as instructed.

• Evaluating Affective Objectives

Affective objectives cannot be separated from cognitive objectives. More often than not, teachers
believe that affective objectives are difficult to measure thus they usually do not include the affective
from the list of objectives. Krathwohl (2005) named the five classification of these objectives which
range from receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization.

What students learn should have an impact on their lives other than academic or intellectual. It
should make them work with teams, more tolerant, more patient, more caring, more industrious and
should make them respect other feelings and attitudes that will make them better persons.

It is difficult on the part of the teacher to measure attitudes, feelings and beliefs of students. An
evaluation system must be designed that allows students to express their feelings without the students’
knowledge that they are being evaluated.

• Evaluating Psychomotor Objectives

30
 It is easier to evaluate psychomotor objectives. In the domain of psychomotor objectives,
learning is measured based on mastery of a physical skill whether manipulative or motor. The levels of
psychomotor objectives are readiness, observation, perception, response and adaption. Usually this is the
domain of the teacher teaching physical education and sports and teacher of pre-schoolers.

The psychomotor objectives must match the psychomotor evaluation strategies. The objectives
should be very specific using certain units of measurement and specifying the degree of acceptable
performance.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental books on Determining Evaluation Strategies
 Links : http://ericae.net
 E-Journals/e-books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Using your field of specialization, cite five (5) objectives or each of the domains: cognitive,
affective & psychomotor
Example:
Cognitive: Objective: Pupils will be able to identify primary colors
Evaluation Technique: Evaluation test and record of pupil’s
progress.
Affective: Objective: Students will be able to improve their attitude towards mathematics
Evaluation Technique: A questionnaire to elicit response of
students in their attitudes towards math.

Psychomotor: Objective: Students will be able to improve their ability to throw a softball
by 50%.
Evaluation Technique: You may use written records of a
student’s progress through a skill chart.

References/Bibliography
Bloom, Benjamin S. “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York:
David McKay, 1956

Briggs, Ann R.J. “Monitoring and Evaluating Learning” in the Principles and Practice of Educational
Management. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2005.

Driscoll, P. Marcy, Psychology of Learning for Instruction 2nd Ed., Allyn & Bacon, 2000.

31
Gunter, Mary Alice, et. al. Instruction: A Models Approach. Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1999.

Popham, W.J. Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon,
2005.

LESSON 2
EVALUATION OF LEARNING OUTCOMES IN EDUCATION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. name and discuss the learning outcomes in education;
2. describe affective systems of evaluating learning outcomes in education; and,
3. realize the importance of monitoring and evaluating learning outcomes
Keywords and Phrases
 learning outcomes
 learning skills
 life and social skills
 evaluation
 attitudes
 achievement
 competencies
 satisfaction
 destination of graduates

INTRODUCTION
In Module I, the systems approach was used to present the output or product of education. To
recall, the following learning outcomes were listed: well-educated person, achievement, added-value of
the school, learning skills, social and life skills, satisfaction and destination of graduates.

The primary purpose of education is to enable learning. Schools are accountable for the nature
and quality of learning process that takes place from within. Generally, a description of the assessment
approach should be provided and developing effective systems for evaluation should be based on
scientific principles. The focus of the assessment should be described in the context of the goal
identification. The purpose/s of the assessment should be described and classified, whether formative or
summative? Whether student focused or program focused?

32
 After citing the description of the general assessment, specific assessments for the core goals
should be discussed in more detail, considering sequence and time allotment. For each specific
assessment, the following should be specified:

• Content – specify which goals are to be assessed

• Format – what will the students say or do
• Scoring, reporting and utilization of results.
- How will the data be treated? Quantitative vs. qualitative? What comparison can be made?
What will be the effect of the results?

It is very important that we evaluate the quality of the educational performance and achievement
that is to see if the quality is good enough based on our targets and if we measure how well the system
fits our purpose.

Assessment is concerned with making judgments about the value, worth or quality of learning
processes. Since evaluation involves judgments, it is important for educational managers to discuss and
agree about the purpose and focus of any evaluation activity, and the criteria to be used for making
judgments.

Evaluation of Learning Outcomes in Education

There are two broad purposes of evaluating learning outcomes in education:

1. Evaluation for accountability

This is an important consideration in the decision-making process. In the context of Philippine
education, several levels can be identified for evaluation: national, local education (division or district),
institutional, departmental and classroom level.

CHED, DepEd and TESDA implement school recognition and accreditation using indicators and
criteria including student performance as one of the leverages for quality. Annual comparative data on
national achievement tests and examinations results are published for control and accountability. Given
the expectations for schools to demonstrate year by year improvements in national test performance,
schools have to render account for their performance to the educational agencies monitoring their work
and to the stakeholders especially the students and their parents.

2. Evaluation for improvement purposes

Given the framework of accountability, schools strive for better outcomes for their learners, they
will need ways of evaluating how good the learning outcomes are and how they may be sustained or
improved. Various research studies have been published about how pupils learn models and paradigms
of teaching, and influence the ways in which learning outcomes are evaluated for improvement.
33
 Evaluation is an internal or external formative process designed to evaluate progress against
targets and objectives. The collection of data and precise evidence to conform to review activities will
determine how well the learning process was carried out and to determine the qualitative and
quantitative actions to be implemented for improvement.

In the classroom, the written works of students with different mental abilities are regularly
examined for evidence of pupil achievement, and to determine whether the students various needs are
being met. Again, qualitative and quantitative data determine students’ success and whether
adjustments will have to be made if meaningful actions for improvement are to follow.

Outcomes in Education
A. A Well-educated individual
A well-educated individual complete with skills, knowledge and abilities is the expected output
in the teaching-learning process. It is therefore very important for policymakers to create an effective
system for the evaluation of achievement of the learners in the context of the inputs in education.

1. Formative eEvaluation
Formative evaluation occurs during teaching. The teacher should be quick to observe if
students understand the objectives of the lesson. This could be done by observing reactions,
by questioning and analyzing the answers of the students, by assigning tasks and analyzing
how well students perform correctly, accurately, efficiently and effectively. The analysis of
the teacher will lead her if it is necessary to modify her strategies, use another mode of
explanation, diversify tasks, or use alternative ways of teaching.

2. Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is the evaluation at the end of the term, a year, or a
program/course. The teacher will decide if a student is qualified to continue in the next term
or year. The strategy of measuring skills and abilities for summative evaluation is similar to
formative evaluation but with more weight on standardized tests and decisions by a
committee or a group of teachers.

B. Achievements
Systems of evaluation have to cover attainment and achievement. This refers to the achievement
of students in terms of examinations, tests, term papers and other large-scale national or international
examinations such as National Achievement Test (NAT) for elementary and high school, validating
tests, career assessment and board examination. On the international level, the Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) presents international comparisons of mathematics and

34
science achievement. Assessment of this kind may be individual, school or country level. Students,
teachers and even parents desire to see good test results. Achievements of students are also achievements
of their teachers and parents.

This kind of assessment helps the students find employment or open opportunities to enter the
next higher level of their education. On the part of the administration, it is their responsibility to insure
quality, high validity and reliability of the tests. National test results to the standing of a school which is
a school’s mark of excellence. Schools can see how examination results compare with those of other
schools. At the international level, there is an increasing international comparisons of the achievements
of countries in, for example, science and mathematics.

Parents usually use these assessment results in their choice of a school for their children.
However, parents should be aware of the importance of other aspects of quality in schools like quality of
teachers, facilities, curriculum, research, extension, laboratory and administration, all indicators being
used for accreditation of schools.
C. The added value of the school
This learning outcome is an output of the achievement of the school. How far has the school
realized its vision, mission, goals and objectives in terms of how well it has contributed to the intellectual
growth of its students as compared with other schools offering the same courses are the bases for
judgment of the added value of the school.

The whole-institution’s quality and effectiveness measured by examination results, e.g. in higher
educational institutions by board examination results brings added value to the school.

The best way to determine the added value of a school is through a system of testing of all kinds
of competencies and skills of the pupils. Public availability of information about the quality of the school
should be open for accountability especially to the parents who will be guided for school choice of their
children.

D. Learning Skills
Learning is a creative process in which the learner designs his own understandings and skills,
imbibing new knowledge and experience while relating them to previous experiences. Enlightened by all
the skills, knowledge and competencies that they gained either through the teacher or being an
independent learner, he therefore organizes his own portfolio, ready to apply his learning skills either in
work or everyday life.

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 Therefore, it is important for the learner to relate his learning skills from his field of
specialization to his job and to the developments in the wider society. In this way, the learner is not only
shaped by his purposes in the light of societal needs but also on how he could apply his learning skills
necessary for survival in life.
E. Social and Life Skills
Drawing on Gardner’s work on multiple intelligences, Handy (1997) suggests a range of
intelligences and talents which may broaden the range of educational aspirations such as creativity,
cooperation, motivation, and other interpersonal and social skills. These are important life skills that
students increasingly need for adult life. Employees have to be flexible, adaptable and willing to update
their skills and capabilities. Technological developments also affect the scope of skills and capabilities of
students. There is now a need to be able to work closely in teams. Working teams require students to
develop skills in group dynamics, debate, persuasion, organization, leadership and management skills.
Not only should students learn how to work in teams; but also they should learn to work in global
networked virtual teams.
Recognizing that much learning is done in social interactions, it is important for schools to foster
interpersonal and social interactions to apply and work collaboratively as members of a team, to
accomplish tasks with others, to negotiate, to be flexible and open-minded and to handle conflicts when
situations arise.
F. Satisfaction
Stakeholders of the school like parents, students, alumni, community and supporters are usually
consulted through an exit survey, questionnaire, opinionaire, and parental satisfaction survey regarding
their satisfaction in school system in terms of all the aspects of teaching and learning such as teachers,
school climate, facilities, library, campus environment, quality of teaching and others. Their ideas,
comments and suggestions are necessary and have to be used in decision-making. Improvement of
satisfaction is an important achievement of schools.
G. Destination of graduates
Follow-up of graduates is an important feedback mechanism to determine employability of its
graduates. Employability can be defined in terms of “waiting time” or length of time it takes the graduate
to find employment. Another indicator of employability is “job fitness” or does the job fit the program or
course taken? A short period of unemployment and a good fit with the intended field of specialization
are indicators of achievement of students and efficiency/effectiveness of schools and system level.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental documents on evaluation of learning outcomes
 E-Journals/E-Books:

36
  PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Define all keywords and phrases. Cite author/reference when necessary.
2. Using the reading materials as background on evaluation of learning outcomes contained in this
lesson, present a case study focusing on effectiveness of evaluation strategies used in your school.
You may use secondary sources or interview of key informants or both.
2.1 How does your school evaluate the seven (7) possible outcomes of education?
2.2 Are evaluation strategies for some parts more effective than others?
2.3 Are some groups of pupils doing better than others?
2.4 How does the student’s performance compare in different subjects?
2.5 How does the school’s performance compare with its previous achievement?
2.6 How does the school’s performance compare with that of other schools?
3. Give examples of quantitative and qualitative data that can be utilized to evaluate learning
outcomes.
4. Cite at least five (5) problems in your own school arising from evaluation for improvement.

References/Bibliography
Briggs, Ann R.J. “Monitoring and Evaluating Learning” in the Principles and Practice of
Educational Management. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2005.

Cooper, James M., Classroom Teaching Skills, Houghton Miffin Company, 1999.

Dimmock, C. Designing the Learning-Centered School: A Cross-Cultural

Perspective. London: Falmer Press, 2000

Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie J., Principles of instructional Design, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979.

Macbeath, J. and Mortimore P. Improving School Effectiveness. Buckingham: Open University

Press, 2001.

MODULE 3
ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT KNOWLEDGE:
Course, Unit and Lesson Design
LESSON 1
ANALYZING AND ORDERING CONTENT

37
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. plan on how content is introduced to learners and establish its connections between the
lessons;
2. differentiate facts, concepts and generalization;
3. present the contents clearly for the pupils to know their goals; and,
4. have a better understanding of principles governing the order of content.

Keywords and Phrases

 content
 concepts
 ordering content
 facts
 generalizations

INTRODUCTION
The proper organization of content knowledge is very important in student learning. A good
teacher should become familiar with some information about the learner’s background knowledge based
on experiences and those learned from other classes to establish connections to what he hopes to gain
from the new lesson. The selection of the teaching methods vary with the type of students including the
learning activities. Instructional materials should also be appropriate to the students and aligned with
the goals of the lesson.

Subject areas should be systematically organized into sequentially related courses and
subdivided into tasks, units and lessons.

A good design is heavily anchored on the teacher’s strategies, creativity and ability to organize
the course unit and the lesson.

Organization of materials for a course is determined by textbooks or a curriculum/course guide.

As have been discussed earlier in the preceding modules, the teacher needs to consider other factors such
as those related to the learner, the society and the subject matter.

Each student in the class is unique. The teacher should organize the content that would fit the
individual learner’s background and the set of learners in a class, if homogeneous or heterogeneous. This
is a great challenge to the teacher who wants to maximize understanding of lessons presented.

38
A. Analyzing Content
Data processed in the classroom can be classified into three categories: facts, concepts, and
generalizations.

1. Facts - Facts are “types of contents which are singular in occurrence, which have
occurred in the past or exist in the present’. These can be gathered through the direct
observation of an event, such as an experiment in a laboratory or through the retrieval of
information from reliable sources such as dictionaries or encyclopedia”
2. Concepts - Concepts are formulated in every lesson of any subject area. These are formed as
a result of classifying factual data. To form concepts, learners pay attention to likenesses,
ignore differences and place similar objects in the same category.
3. Generalizations – Generalizations are usually formulated from two or more concepts linked
together. Generalizations are formulated based on results obtained from a part or a whole.
Generalizations have a predictive value.
Consider the following example:

Twelve of the sixteen students in MEM 650 class used the Gale Virtual Reference
Library for web resources in doing their written assignments due this week. Ten of the
students used the Gale Virtual Reference Library for web resources in doing their
assignments due two weeks ago. Fifteen of the students used the Gale Virtual Reference
Library for web resources in doing their written assignment due last month.

The concepts here are “web resources” and “written assignments”. Concepts are
names given to categories of resources and assignments.

A generalization that can be inferred from the data based on observation and from
understanding the concepts of “web resources” and “written assignments” may be stated this
way: A majority of the students enrolled in MEM 650 use the Gale Virtual Reference Library
on web resources in doing their written assignments. Because generalizations have
predictive value, we can predict that they will use the Gale Virtual Reference Library in their
next set of written assignments.

B. Ordering Content
David Ausebel, a cognitive psychologist has formulated two (2) of his learning principles
of learning:

39
 1. The single most important factor influencing new learning is what the learner already
knows. These may come from previous knowledge, skills and abilities learned either in the
classroom or real-life situations.
2. Any concept is explainable at many different levels of generality. The highest or most general
level is most easily understood and the lowest or most specialized level is the most difficult.
Furthermore, he cited two (2) principles that may guide the teacher in ordering content.

• Principle One: New learnings are built on prior learnings. This has something to do with the
development of the learner as his body develops, all her systems are also developed, thus, ability
to walk, talk, run, dance, and sing are gradually developed. Similarly, the ability of the learner to
recognize objects, people, colors and things is refined and improved as his sensory perceptions
and other senses are developed.

• Principle Two: “Any stage of learning and understanding builds on previous, more general
levels”. The easiest concept to learn will always be the one at the next level of generality from a
concept already understood. The teacher can determine if the learner can understand better if
she begins from the general to the details or vice versa.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental books on Principles and Methods of Teaching
 E-Journals/E-Books:
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Give two examples each of the following:
1.1 fact
1.2 concept
1.3 generalization
2. Discuss the principles of ordering contents in relation to the subject you are teaching. Give
examples.
3. Look for other theoretical frameworks governing principles of ordering content. Cite author
and references.

References/Bibliography
Cooper, James M. Classroom Teaching Skills, Houghton Miffin Company, 1999.

Dimmock, C. Designing the Learning-Centered School: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. London,

Falmer Press, 2000.

40
 Driscoll, P. Marcy. Psychology of Learning for Instruction 2nd Ed. Allyn & Bacon, 2000.

Gunter, Mary Alice et al. Instruction: A Models Approach. Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon,
1999.

Lardizabal, Amparo S., Bustos, Alicia; Bucu, Luz, Tangco, Maura G. Principles and Methods of
Teaching. Phoenix Publishing House. Inc., 1985

LESSON 2
UNIT PLANNING DESIGN

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. determine the essential elements of a unit design/plan;
2. organize courses/subject areas sequentially;
3. subdivide units and lessons into simpler tasks; and,
4. prepare a unit design/plan in a systematic and interesting manner.
Keywords and Phrases
 unit design/plan
 sequence
 units
 scope
 focus
 lessons

INTRODUCTION
Course guides and textbooks are usually arranged into units that help to define a course of study.
Units are usually centered around a broad concept or a cluster of related concepts. Units provide a
structure or framework for the design of a course or interdisciplinary program.

A. Unit Design
There are three essential aspects to unit design/plan:

Scope refers to the breadth and range of content to be covered. The teacher identifies the salient
contents that are most appropriate to the learners based on prior learnings that are most appropriate to
the learners’ basic needs and abilities. Again the scope is based on the importance of the contents to
society and needs of learners.

41
 Focus determines what will be emphasized in the content. It is impossible to include everything
in a single course. Thus, the teacher should focus on needs and necessary contents to be studied.
Sequence specifies the order in which the content will be arranged. Sequencing depends on the
terms of reference for ordering content either chronologically or by themes (lie) from simple to complex;
developmental process and many more.

B. Design/Planning Procedures

1. The unit.

The first step is to describe and write a brief paragraph about the course or the unit. There is a
need to analyze and evaluate curriculum design and development in the school at a particular level for
application in curriculum preparation for a specific group of students.
2. Brainstorm a list of ideas about a unit. Do the same with all the other units.
The teachers have to list any and all ideas for a unit.

3. Identify a unit title.

From the ideas, formulate a unit title. Usually in the elementary and high school,
unit titles are given in the Minimum Learning Competencies (MCL) for Basic Education
Courses (BEC) for all courses. Similarly, in high school, unit titles are already given.
However, the institution can change the title to adjust to changing needs of the schools.
4. Develop a course outline.
Decide how many units are needed in the course. Determine the order of the units.

42
5. Develop a rationale for a unit.
6. Formulate questions of the Unit.
These are questions that are basic to the unit; what is most fundamental to the focus of
instruction.

7. List all Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)

An intended learning outcome is a statement of what the student is to learn. It may be a
statement about facts, principles, ideas, techniques, values, feelings, capabilities. Another name for ILO
is Learning Objectives.

8. Categorize ILO as skill, knowledge or both.

9. Align ILO with questions and educational objectives.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read supplemental books on
 Unit design/planning
 E-Journals/E-books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
This written assignment will provide you an opportunity to develop progressively a learner’s model and
define a set of educational goals based on task analysis of the knowledge, skills and disposition required
for mastery of a specific curriculum unit.
Directions: Look for a course you plan to teach. Then answer all the questions for steps 1-5.
Step I. Background
1. Who will you teach? Age range? Experience level?
2. What will you teach them? Knowledge? Skills? Dispositions?
3. Why is it important for them to learn what you plan to teach?
4. Where will you teach them? In what department/subject area?
5. When will you teach the lesson? Length? Total time?
Step 2: Resources Available:
1. How much experience do you have in the field that you have selected?
2. How much reading have you done?
3. Are you aware of educational materials that you have already designed before?
Step 3: Describe the profile of your students.
3.1 Describe the learner’s characteristics.
3.1.1 Based on age/maturity and other abilities
3.1.2 Knowledge-Based-Pre-existing knowledge, skills related to the design
3.1.3 Individual Differences
Step 4: Formulate the learning goals/objectives.
Feel free to use whatever format works for your style.
43
 Step 5: Assessment Design
Provide a general description of your assessment approach.

References/Bibliography
Briggs, Ann R.J. “Monitoring and Evaluating Learning” in the Principles and Practice of Educational
Management. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2005.

Dimmock, C. Designing the Learning-Centered School: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. London: Falmer

Press, 2000.

Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie J., Principles of instructional Design, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1979.

Gunter, Mary Grace et al. Instruction: A Models Approach. Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1999.

Macbeath, J. and Mortimore P. Improving School Effectiveness. Buckingham: Open University Press,
2001.

LESSON 3
LESSON DESIGNS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. use the systems approach in the design of lesson plans;
2. appreciate the importance of a lesson plan; and,
3. identify and describe the format of a lesson plan.

Keywords and Phrases

• lesson plan
• units
• systems approach
• output
• lessons
• input
• process

44
INTRODUCTION
A lesson plan is an indispensable tool of a teacher. It helps the teacher accomplish his goals and
achieve intended learning outcomes. The lesson plan sets the limits of the plan. It considers the specific
subject matter, the units and lessons and the grade level of the students.

Lesson Planning
As in any planning process, the systems approach (Input-Process-Output) works well in doing or
preparing lesson plans.

The input variables are the student’s characteristics such as age, grade level, previous knowledge about
the lesson. Teachers also include prerequisites or background knowledge necessary to understand the
lessons. Likewise, the time allotment is necessary to estimate the amount of time it will take to
implement the lesson. The availability of materials and equipment are likewise needed to determine its
acquisition when it is not available. In some cases it is also necessary to determine if formal procedures,
policies and guidelines have to be observed when teaching is complemented with a plant visit, a field trip,
a seminar or a forum.

The process describes the actual plan. It describes what the students will do during the lesson,
all the instructional activities including follow-up activities such as reading and writing assignments,
seatwork exercises and projects. The process includes the assessment procedure to measure the
teaching-learning process.
The output is the description of what the students are supposed to learn.

Importance of Lesson Planning

A lesson plan describes the flow of instruction for a lesson including its prerequisites.
There are many reasons why teachers should prepare lesson plans. It should be organized well
and seriously thought of weeks before its implementation.

45
 A lesson plan contains what a teacher wants the students to learn. It should not only contain
cognitive or knowledge-based goals but the affective and psychomotor goals as well.
Another importance of lesson planning is efficiency and effectiveness. The teacher can limit his
goals and apportion the time he has with the class much more efficient. The teacher can concentrate
better on the specific goals during the prescribed time he wants to spend on a particular activity, lecture
or other activities.
A plan is also important for the teacher to prepare for any eventuality that students ask questions
on a topic. The teacher may not be prepared. The teacher should at least be able to decipher previous
problems or questions students find confusing or difficult to understand, as in statistics or math lessons

Parts of a Lesson Plan

There are many formats of a lesson plan, however, most lesson plans contain some or all of the
following elements:
• TITLE
Each lesson has a title based on the key learning area or focus of discussion.
• TIME
This refers to the amount of time required for each lesson. The time limit is usually
provided based on the required number of minutes or hours per subject.
• SETTING
The setting specifies the location where the lesson will take place to ensure that the
desired learning process will occur.
• OBJECTIVES
This is a list of behavioral objectives stated as learning outcomes. The learning outcomes
are based from the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC) standards or competencies. Objectives
are the most important part of a lesson plan. Objectives fall into three domains: cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.
• PREREQUISITE
This section provides the preliminary activities and pre-knowledge to insure that students
can cope with the lessons. This may contain student’s preparation for the new lesson, the
concepts they should know in advance and some necessary preparations before the actual
lesson/s is/are taken up.
• RESOURCES/MATERIALS
This contains the list of materials, audio-visual aids, supplies, tools, multi-media
equipment, laboratory equipment and hand-outs that are relevant to the implementation of the
lesson.

46
• PROCEDURE
This section outlines the sequence of activities that will be undertaken in the delivery of
the lesson. There are three (3) parts under this section:
• Opening Activity
This is a short activity to get things started and motivate the students to
get involved in the lesson. Certain strategies are story telling, songs, games,
contents or short demonstration.
• Main Activity
The design of the main activity is based on the desired learning outcome. This
may be done through laboratory work, experiments, role playing,
demonstration, worksheet exercises, case studies, gaming simulation, among
others.
The design of the activity should ensure that students are given maximum
opportunities to improve their knowledge and discover new things for
themselves. The teacher facilitates and manages the learning process to ensure
that students learn to the maximum level.
After completion of the activity, the students share what they experience

and all students analyze common experiences. The teacher asks leading

questions to encourage inquiry in relation to their discoveries of the lesson

content. Generalizations are now put forward about the relevance of the lesson

to their everyday life. The teacher can now summarize all the key learning

points using statements, bullet statements, concept maps or diagrams.

• Closing Activity
This provides a wrap-up of the discussion and clarification of unanswered
questions of students. This is also a time to correct misconceptions about what
was discovered and the expected output of the activity. This is also an
opportunity for the students to design their own concept map of the lessons.
Many other strategies to close the lesson may be created by the students
themselves driven by the personal choice of the teacher and students and the
subject being studied.
• ASSESSMENT

47
 This is a short evaluation to determine how well the students have
attained the learning objectives. It should also indicate the behavior called
for in the objectives. The teacher may use a quiz to measure their level of
understanding.
• FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES
These are other activities used to reinforce and extend the lesson outside of
the classroom. This includes homework, assignments and projects.
• REFERENCES
This part lists down relevant materials and resources used for the ideas
and contents of the lesson

Readings ASSIGNMENT
• Read supplemental books on Principles and Methods of Teaching
 Links: Read more about Lesson Plans at the following websites:
 http://ericir.syr.edu
 http://www.teach-nology.com/teachers/methods
 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Prepare a Lesson plan using the outline suggested in the module. You may choose any
topic in your own field of specialization.

References/Bibliography
Briggs, Ann R.J. “Monitoring and Evaluating Learning” in the Principles and Practice of Educational
Management. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2005.

Dimmock, C. Designing the Learning-Centered School: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. London: Falmer

Press, 2000.

Gunter, Mary Grace et al. Instruction: A Models Approach. Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1999.

Lardizabal, Amparo S., Bustos, Alicia et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Phoenix Publishing
House, 1985.

Macbeath, J. and Mortimore P. Improving School Effectiveness. Buckingham: Open University Press,
2001.

48
MODULE 4
MATCHING OBJECTIVES TO INSTRUCTION: A
Models Approach
LESSON 1
THE DIRECT INSTRUCTION MODEL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define and use Direct Instruction (DI) as an effective tool and device in teaching and learning;
2. comprehend and appreciate DI as the most basic of all teaching models which are applicable in
all forms of educative processes and fora; and,
3. discuss the six (6) steps or processes in the DI model.

Keywords and Phrases

• behavior
• feedback
• demonstration
• instruction modeling
• operant conditioning
• reinforcement
• stimuli

INTRODUCTION
According to Blair (1998), students achieve at a higher level in their work if they are directly
taught by their teachers. In the Direct Instruction (DI) model, the teacher assumes the major
responsibility for the lesson’s progress and practice flexibility by adapting the class activities and lessons
to their students’ age and abilities. The teacher explains, demonstrates and monitors progress of
students.

A. Characteristics of the Direct Instruction Model

A. It is a teacher-centered model. Main characteristics are:

1. The teacher is the authority figure in the classroom;

2. Emphasis Is on using the lecture technique-questioning;
3. There is a strong emphasis on “drill-and-practice”;
4. Students are essentially told what they need to learn and how they should learn it; and,
5. It emphasizes both guided and independent practice.

B. The emphasis is on mastery of subject matter

49
 1. Questioning emphasizes many low level (cognitive) questions – with the emphasis on
students providing primarily correct answers.
2. Rapid pace is emphasized; and,
3. Teacher checks for understanding frequently. If students do not give correct answers, the
teacher re-teaches the material.

B. Aspects of Planning and Organization in Direct Instruction

1. Brief placement tests are given for each curriculum to ensure that each child begins with
lessons for which he/she is prepared.
2. Instruction is organized in a logical and developmental sequence.
3. Each lesson consists of short exercises from direct strands.
4. Gradually, instruction moves in a way from a more teacher-guided to a more student-guided
format.
5. Short proficiency tests are used about every ten (10) lessons to ensure that all students have
mastered the material and to determine which skills need enhancement.

C. Steps in the Direct Instruction Model

1. Review Previously Learned Materials

The teacher does the following:

• reviews the prerequisite information needed by students prior to the beginning

of the instruction on the topic for the day
• provides a basis for the lesson for the day and focuses the attention of the
students on the task at hand

50
 Note: Research shows that effective teachers spend an average of 5 minutes reviewing
information prior to starting a new lesson.

Basic Skills, Facts and Knowledge that a teacher must possess:

• Checking of homework (routines for students to check each other’s papers)

• Reteaching when necessary
• Reviewing relevant past learning (may include questioning)
• Review prerequisite skills (if applicable)

2. State Objectives for the Lesson

The teacher does the following:

• states clearly what will be learned from the lesson

• enumerates what the teacher expects the students to accomplish or be able to do
Note: Research has shown that effective teachers clearly explain to students what is
expected from them prior to beginning of instruction

Basic Skills, Facts and Knowledge that a teacher must:

• Provide shorts statement of objectives.

• Provide overview and structuring.
• Proceed in small steps but at a rapid pace
• Intersperse questioning within the demonstration to check for understanding.
• Highlight main points.
• Provide sufficient illustrations and concrete examples.
• Provide demonstrations and models.
• When necessary, give detailed and redundant instructions and examples

3. Present New Materials

The teacher does the following:

• presents the information to be learned

• continues in small steps, stopping at the end of each step to ask low level
cognitive questions (checking for understanding)

51
 • proceeds at a rapid pace such that emphasis is on covering a lot of materials in
the time allocated
Note: Research has shown that low level questions are most effective with at risk
students.

Basic Skills, Facts and Knowledge that a teacher must do:

• Organizing content – the content to be learned must be selected and then analyzed according to
the learners’ needs.
• Lectures – often an essential part of the classroom instruction and one way in which new
material is delivered to students.
• Demonstrations – visual examples work particularly well in the presentation stage of this model.
• Student practice takes place with teacher guidance.
• High frequency of questions and overt student practice (from teacher and/or materials).
• Questions are directly relevant to the new content or skill.
• Teacher checks for understanding by evaluating student responses, then teacher gives additional
explanation, processes feedback or repeats explanation – where necessary.
• All students have a chance to respond and receive feedback; teacher ensures that all students
participate.
• Prompts are provided during guided practice (where appropriate).
• Initial student practice is sufficient so that students can work independently.
• Guided practice continues until students are firm.
• Guided practice is continued until a success rate of 80% is achieved.

4. Guided Practice with Corrective Feedback

The teacher does the following:

• leads students through an activity with students paying close attention to every
step.
• emphasizes each step.
• makes sure the students understand each step involved before proceeding.
Basic Skills, Facts and Knowledge that a teacher must practice:

• Questioning – the most common form of guided practice by the teacher to check for
understanding.

52
 • Correcting error.
• Quick, firm and correct responses can be followed by a question or a short acknowledgment
of correctness(“that’s right”).
• Correct answers might be followed by process feedback (i.e. “yes, , that’s right because…).
• Student errors indicate a need for more practice.
• Monitor students for systemic errors.
• Try to obtain a substantive response to each question.
• Corrections can include sustaining feedback (i.e. simplifying the question, giving clues,
explaining or reviewing steps, giving process feedback, or reteaching the last step).
• Try to elicit an improved response when the first one is incorrect.
• Guided practice and corrections continue until the teacher feels that the group can meet the
objectives of the lesson.
• Individual praise is more effective than general praise.
5. Assign Independent Practice with Corrective Feedback
The teacher does the following:

• Teacher assigns activity that allows students to practices the new materials
learned.
• Teacher moves throughout the room, monitoring student progress and providing
feedback.
Note: Occurs after students have mastered the guided practice step

Basic Skills, Facts and Knowledge that a teacher must exercise

• Sufficient practice.
• Practice is directly relevant to skills/content taught.
• Practice until responses are firm, quick and automatic.
• Ninety-five percent correct rate during independent practice.
• Students alerted that seatwork will be checked.
• Student held accountable for seatwork.
• Teachers actively supervise students, when possible.
6. Review Periodically with Corrective Feedback if Necessary
The teacher does the following:

• Reviews the lesson taught for the day, emphasizing major points learned.
53
 • Asks a series of questions about the lesson to check for understanding.
Note: Research has shown that the effective teacher spends an average of 5-10 minutes at
the end of the lesson in closure activity.

Basic Skills, Facts and Knowledge that a teacher must apply

• Systematic review of previously learned materials.

• Include review in homework.
• Frequent tests.
• Reteaching of material missed in tests.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 E-Journals/E-Books:
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
4. React on the following issues in the use of Direct Instruction Model.

4.1 the Direct Instruction model will soon disappear and may actually have a negative

impact on students

4.2 Teachers are often criticized for “lie servicing” at the expense of exploring student’s

potential

4.3 Teaching using the DI impedes ability of students to grow, explore and discover

References/Bibliography
Adams, G.L., & Engelmann, S. Research on Direct Instruction: 25 years beyond DISTAR. Seattle, WA:
Educational Achievement Systems, 1996.

Caldwell, J. Huitt, W. Huitt & French, V. Research based classroom modifications for improving student
engaged time, 1981.

Driscoll, P. Marcy. Psychology of Learning for Instruction 2nd Ed. Allyn & Bacon, 2000.

Engelmann and Canine. Theory of Instruction, 1991.

Kame Enui and Simmons. Designing Instructional Strategies, 1990.

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LESSON 2
THE CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. demonstrate of Concept Attainment model of teaching and learning, its purpose and advantages;
and,
2. discuss the steps to be followed in using this model.

Keywords and Phrases

• concept attainment
• independent learning
• critical thinking
• concept definition
• creative thinking
• attributes

INTRODUCTION
The Concept Attainment Model is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structured
inquiry process. The Model is based on the research of Jerome Bruner, Jacqueline Goodnow and George
Austin.
In concept attainment, students brainstorm on the characteristics and attributes of a group.
Then, they compare and separate the attributes that do not conform with the characteristics of a group.
The Model, engages the students to clarify ideas and on content thereby using the creative and
critical thinking. Students are challenged throughout the activity. They become skilled in identifying
differences and making comparisons.

Steps in Concept Attainment Model

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1. Select and define a concept.
a. Choose concepts that have clear attributes and those that have been defined by
characteristics that distinguish them clearly from other concepts.
b. Recognize the relationships between these concepts.
c. Write a definition that is most appropriate for the lesson and use it to help you
select examples.
2. Select the attributes
a. List the essential attributes of the concept.
3. Develop positive and negative examples.
1. Create as many examples as possible.
2. Remember – positive examples must contain all of the essential attributes.
3. Negative examples should have some but not all of the essential attributes and
should be designed to help the students rule out possibilities for essential attributes.
4. Introduce the process to the students.
a. Explain the goal: the students must “define the concept by identifying what is
essential to the meaning” in their own words.
b. Write two column headings on the chalkboard: “Positive Attributes” and
“Negative Attributes.”
c. Explain that the students are to generate the lists themselves using examples
that you will give them.
5. Present the examples and list the attributes.
a. Begin with a positive example. Write on the board every students suggestion of
a positive attribute.
b. Continue to give both positive and negative examples.
c. Use the negative examples to help the students recognize nonessential features
of the concept and cross them off from the list of positive attributes as they
discover them.
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 6. Develop a concept definition.
a. Have the students create a definition of their own using all of the essential
attributes that they have listed on the board.
b. Be patient as this takes time.
7. Give additional examples.
a. Give the students a few more positive and negative examples to see if they
can identify which are positive and negative
b. Have the students give their own examples and then explain why they are
positive.
8. Discuss the process with the class. This step is used to ensure that the students know
how they determine the definition and to help them think about their own thinking
processes.
9. Evaluate
a. Write the definition from memory, determine positive and negative examples
from a given group and create their own examples of the concept.
b. Review the concept periodically.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links: Teacher Resources on Concept Attainment as a Teaching Method
 E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. For this teaching Model to work well, the teacher should ensure that the initial samples given to
the students are the clearest ones possible. Cite an example of a lesson in your field of
specialization and discuss how you will use the Concept Attainment Model. Use all the steps
given to present your lesson design.
2. Give your critique of the Concept Attainment Model in terms of your experience as a teacher. If
you are not a teacher, will you use it as a teaching method? Why or Why not?

References/Bibliography
Cooper, James M. Classroom Teaching Skills, Houghton Miffin Company, 1999.
Dimmock, C. Designing the Learning-Centered School: A Cross-Cultural
Perspective. London, Falmer Press, 2000.
Driscoll, P. Marcy. Psychology of Learning for Instruction 2nd Ed. Allyn & Bacon 2000.

57
 Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie J. Principles of instructional Design, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston. 1979.
Gunter, Mary Grace et al. Instruction: A Models Approach. Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon,
1999.
Website Resources:
web.center.edu/edu/student_pages?spear/concept attainment.htm
teachable.org:16080/papers/1998_site_concept_Attain.htm

MODULE 5
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING
LESSON 1
PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define concept development using both abstract and concrete ideas;
2. acquire knowledge on the use and advantages of using the concept development model;
3. analyze relationships between parts of a concept; and,
4. synthesize the steps and procedures in using the concept development model as a method of
teaching.

Keywords and Phrases

• concept
• listing
• concept development
• labeling
• grouping
• regrouping
• generalizations
• synthesizing

INTRODUCTION
In the Concept Attainment Model, instruction was focused on how concepts are learned. The
teacher leads the students and he chooses the examples from which the concept emerges. In a module,
the ideas, classifications and reasons for grouping come from the students.

58
 In the Concept Development Model, the process of how concepts are extended and refined is
emphasized. Concepts present from the learner’s prior understanding is important. It seeks to
categorize and generalize ideas. Thus, instruction builds on prior knowledge and their adding to and
modifying the information and understanding that learners have in their minds. In this Model, students
form groups or concepts of related items and then try to explain with a generalization about how one or
more of the groups relate to each other.
Hilda Taba (1902 – 1967) used this strategy to develop students’ knowledge of concrete objects,
different from how concepts are defined based on abstract ideas. Concept development is a strategy that
refines the concepts whether ideas are abstract or concrete. The Model is helpful to both teachers and
students. The teachers would be able to develop natural thought processes among the students.
Students are given the opportunity to think more effectively and allow them to become independent,
capable and critical thinkers.

What is Concept Development?

Concepts are the basic units of any mental activity. They may be groups or classes of objects,
events or ideas. Concepts may be concrete or abstract (visual). To be able to come out with a concept,
one should be able to recognize the set of characteristics shared by members of a class or category.

The Concept Development Model provides students with an opportunity to link ideas and
establish relationships between data and information. This method of teaching can help students use
their ability to recall concepts and identify key ideas, to identify common attributes and establish
relationships towards concept development and formulation of generalizations. Students are given
options to explain how they have organized the ideas and to justify their organization of the ideas
derived from the analysis.

Purpose of the Concept Development model

In this instructional method, students are provided with data about a particular concept. These
data maybe generated by the teacher or by the students themselves. More often, the students themselves
provide the data. Students are directed to group the information and to describe the groupings. By
linking the examples to the groups and by explaining their reasoning, the students form their own
understanding of the concept.
In the Concept Development Model, students are provided with opportunities to participate and
share ideas actively in their own learning environment. Likewise, the higher order thinking process
involved helps them create new and expanded meaning of ideas and information as they put together
these ideas and manipulate them in creative and modalities.

59
1. List as many items associated with the subject as possible.
In this step, students are asked to list down items associated with a subject. This data may be
drawn from their own experiences or from materials that have been studied in the classroom.

This step is similar to brainstorming. It is important to have a comprehensive list from which
student generalizations can be formulated, because generalizations have far more validity when they are
based on a variety of data. The teacher encourages the students to continue listing, there are no right or
wrong answers.

Brainstorming is the fast, noncritical, noncensored listing of any and all ideas or associations on a
given topic. Students list everything they can think of that what they think is connected with the
particular subject. It may be accepted by everybody and the idea is simply, meaningful to the student
who suggested the inclusion of the idea.

The participation by all students is encouraged. To encourage the fullest possible participation,
the teacher should involve all students. They will find it easier to respond at this stage.

2. Group the items because they are alike in some ways.

When a considerable listing of items have been done, the next step is to determine which of the
items can be grouped together because students find similarities. In this step, students begin to use their

60
thinking skills in examining the relationships among the items. The teacher tries to elicit responses
where several grouping can be made.

3. Label the groups by defining the reasons for grouping.

In this step, students give labels or titles to the groups. The coding or labeling depends on the
age and background of the group and the lessons being discussed.

It is important at this stage to ask students to explain the reasons for their choices. Even if the
reasons for grouping are known to the teacher or to the class, students should articulate their reasons. If
they explain the labels or titles they gave a particular group of items, it will force them to articulate and
defend their reasoning processes. Frequently, they express relationships they have sensed but have not
explained fully.

The teacher’s role in this method is basically that of a recorder and facilitator. The teacher may
ask what other students think, but the students need to feel that their judgments are valued by the
teacher and the rest of the class. The students’ skills in drawing inferences and in making generalizations
are developed because they themselves formulate the generalization. The students should question each
other and decide among themselves.

4. Regroup or subsume individual items.

This step tries to generate items found in one group that can also be placed in another group.
Reasoning and clarification take place that would obviously challenge the thinking of the students.

5. Synthesize the information by summarizing.

In this step, the teacher asks the students to look at the entire picture, the groupings and the
labels. From there, the teacher asks the students to make a general statement.

Teachers have to give students some examples of generalizations from where they can base
their own generalizations.

6. Evaluate students’ progress by assessing their ability.

The teacher may use several ways of assessing students’ progress. Also, the growth in the
students’ mental processes is usually reflected not only in the individual performance of the students but
also in the performance of the class as a whole.

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Benefits of using the Concept Development model
1. Extrapolation and refining knowledge. The original purpose of the model is to extend and
refine students’ understanding. The macro level of any concept can be gauged in terms of the
students’ own personal experiences, recognizing their limitations and sharing their
knowledge increases their grasp of the complexities of perception and opens us to additional
points of view. Perhaps because the model mirrors the students’ own thinking processes, it
also seems to perform many other crucial tasks in the classroom.
2. Generating original ideas. Once the students have performed the model four or five times
in a group, they are able to perform it on their own. It is an effective tool for generating
original ideas. Whatever subject one must analyze may be approached by listing or
brainstorming, grouping, labeling, and generalizing. Concept mapping can also be used,
which involves writing the topic in the center of a page and grouping the items as they are
written.
3. Reading and extracting meaning. Examining a crucial concept in any discipline before
studying it further brings increased understanding.
4. Writing unified paragraphs and papers. The concept development model is an effective
tool for teaching English Grammar texts.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links:
 Concept Formation at
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/edcur200/methods/con_form.htm
 Concept Formation or Concept Development Model by Hilda Taba at
http://www.unf.edu/~jbosnick/jb/3324concfor.pdf#search=’hilda%20taba%20strategies’
 Inductive Thinking by Hilda Taba at
http://www.coe.ufl.edu/webtech/grGreatIdeas/pages/peoplepage/taba.htm
 Professional Teaching Streategies by Dr. Caroll at
http://www.lcsc.edu/education/secondary/courses/OnCampusCourses/ed454/Lessons/O
nCampus07Chapter6%20.pdf#search=’model%20hilda%20taba’
 What is Concept Development?
http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/formation/index.htm.
 E-Journals/E-Books:
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Give five (5) examples of Concept Development ideas for lessons of teachers.Example: Have your
students classify different countries based on educational data—levels of education, number of
years of schooling, population by institutions (public/private), national examinations, number of
schools (public/private), etc.

62
 2. Apply the six steps in using the Concept Development Model in a lesson of your choice in a field
of interest of your specialization.
3. Compare Concept Attainment Model with Concept Development Model.

References/Bibliography
Bernstein, Douglas A., et. al. Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston Dallas Geneva, Illionois
Palo Alto Princeton, 1988.

Cooper, James M. Classroom Teaching Skills, Houghton Miffin Company, 1999.

Costa, Arthur L. and Lovell, Ricahrd A. The Legacy of Hilda Taba. Journal of Curriculum and
Supervision, Vol. 18, No. 1. Fall 2002.

Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie J., Principles of Iinstructional Design, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979.

Gunter, Mary Alice, et. al., Instruction: A Model Approach, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.

Joyce, Bruce R. et. al. Models of Teaching, A Simon & Schuster Company, Needleham Heights,
Mass., 02194. 1996.

Microsoft Encarta Premium Suite., 2005.

Orlich, Donald C. et. al., Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction, Hougton Miffin
Company, 1998.

Rubin, Aick and McNeil, Elton B. The Psychology of Being Human, 3rd Edition, New York Harper
and Row, Publishers, 1981.

LESSON 2
Teaching Problem-Solving through Such man
Inquiry Model

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss the steps in the Suchman Inquiry Model; and,
2. apply the teaching model through discovery and questioning strategies.

Keywords and Phrases

• inquiry learning
• discovery heuristic
• problem-solving

63
 • data-gathering
• theory verification
• inquiry process
• generalizations

INTRODUCTION
The critical thinking of the students are developed and harnessed through problem-solving methods. Any
problem-solving process starts with a recognition of an existing problem and the willingness to find solutions to
the problem. Specific steps and procedures are being followed and it needs the cooperative efforts of both teacher
and students to arrive at satisfactory solution to the problem.
The Inquiry Model to be described here is based on the work of Richard Suchman. It uses the steps in
scientific inquiry to solve problems.

Steps in the Suchman Inquiry Model

1. Selecting the problem and doing research.

Any problem may have one or more solutions. Once a problem has been identified and
presented, the teacher initiates the necessary research on the selected problem. The teacher plans and
prepares the necessary materials like data sheets when information and data are recorded. The teacher
elicits from the students data and other information when students find difficulty in solving the problem.

2. Introduce the process and present the problem.

The teacher orients the class on rules to be observed during the process. The teacher serves
as the facilitator and insures that the whole class can join in the discussion. The teacher provides
information and answers student’s inquiry through a “Yes” or “No” response only. Thus, all questions to
be asked by the students must be constructed based on this rule. The teacher implements the process
but the result should come from the students.

3. Gather data needed.

As the process continues, the information and data should be recorded either on the board or
on metacards posted on the board for students to see. The students are encouraged to group themselves

64
to be able to frame questions. The teacher emphasizes that this is a group activity and the outcome
should come from the participation of all members of the group.

4. Develop a theory and verify.

As soon as a student suggests a theory, the whole class reacts on the suggested theory. The
teacher accepts other theories that may be posed by other students. Students could no longer ask
question/s outside of the theory. The class reacts to a theory one at a time.

5. State the rules and explain the theory.

The theory being discussed should be finalized. If found inadequate, the next proposed
theory should be verified. The teacher explains the effects of the theory and its value or application to
other situations.

6. Analyze the process.

This is the time for the teacher to discuss the inquiry model to the class and determine how
to improve the process. The class should be able to realize that the model once internalized can be used
in other situations and in other subjects.

7. Evaluation.
The teacher assesses students’ understanding by giving a test. Emphasis should be on being
able to make generalizations. On the process side, group interaction, asking questions and using the
scientific process should be emphasized.

Benefits of using the Such man Inquiry Model

This model uses the scientific method therefore a systematic approach for presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data leads to search for solutions of problems in real life.
They may try a number of strategies to solve a problem. We should remember that not all
solutions to problems are found in books. Most real problems are not easy to solve. But in using this
model, the students realize that although there are many unresolved real life problems, they are still open
for discussion.
Bruner (1991) described four benefits derived in using this model:
1. An increase in intellectual potency
It was hypothesized that in the discovery process, the learner’s high-level thinking skills and
critical thinking are challenged. The learners connect previously learned theories, and previously
experienced tasks to new information and in so doing, aids the students in being able to persistently
stick to a problem until it is satisfactorily resolved.
2. The shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards
Traditionally, extrinsic rewards are in the form of praise, high grades and other forms. In this
model, it is more than the extrinsic rewards one gets. It is the great satisfaction (intrinsic) that one gets
from the process of solving problems.

65
 3. Learning the art of discovery through critical thinking
The inquiry model provides a stimulating process of solving problems, using thinking skills,
discovery and critical thinking. Through continuous use of the model, students will be exposed to the
process and active participation will help the learner gain confidence in being involved in the process of
inquiry.
4. It is a technique for remembering information
Through exposures to different ideas, memory processing is being harnessed. The mind is
being used in the processing of data, information and ideas. Critical and thinking skills are also utilized,
thus techniques for remembering information are discovered.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Read web sources on the Suchman Model
 E-Journals/E-Books:

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Develop a lesson in a subject of your choice using the Suchman Inquiry Model.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the Suchman Inquiry Model?

References/Bibliography
Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie J. Principles of instructional Design, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
1979.

Gunter, Mary Alice, et. al. Instruction: A Model Approach, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.

Joyce, Bruce R. et. al. Models of Teaching, A Simon & Schuster Company, Needleham Heights, Mass.
02194, 1996.

Sternberg, Robert, “Teaching Critical Thinking, Part I & II”. Russel Sage Publications, 1985.

Suchman, R. “Training Program in Scientific Inquiry”, University of Illinois Press, 1982.

LESSON 3
Problem-based Learning

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. enhance your understanding or content knowledge about problem-based learning;
2. develop communication skills, problem-solving and self-directed learning skills; and,
66
 3. enhance skills in social and cognitive competencies, group dynamics, and problem solving.

Keywords and Phrases

• problem-based learning
• PBL cycle
• student-centered
• problem-solving
• group dynamics
• inquiry-based learning
• cognitive effects

INTRODUCTION
Medical schools have been using problem-based learning as an approach to teaching. A
systematic review of the effects of problem-based learning in medical schools on the performance of
doctors after graduation showed clearly positive effects on physician competence.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogic approach typically organizing the class into groups
of learners with the teacher acting as facilitator. Another name for Problem-Based Learning is Inquiry-
Based Learning.

Finkle and Torp (1995) stated that “problem-based learning” is a curriculum development and
instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem-solving strategies and disciplinary
knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an
ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems”.

Problem-based Learning is a student-centered instructional strategy where students solve

problems collaboratively using their own experiences. Because it is a group work, each student takes
responsibility for their group with the guidance of the teacher.

Characteristics of PBL are:

• Students work in teams or groups.
• Learners are exposed to challenging series of problems provided by the teacher.
• Learners generate hypotheses, and organize the group work.
• Teacher’s role is to guide or facilitate learning rather than provide knowledge (Barrow, 2006).
• It is learning that results from working with problems.
• It is an instructional strategy in which students confront contextualized problems and strive to
seek meaningful solutions.

67
 PBL enhances self-directed learning skills (Schmidt, 1993). He stated that this is based on several
theories in cognitive theory. Teachers present students with a problem set, then student teams analyze
the problem, research, discuss, analyze and form tentative explanations, solutions and recommendations.

Schmidt explained some cognitive effects of PBL:

1. Students analyze the problem, recall prior knowledge and contribute to small-group discussion.
2. Students recall prior knowledge and process new information.
3. There is a restructuring of knowledge and construction of a semantic information
4. There is a stimulation of analysis and interpretation of ideas relevant to the problem
5. Learning in context or application to real-life situations is done

Steps in Problem-Based Learning Model

1. Presentation of the problem statement.

Usually, the teacher divides the class into groups. Five members in each group is ideal. The
teacher presents a problem or scenario to the students. The groups identify the issues they believe the
problem presents. The groups divide the tasks to resolve the issues. Students gather necessary
information to learn new concepts or principles as they engage themselves in the problem-solving
process.

2. List what is known.

The group list down what they know about the problem. They put together data and
information about the situation and their prior knowledge about the problem.

3. Develop a problem statement.

The problem statement is developed by the students. This is a refinement of the scenario after
they infuse new information relevant to the situation.

68
4. List what is needed.
With a problem-statement on hand, students find information to determine differences between
current situation and what is needed to reach the solution to the problem. Students need ample library
resources to find additional information to fill in missing gaps.

5. List possible hypotheses actions, solutions, recommendations

Students formulate hypothesis/es, list down actions to be taken, present the solutions and
recommendations.

6. Present and support the solution.

The teacher may require the students to report orally or in writing, their findings and
recommendations. The suggested format should include the problem statement, data gathered, analysis
of data and recommendations.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links: http://www.ndel.edu/pbl/nd~pbl/undergraduate.html
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningtree/PBL/whatisPBL.html
 E-Journals/E-Books:
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. What challenges are brought by PBL to teachers who serve as facilitators in terms of roles and
procedures?
2. Present findings of a research on the effectiveness of PBL.
3. What are some problems in implementing PBL on the part of the
a. Student?
b. teacher?

References/Bibliography
Bridges, Edwin M. Problem-Based Learning for Administrators. (ERIC Clearinghouse on
Educational Management), University of Oregon, 1992.

Cooper, James M., Classroom Teaching Skills, Houghton Miffin Company, 1999.

Joyce, Bruce R. et. al. Models of Teaching, A Simon & Schuster Company, Needleham Heights,
Mass. 02194, 1996.

Orlich, Donald C. et. al., Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction, Hougton Miffin
Company, 1998.

69
 Wilkerson, LuAnn and Wim H. Gijselaers. “Bringing Problem-based Learning to Higher
Education, New Directions for Teaching and Learning”. Jossey- Bass: San
Francisco, 1996.

MODULE 6
CLASSROOM DISCUSSION MODELS
LESSON 1
CAUSE AND EFFECT MODEL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. explain the cause and effect model and its importance as a pedagogic strategy
2. imbibe the guidelines in recognizing cause and effect relationships
3. use the different steps of the Cause and Effect Model in classroom situations

Keywords and Phrases

• cause and effect
• evaluation model
• analytical thinkers
• conclusions
• generalizations
• prior causes
• subsequent effects

INTRODUCTION
Lessons in the social sciences, science and almost all fields of study look for reasons why things
happen. Understanding the cause/effect relationship is essential in teaching and learning signal words,
like because, so… and teaching how to look for the different kinds of cause/effect relationships are used to
show order, inform, speculate, and change behavior. This model uses the process of identifying potential
causes of a problem or issue following specific steps and procedures.

The Cause Effect relationship as a classroom discussion model is both a way of thinking and a
method of evaluation. Teachers who utilize the cause-and-effect model are helping students learn to
think critically and analyze situation scientifically. Children see Cause Effect relationships everyday,

70
whether they are recognized or not. In fact, teachers of today are applying the concept of “actions have
consequences” to help students become more analytical thinkers and scientists.

The following steps will guide you in using the Concept Development Model. The teacher
initiates the activity and facilitates students learning as they work cooperatively towards attaining tasks
and work.

Steps in the Cause and Effect Model

1. Choose the data.

The teacher may ask the class to examine a situation in a subject (science, history, short story,
research in education) to be analyzed. This may be an event, a conflict, a condition, an action, a result,
etc.

2. Ask for causes and support.

The teacher starts to elicit as many reasons or causes as possible that bring about the situation.
All possible causes should come from the students. Students must justify their answers.

3. Ask for effects.

This time, ask for effects. The teacher elicits as many effects as possible. Again, students must

justify their answers.

4. Ask for prior causes.

Looking back at the list of causes given in number 2, explore prior causes or reasons. Students
must justify their answers.

5. Ask for subsequent effects.

Look back also at the list of effects. Try to elicit subsequent effects. Students must justify their
answers.

71
6. Ask for conclusions.
This is the most difficult step because this is an inference about the situation under study. The
teacher must give examples of conclusions for students to use as models. The teacher should be very
encouraging to be able to bring out the best conclusion/s from the students.

7. Ask for generalizations.

Generalizations are applications of the conclusions in general terms. If conclusions are derived
from a sample, it should find applications to all. Again, the teacher can give examples of generalizations
to give the proper direction to the students.

8. Evaluate student’s performance.

This step is optional, but feedback either through discussions and tests done individually or
group is necessary.

“Cause and Effect” Evaluation in Education

Research in education using descriptive design may involve “cause and effect relationship”. Here
is an example of an application in education.

1. Data - Low achievement of students in Mathematics

2. Causes - Possible causes are: teacher factor, lack of books, curriculum, seating arrangement,
teaching strategy, etc.
3. Prior causes – Possible prior causes are: mental ability, gender, anxiety or fear in math, economic
status etc.
4. Effects – Students cannot understand lessons that lead to low ratings/scores in tests in math.
5. Subsequent effects – Students failure to pass the subject
6. Conclusion – Many factors cause low achievement of students in mathematics.
7. Generalization – Low achievement in math is caused by teacher and students factors.
8. Evaluates student performance - Conduct research to determine the extent to which the
different factors contribute to students’ low achievement in mathematics.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : coe.jmu.edu.curriculum/teaching-instruction.html
(angnagearts.pppst.com/cause-effect.html)
www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr376.html
 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
A. Write a paragraph on the following topics to show cause and effect relationship
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 1. Teacher’s Morale and Leadership Style of Principal
2. Teacher’s Performance Rating and Faculty Welfare.
3. Student’s Achievement and Faculty’s Educational Qualification
4. Curriculum and Student Performance
5. Staff’s Efficiency and Quality Service

References/Bibliography
Costa, Arthur L. and Lovell, Ricahrd A. The Legacy of Hilda Taba. Journal of Curriculum and
Supervision, Vol. 18, No. 1. Fall 2002.

Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie J., Principles of Instructional Design, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston. 1979

Gunter, Mary Alices, Estes, Thomas, Schwab, Jan, Instruction: A Model

Approach, Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. 1999

Rubin, Aick and McNeil, Elton B. The Psychology of Being Human, 3rd Edition, Harper and Row,
Publishers, New York. 1981.

Wilkerson, LuAnn and Wim H. Gijselaers. “Bringing Problem-based Learning to Higher

Education, New Directions for Teaching and Learning”. Jossey- Bass: San
Francisco. 1996.

LESSON 2
Teaching Problem-Solving through Such man
Inquiry Model THE CLASSROOM DISCUSSION MODEL:
Formulation of Generalizations through
Acquisition, Analysis and Interpretation

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. fully understand the importance of the Classroom Discussion Model through its characteristics,
techniques and uses; and
2. apply the model in actual classroom situations.

Keywords and Phrases

• factual questions
• interpretative questions

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 • evaluative questions
• doubt
• basic questions
• real doubt
• cluster questions

INTRODUCTION
Gone are the traditional ways of teaching where the usual practice is for the mentor to stand in
front of the class and lectures for the extent of the period. Research has proven that the traditional
method fosters but a superficial knowledge and cannot beat an interactive program between and among
the teacher and the students to inculcate knowledge, learning and skills. On this, the Classroom
Discussion Model stands out with an above-average effect size.
Classroom discussion is motivating and pleasing even to the least participating student. It is fun
and encouraging yet it is not that easy to organize and implement. As always, the key is whole-hearted
preparation on the content, procedure and summative evaluation.
Foremost to the preparation on the subject matter, the teacher must know the scope and breadth
of what is going to be discussed. She must anticipate every probable issue that may come up and all
questions that may be interposed. Otherwise, she may be left tongue-tied without an opinion or
comment to an inquisitive student. It is seldom that a student would rise up and speak his mind out
without really being pertinent. For these eventualities, the teacher must be ready to respond and turn
the situation into an opportunity to point out what is relevant without discouraging the passive student.
Second, the teacher must be equipped with sufficient managerial skills in the classroom to
prevent negative issues and differences during the discussion. Opinions definitely will be respected as
long as they are given courteously and not aggressively imposed. Thus, the teacher must also prepare the
mechanics on when and on how a student can share an insight or ask a question. She must also know
how to tow the line and stop a wayward student.
Lastly, the teacher must sum up the ideas that were brought up during the discussion. She
ultimately becomes the final arbiter who gives directions to the students on which idea to cherish or
whose idea to follow.
The classroom discussion beats the lead on boring lectures. If implemented properly, it can bring
about the learning of knowledge and skills that are inculcated more in the minds and the hearts of the
students.

Steps in the Classroom Discussion Model

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1. Read the material and prepare the questions.

The teacher provides the materials for the lessons and the students are given ample time to read
the material and prepare questions which may be factual, interpretative or evaluative. Students should
be advised to read and re-read the materials.

2. Plan and cluster the question.

The students identify a basic question from where several interpretative questions may arise.
These are called cluster questions. Basic questions may be answered in many different ways. It refers to
a basic issue from where sub-issues may be derived. The teacher should stimulate all the students to
participate in the discussion.

3. Introduce the model to the students.

The teacher should explain the “what’s” and the “why’s” of doing things. The teacher should elicit
the expectations of the students on what to learn, what they expect to know and the skills they will
acquire from the discussion.

Good thinking occurs when students have the chance to express their ideas, to hear the ideas of
their classmates and to react to them. Emphasize to the students that the major purpose of the classroom
discussion is to help them learn to think for themselves and have intellectual interaction with their
classmates.

Students should be encouraged to ask questions and the discussion should always be informal
and free. They should feel at home with one another.

4. Conduct the discussion.

The teacher as the facilitator has the responsibility to open and lead the discussion; direct the
continuous flow or progress of the discussion; lead the students whose opinions are not relevant to the

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issue; reconcile or resolve with the class different points of view and summarize the discussion. Thus,
the role of the teacher as the facilitator is very challenging and needs effort to continuously initiate the
sequence of the classroom discussion.

5. Review the discussion and summarize the students’ observation.

A good discussion as a technique for the classroom and its usage as a tool for implementing the
democratic process in the classroom should be the goal of this model. Whatever activities or strategies
are used, the essential purpose of the discussion is to get the desired understanding through an analysis
and evaluation of the facts. Along this line, the teacher and the students review the discussion and the
students’ observations are summarized.

6. Evaluate the discussion.

The teacher validates the understanding of the students. If there is a necessity to reteach, the
teacher should patiently do it. The teacher provides closure to the lesson through actions, statements
that will bring the lesson to an appropriate conclusion.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links :
 home.swbell.net/barbfaye/SWT/Classroom Discussion
Model
 www.clt.astate.edu/gmeeks/3033/PPT/Discuss.ppt

 E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Give at least ten (10) motivational strategies in using the Classroom Discussion Model.
2. List down at least ten (10) guidelines when implementing effective classroom discussion

References/Bibliography
Burden, Paul & Byrd David. Methods of Effective Teaching, 3rd Edition Boston, Pearson
Education, Inc., 2003.

Gregorio. Principles and Methods of Teaching, Revised Edition, 1976.

Lardizabal, Amparo, Bustos, Alicia et. al. Principles and Methods of Teaching, 3rd Edition. 1991.

Orlich, Donald C., A Guide to Effective Instruction, 7th Edition. Boston:

Houghton Mifflin. 2004.

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 Rubin, Aick and McNeil, Elton B. The Psychology of Being Human, 3rd Edition New York, Harper
and Row, Publishers, 1981.

Journal Article “Classroom Discussion Model for Web Boards,” posted by: Barbara Allbright, Ph.D, May
28, 2003.

MODULE 7
Cooperative Learning Models
LESSON 1
OVERVIEW OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. determine the significance of cooperative learning models as they affect the interest of
students;
2. discuss the five (5) elements of cooperative learning;
3. describe the principles of using cooperative learning as a teaching strategy;
4. analyze the pointers in using cooperative learning in the classroom; and,
5. promote student learning and academic achievement through the use of group work and
other cooperative learning processes.

Keywords and Phrases

• cooperative learning
• positive interdependence
• group skills
• collaborative learning
• group processes
• face-to-face interaction
• interpersonal skills
• collaborative skills

INTRODUCTION
This module contains discussions and data on using Cooperative Learning Models approach, in
which group processes are utilized for maximum students’ participation and achievement.

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 Cooperative Learning is a form of collaborative learning. In collaborative learning, students form
a team and work together in small groups on a given activity. Each member of the group is accountable
for his/her individual work and the work of the group is evaluated as a whole.
Groups using the cooperative learning approach are guided by clear objectives that guide them in
engaging in various activities that improve their understanding of the subject.

Elements of Cooperative Learning

1. Positive Interdependence - Group members experience positive interdependence. Efforts from
each of the group members are needed to succeed in any undertaking. Each member is assigned a
particular task to collectively realize the goal. Joint efforts are required as each member
contributes as they follow one direction. Each group member needs each other for explanations,
support, clarifications, and guidance, to accomplish the goal, otherwise, the group fails in
reaching the desired goal.
2. Face-to-face Interaction – Each member of the group is an active participant in the face-to-face
interaction and not a passive recipient. Since it is expected that the learning process is creative,
members of the group orally explain how to solve problems and they share ideas and one’s
knowledge to the group for possible solutions. The teacher guides them on how to connect prior
learning to present situations, which are the new concepts being learned. Coaching from the
teacher commences when the group starts the dialogue and interaction about the topic. The
teacher works as facilitator that provides the resources of learning on students working in
groups. He also helps in managing differences of each member of the group. The teacher
promotes success by encouraging, praising, supporting and assisting the students. The teacher is
in control over the course of activities.
3. Individual and Group Accountability - Cooperative learning is apprenticeship for real-life
problem-solving. Thus, the contribution of each member refines and enlarges what they know,
introducing additional new knowledge as they present, justify and debate solutions. The
accountability of the group and responsibilities of each member engage the learner in proactive
ways and highest participation is gained through interaction. Members are expected to work
towards achieving these goals set by the group under the supervision of the teacher. There
should be a division of labor with member contributing on the basis of expertise, exposure and
skills. Decisions and behavior should be guided by certain rules rather than by personal
initiative. The learner knowing his individual accountability develops himself creatively and
with enlightenment, sensitive to the needs of the group.

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 It should be emphasized that accountability refers not only to the degree to which the
group is fulfilling the expectations in terms of results but also to the process of securing
interaction and involvement to obtain decisions.
4. Interpersonal and Small Group Skills – An individual enjoys belonging to a certain group
working as a team or a group provides excitement although struggles may occur. However,
eventually, they can cope up with differences among the members of the group. Opportunities
for interaction are many, interpersonal and small-group skills such as leadership, decision-
making, trust-building, communication skills and conflict-management skills are developed.
Members of the group can share strengths and develop weak group skills and interpersonal
skills.
It is expected that a leader will emanate to be a “starter” and the rest as members of the cast. The
leader has the task of successfully managing tensions and ambiguities without causing conflicts.
The team should operate within a climate of trust. Trust building is a basis of a sound peer
relationship or even teacher-student relationship guided by moral and ethical values which is
always present in the assessment of one member by another. It is assumed that decisions are
made through a rational process

Group processing – The fifth essential element of cooperative learning is group processing. There are
two (2) levels of processing: as a small group and as a whole class. The teacher allocates time for each
level. In the small group processing, members become aware if they are performing well whether ideas
and activities contributed to group goals; it also gives them opportunity to retain and improve members’
actions and ideas. The processing is specific rather than general. At the end of each group processing,
the teacher conducts a whole class processing session by sharing with the class the results of his
observations

Cooperative Learning as a Teaching Strategy

Cooperative learning provides opportunities for students to work together and collectively as a
team towards accomplishing a given set of objectives. As stated previously, cooperative learning provides
opportunities for enhancement of collaborative, social and group interaction skills.

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 Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy where the teacher group students into small teams.
The teacher utilizes heterogeneous grouping in terms of ability. The purpose is for the higher ability
students to influence the slow learners in understanding concepts and in enhancing their knowledge,
skills and abilities on the subject matter. Each member shares and develops deeper understanding until
the entire group completes the task or activities assigned to the team. Here are the specific steps to be
followed in using cooperative learning in teaching:

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : college.cengage.com/education/pbl/tc/coop/html
Faculty.petra.ac.id/anitalie/LTM/cooperative_learning.html
www.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/filder/public/student-centered.html
 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Name and explain briefly ten (10) potential benefits of using cooperative learning in the
classroom.
2. Write at least five (5) disadvantages of using cooperative learning.
3. Here are some parental criticisms of cooperative learning:
• The program slows down my child.

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 • I don’t like the school experimenting with my child.
• My child is getting lower grades.
• I don’t believe in cooperation. Competition is better.
• It is a waste of time. Students play.
• My child does all the work in the group. It’s unfair.
• My son is excluded in the group. They don’t like him.
• My son does not like group work.
As a department head or a principal how will you educate or remove the anxiety of the
parents?

References/Bibliography
Antil, L., J. Jenkins, S. Wayne, and P. Vadasy. “Cooperative Learning: Prevalence,
Conceptualizations, and the Relationship Between Research and Practice.” American
Educational Research Journal, 1997.

Cohen, G. Desigining Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogenous Classroom. New York:
Teachers College Press, 1986.

Radencich, M. and L. McKay (eds.). Flexible Grouping for Literacy in the

Elementary Grades. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1995.

Thousand, J. Villa, A. Nevin A. “Creativity and Collaborative Learning”, Brookes Press,

Baltimore, 1994.

Verduin, J.R., Jr. Helping Students Develop Problem Solving and Investigative Skills in
Cooperative Settings. Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas, 1996.

Weber, E. Student Assessment that Works: A Practical Approach.

Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon. 1999.

Weber, E. Roundatble Learning: Building Understanding Through Enhanced Strategies.

Tuscon, AZ: Zephyr Press, 1997.

LESSON 2
COOPERATIVE LEARNING MODELS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

81
 1. become acquainted with different cooperative learning models; and,
2. compare characteristics and management of different cooperative learning models.

Keywords and Phrases

• jigsaw
• scripted cooperation
• role playing

INTRODUCTION
There are cooperative learning techniques that use similar procedures but with different levels of
emphasis and development of the five elements that define true cooperative learning groups. Let us
examine a few of the popular cooperative learning techniques.

A. The Jigsaw Model

The Jigsaw Model was first developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson. As in a puzzle, each student
idea is important for the completion of the group’s output. Since each member’s part is important then
each member is important to the group. This technique emphasizes higher positive interdependence.
Each student is given a part of the materials to be studied by the group. Students share assigned topics
and teach one another.

Steps in using the Jigsaw Model

Step 1. Introduce the jigsaw.

The teachers provide the materials to read and understand. Each class is divided into study
groups. Usually a group is composed of 4 to 5 members and each member will be given a topic for
learning.

Step 2. Form study teams.

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 The teacher divides the students into study teams. A leader is then appointed for each team. The
leader is the highest achiever based on performance and other capabilities shown. The members select a
group name and guidelines to be followed are announced during group meetings.

Step 3. Select expert groups to study materials.

After reading the materials, each group is given a topic to learn making sure that the students
have direct access only to their own topic. An expert group may be formed by having one student from
each jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same topic. The group is given ample time for the
discussion of the main points and to rehearse the presentation they will present.

Step 4. Experts teach their study teams.

The students will be brought back to their jigsaw groups after mastering their topics. Each
student is asked to present his/her topic to the group. The members of the group are encouraged to ask
questions for clarification. If there are disruptions, the group leader is assigned to handle situations and
ensure that the discussion flows smoothly.

Step 5. Evaluate and provide team recognition.

At the end of the session, the teacher evaluates and checks for understanding through a written
examination. Encouragement, praise and high grades are given to students who score high in the test.

B. Role Playing Model

Role playing is where a student is asked to perform a role which is not his own. This model
allows the students to work with other students regarding certain behavioral reactions to a given
situations.

Steps in using Role Playing

Step 1. Choose an interesting situation.

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 Role playing model is best utilized in social and ethical issues. Examples are situations in the
government where students are asked to react to certain situations.
Step 2. Formation of groups.
Heterogenous grouping is advisable in the group formation. This will avoid misunderstanding
and conflict.
Step 3. Tasking.
A team leader is assigned to take lead in the group undertaking. All the members of the group
work together for the presentation.
Step 4. Groups prepare the task and select the players.
The players should be identified and the characters to be played should be described. The leader
leads in the script design for the presentation.
Step 5 – Assign tasks to the other members of the group.
Other members who are not given roles to play are asked to observe and are expected to
participate in the discussion after the activity.
Step 6. Groups present their role play.
The teacher sets a time limit for the presentation. After the presentations, the teacher may or
may not lead in the discussion.
Step 7. Role playing discussion by group.
After all the groups have made their presentation, they return to their groups and discuss among
themselves how their presentations relate to the presentation of the other groups. The leaders are
expected to prepare a brief summary of the issues discussed and share them with the class.
Step 8. Class discussion.
Group leaders shall present a brief summary of the group’s discussion. The whole class may
discuss if the role players acted the parts assigned to them as expected.
Step 9. Evaluation.
Evaluation forms may be distributed to the students to assess their experiences and evaluate the
effectiveness of the role playing.

C. Scripted Cooperation
This is a form of collaborative learning where students work in pairs. The Pair work
collaboratively on a task assigned. The method may be used in any subject such as reading a selection,
solving math problems or discovering or testing science concepts. The partners work together to make
comparisons, to solve problems, note omissions or errors, and continue making refinements or
improvements until they finish the task or the assignment.

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Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : http://www.aera.net/pubs/aeri/abs/aeri3533.htm

 E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
React to the following situations when using the Cooperative Learning Models:

1. Students with learning disabilities have difficulties understanding concepts.

2. Students with learning disabilities might face social rejection.
3. Learning is slow.
4. Learning is not competitive.
5. The key to learning in groups is the quality of the discourse among the students.

References/Bibliography
Antil, L., J. Jenkins, S. Wayne, and P. Vadasy. “Cooperative Learning: Prevalence,
Conceptualizations, and the Relationship Between Research and Practice.” American
Educational Research Journal, 1997.

Cohen, G. Desigining Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogenous Classroom. New York:
Teachers College Press,1986.

Hoy, W. and Miskel, C. Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice, 8th edition,
2008.

Radencich, M. and L. McKay (eds.). Flexible Grouping for Literacy in the

Elementary Grades. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1995.

Thousand, J. Villa, A. Nevin A. “Creativity and Collaborative Learning”, Brookes Press,

Baltimore, 1994.

Verduin, J.R., Jr. Helping Students Develop Problem Solving and Investigative Skills in
Cooperative Settings. Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas, 1996.

Weber, E. Student Assessment that Works: A Practical Approach.

Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1999.

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MODULE 8
TECHNOLOGY-BASED
LEARNING MODELS
LESSON 1
OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY-BASED LEARNING

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Gain a better understanding of the concept and state of technology-based learning (TBL);
2. Describe the benefits that are associated with providing learning via technology;
3. To discuss the challenges in using TBL.

Keywords and Phrases

• technology-based learning (TBL)
• chatrooms
• electronic technology
• webcasts
• internet
• CD-ROM
• intranet
• bulletin boards
• online learning
• audio and video conferences
• web-based learning
• e-learning

INTRODUCTION
Technology-based learning models in education are transforming the way teaching and learning
is being carried out in the classroom. This is brought about by rapid acceleration of technological growth
and the demand that this growth places on education.

Technology-based learning (TBL) constitutes learning of contents through the use of electronic
technology such as internet, intranets, audio and video conferencing, satellite, broadcasts, bulletin
boards, chatrooms, webcasts, virtual classroom and CD-ROM. It facilitates high and efficient

86
performance by encouraging new instructional techniques and allowing electronic access to any data or
information from any location. Some related models are online learning, e-learning and web-based
learning which include learning that occurs via the Internet and computer-based learning through the
use of computer.
There are many advantages of TBL. It encourages more accessibility to learning because learning
is not bounded by time and space. More learners can be accommodated unlike in traditional classrooms
where minimum and maximum number of students are specified.
However, there are also issues and challenges in using TBL. These and more will be tackled in
this module.

Benefits and Challenges

TBL has many benefits in education. First, its accessibility has no bounds in terms of
geographical location and reachability to as many as possible in terms of educational training and
education. This could not be achieved in face-to-face interaction. Different learning and teaching modes
could be employed since the process of learning is without bounds.

However, as with all applications using technology, several challenges have to be met. There are
still some schools and training institutions who do not have access to technology due to lack of
electricity, infrastructure and equipment.

Benefits of TBL
In comparison to face-to-face learning, the benefits of TBL are the following:

• Accessibility anytime and anywhere

• Instruction is matched to students’ needs.
• Timely course updates
• Relevant materials and resources are available on the net.
• Reduce anxiety.
• Global context of learning
• Motivational use of technology
• Scalability
• Effective learning delivery
• Accessibility anytime and anywhere
In some cases, students may enroll in a course anytime and anywhere. However, some schools
follow the same schedule as in the traditional method but the delivery of instruction is the same.
Students do their learning requirements at any time of the day or night. This type of learning is suited for

87
working adults and parents whose work schedules are not in consonance with the time a particular
course is offered. Some students are workers who cannot leave their jobs to further their education.

Technology-based learning widens geographic reach for participants and makes education
accessible to those with transportation barriers. For example, PUP School of Distance Education has a
TBL program for Master in Construction Management students based in the Middle East. It is an
entirely online delivery course through the use of Module system of teaching and learning.

• Instruction is matched to students’ needs

TBL courses can be delivered in such a way that they allow learners to move at their own pace.
This is also through with the PUP School of Open Learning which uses a self-paced learning, where
students can move on to the next module after a test with a certain percentage or score requirement.

• Timely course updates

TBL courses delivered online can be developed and updated whenever the need arises and
whenever current data are available. It therefore reduces the cost of replacing outdated course materials.
For example, the contents of the modules in the Open University System may be updated from time to
time as needed.

• Relevant materials and resources are available on the net.

Student exploration of relevant materials and resources is a reform approach to instruction and is
a feature of TBL. Learners construct their own knowledge of the course contents through links or
resources on the net which are relevant to the topic being discussed. Modules in all subjects at the Open
University suggest links to students, materials of which are relevant to the topic at hand.

• Reduce anxiety.
Students using TBL can move at an appropriate pace in a nonthreatening environment,
developing a solid foundation of basic skills rather than a calendar-based progression often creating
anxiety.

• Global context of learning

The rapid growth and development in a knowledge based economy seems to double or even more
increase the quantity of available knowledge. These changes educational scenarios and systems more
quickly and in a wider scope. It therefore opens new opportunities for students to expand their learning
in a global context.

• Motivational use of technology

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 The potential reach and use of the new technology in education seems almost without limits.
The use of technology enhances the student’s ability to acquire, utilize knowledge, and think
independently to exercise appropriate judgment and collaborate with others to make sense of new
situations.

• Scalability
In the traditional mode, to scale up a program and increase enrolment, the class size is increased
or the program is repeatedly done at different times or locations. TBL programs, on the other hand can
increase enrolment at no or little extra cost and with relatively little additional effort. No classrooms are
needed and it allows management of teaching and learning for larger number of students.

Miller (1994) reports that educational institutions state the following benefits in using
technology.

• Reduced learning time. Many studies indicated that interactive technologies reduce learning
time requirements. This could be attributed to many factors such as (a) self-paced instruction
encourages students to take the most efficient path to content mastery—skipping areas of
existing strength while investing more time in areas of weakness; (b) the combination of visual
presentation with audio explanation delivers information in an easily understood format; (c)
immediate interaction and feedback provides constant, highly-effective reinforcement of
concepts and content; and (d) personalized instruction accommodates different learning styles
to maximize student learning efficiency.
• Reduced cost. The primary costs of interactive instruction lie in design and in production, not
replication, distribution, and delivery. Thus, the cost per student is reduced as more students
use the same program. [with traditional instructional methods, the costs of instruction lie
primarily in the delivery (i.e. teacher salaries, overhead) and remain constant or even increase as
more students place demands on fixed resources. A typical, cost-per-student break-even point
for interactive instruction might occur when from 100 to 200 students are using a program.
• Instructional consistency. Technology-based instructional systems do not have bad days or tire
at the end of a long day. Instruction is delivered in a consistently reliable fashion that does not
vary from class to class or school to school.

• Privacy. With one-on-one systems, students are free to ask questions and explore areas that
might cause embarrassment in group situations. Because instructional systems never lose

89
 patience, they encourage learners to persist in asking questions and reviewing materials until real
mastery is achieved or natural curiosity is appeased.
• Mastery learning. Unlike a normal classroom situation, the interactive system will not move on
to new material until current material is mastered. This ensures continuum whereby that
students have strong foundations for continued learning.
• Increased retention. The process of interaction with materials being studied provide strong
learning reinforcement that significantly increases content retention over time.
• Increased safety. With interactive systems students can explore potentially dangerous subjects
without risk. These dangers might be in academic areas (chemistry explosions, burns) or social
areas (drugs, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy).
• Reduced behavior problems. Interactive systems focus attention and increase individual
involvement, thereby reducing the potential or misbehavior.
• Increased motivation. Interactive systems provide a level of responsive feedback and individual
involvement that has proven to be highly motivating in both individual and classroom learning
environments.
• Increased access. Interactive systems can provide greater and more equal access to quality
instruction. Systems can deliver peripheral subjects in schools where student populations are
insufficient to support full time teachers for such subjects or where qualified teachers are
otherwise unavailable. Further, interactive systems can be used to simulate laboratory
equipment that would be too expensive to actually acquire.

Challenges of TBL
Despite many benefits of using educational technologies, TBL is not without challenges.

Bell, Reddy and Rainie (2004) reported the following challenges:

• Digital Divide
• Attrition Rates
• Access for the Disabled
• Technology Compatibility
• Lack of Monitoring
• Development Costs
• Lack of Credibility
• Digital Divide

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 The digital divide where a significant portion of the population still does not have access to
computers or to the Internet will affect the implementation of TBL. Expectedly, internet use is zero or
lowest for the unemployed, low-income group, uneducated and adults. There is also a need to address
digital divide that results in difference between what can be delivered by some teachers and cannot be
delivered by other teachers teaching the same subject. It may also be a difference between what we can
deliver to those in campus versus off-campus. We need strategies to reduce the implication of these
differences. With the help of the government, it is hoped that digital divide will be lessened as more and
more infrastructures on telecommunication are built in rural places in the Philippines and better
instructional materials are prepared.

• Attrition Rates
Records indicate that drop-out rate among students in TBL is far-higher than in face-to-face
learning. Some of the reasons indicated are: students are taking wrong courses; TBL implementation of
schools are not implemented well; students lack the technical skills needed and students lack efforts to
fulfill requirements.

• Access for the Disabled

When individuals with disabilities are admitted to TBL courses, the institution should be able to
provide technology that will assist the needs of the disabled. This implies design-standards that will
help students with vision or audio impairments so they can read and hear computer-based texts and
collaboration.

• Technology Compatibility
There is a need to interface the contents with a variety of learning management systems (LMS).
Once the content of the program changes brought about by revision, addition or deletion, the LMS must
also be recreated.

• Lack of Monitoring
Learners do not maximize their effort when they perceive that they are not being monitored.
This could be remedied if schools will require deadlines for requirements or they contribute ideas on
group discussion boards.

• Development Costs
There is high investment in technology. Some schools prepare the best infrastructure and
multimedia technology to implement TBL courses and course materials are being prepared only to realize
that very few students enroll in the courses.

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 • Lack of Credibility
Admittedly, TBL programs have not attained the same high credibility of traditional degree
programs. Even industries, companies and institutions prefer graduates from traditional institutions.
There is still a stigma of poor quality and susceptibility to cheating in TBL courses than the classroom-
based teaching and learning.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : http://www.teach-nology.com/teachers/methods/
http://www.unescobkk.org/education/ict/online-resources
 E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the role of TBL in diminishing barriers in education, such as barriers of time and
distance.
2. Discuss the use of TBL in addressing the diversity and special needs of learners.
3. Explain the ethical, legal and moral implications of using technology in schools.

References/Bibliography
Aldrich, C. Six Criteria of an Educational Simulation. Learning Circuits, 2004.

Kindley, R. Scenario-based e-Learning. Learning Circuits, 2002.

Marquardt, M. Kearseley. Technology-based Learning: Maximizing Human Performance and Corporate

Success. Boca Raton: St. Lucie Press, 1999.

Meyer, K. Quality in Distance Education. ERIC Digest, 2003.

Weber, E. Student Assessment that Works: A Practical Approach. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1999.

LESSON 2
METHODOLOGIES AND TOOLS FOR TBL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Become familiar with methods and tools as well as delivery modes used in providing
technology-based learning programs;

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 2. Compare TBL methods and delivery modes with traditional approaches;
3. Develop attitudes and strategies for remaining current on developments in educational
technology; integrate technology in the teaching-learning process; and
4. Discuss the integrated blended learning model in education.

Keywords and Phrases

• tutorials
• web-conferencing
• delivery modes
• online forum
• hardware
• listservs
• software tools
• virtual classrooms
• simulations
• blogs
• gaming
• learning management system
• synchronous
• integrated learning system
• asynchronous
• learner-centric
• content-centric
• goal-based scenarios
• blended learning

INTRODUCTION
Technology is transforming education in myriad of ways. Teachers do not have the necessary
training in the use of information technologies that poses a problem in the implementation of TBL
courses. Teachers should possess competencies in using computers, understanding systems and
technology utilization skills such as selecting technology, applying technology and teaching others new
skills.

What Teachers Should Know About Technology

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 • Operating System - teachers should be able to use Windows to organize files, manipulate files
on the school’s network, install software and customize programs and shortcuts. They need to
be able to manage their files so that they do not feel helpless.
• Word Processing Skill – Teachers should be able to format reports they ask their students to
produce. Beyond that they should also be able to produce attractive class materials such as
handouts and notes.
• Presentation Skills – Teachers should be able to use a program such as powerpoint to present
course contents and lessons in class.
• Desktop Publishing Skills – Teachers should be able to create publications with text boxes, clip
art, word art and borders.
• Instructional software – Teachers should frequently use technology provided they have
appropriate goal-specific software.
• Information Literacy Skills – Teachers should be able to collect information and resources on-
line. Students should be encouraged to use the Internet for research and making use of
secondary resources.
• Modification of Instructional Delivery – Teachers should use the technology that most effectively
engages students and meet curricular goals. They should obtain resources and exchange ideas
online with other teachers.
• Assessment of Student Performance – Teachers should use a variety of assessments, including
electronic projects and portfolios, to keep track of learning progress. Teachers should also be
able to use technology to assess and modify teaching. The records of assignments and
examinations can be kept in a database.
• Professional Growth and Collaboration – Teachers should use the Internet to grow
professionally. They can take classes on line or collaborate with teachers. There are many
opportunities for information collaboration like chats, e-groups, discussion boards, e-mails and
virtual rooms.

METHODS AND TOOLS

TBL uses a variety of delivery methods, hardware and software tools to implement or deliver
course contents, manage the program and monitor student’s progress. It also uses technology for learner-
to-learner and learner-to-teacher communication. The following delivery methods and tools used in TBL
are described below:

• Tutorials – These are self-paced courses delivered online or from a CD-ROM. It may contain
video or audio and may include assessment methods such as written assignments and quizzes.

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• Learning Management Systems (LMS) – This is a package that enrolls or registers students;
delivers course contents to students; reports on students’ progress; shows assessment results;
manages needs of students, instructors and administrators
• Integrated Learning Systems (ILS) – This includes hardware, curricula, lessons and course
contents. This is more focused on record keeping, report writing and students’ records.
• Gaming – This involves more complex simulations with formal rules in which players engage in
artificial conflict with variable and quantifiable outcomes and both games play the learning
objectives, 2) a narrative which provides cues, context and relevance for the activities, and 3) a
simulation which represents the learning space necessary to support the activities and narrative.
(Definition adapted from the Advanced Distributed Learning, 2005)
• Goal-based Scenarios – There are simulations in which students are given major roles to
accomplish a task. The students need to acquire specific skills and knowledge before
accomplishing the assigned tasks.
• Web Conferencing – This is participating in meetings in a virtual classroom. Course contents
are usually displayed in a website which is either in audio and video format. Interaction among
students is done with a facilitator. Other more advanced web conferencing do live chats and
interaction among participants coming from different places.
In the PUP Open University System, web conferencing is being done for pure online
courses with students based abroad.

• Online Forums – These are also called newsgroups, e-groups, discussion group or bulletin
boards. Students have to visit regularly the e-group website or online location to check the
postings, messages, discussions either with classmates or teachers. A moderator, usually the
teacher or an assigned expert facilitator moderates the forum discussion.
• Simulation – This allows the learner to model or role play an educational scenario.
• Blogs – These are web-based learning journals which are part of a larger personal, department or
institutional website. Contributors are allowed to post contributions like reactions, replies or
ideas.
• Electronic Mailing Lists – Each member in the mailing list is allowed to send messages to other
members in the same list. Messages and postings are delivered to e-mail/boxes.
• Virtual Collaborative Space or Wikis - This is a virtual classroom where members can post or
store documents, references which may be continuously edited and improved on a collaborative
work effort.
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Delivery Modes for TBL
1. Synchronous and Asynchronous Delivery Modes
• Synchronous learning delivery is done when the teacher and the students meet in offline
or online sessions, in person or via Internet, or phone link. In TBL setting, teleconferencing,
video conferencing or lectures broadcasting are examples of synchronous learning set-ups. In
most set-ups, the video image of the teacher is seen by the student.
In the OUS, an open source called Module System is being used and is considered a
synchronous learning delivery.

• Asynchronous applications are web-based and computer-based courses that learners use
at their own pace. Other examples are e-mails or discussions via bulletin boards where the
teacher posts assignments, readings, links, video and audio-content and then students’
performance and progress are being monitored. In asynchronous TBL, a student can start a
course when they feel they are ready and advance in their own time preference, limit or ability.
2. Delivery Modes Grouped According to Focus of Instruction
• Teacher – Centered
In using TBL, the teacher-centered mode employs synchronous applications
with the lecturer or teacher as the center. This implies that pre-recorded lectures or
narrated tutorials are delivered online. The students view or listen to the lectures.
• Content-Centered
In a TBL environment, the content-centered mode employs a learning system
that runs from a CD-ROM or from a web-based system and is accessed through the
internet. Examples of content-centered TBL in the OUS are online courses offered in the
School of Open Learning on certain topics such as labor laws, project management,
feasibility studies, paradigm shift etc. Readily available content-centered TBL are those
provided by SmartForce.
• Learner-Centered
In a learner-centered mode of delivery, the learner is free to decide and achieve
his objective based on his own interests and needs as a learner. A learner-centered mode
is considered better than a teacher-centered or content-centered mode of delivery,
maintaining that students learn best under an atmosphere of open learning environment
where they build their own knowledge and actively participate and construct their own
understanding of the topic/s.
3. Blended Learning

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 This is also known as “integrated learning”. It’s a mixed mode of delivery that combines
the elements of online and face-to-face learning delivery. It also employs a variety of learning
tools that bring the best of synchronous offline lectures with some online activities. Blended
learning is an “old wine in a new bottle” as most institutions are already combining classroom
with online content for some time. Successful models of blended learning maximize the use of
various methods, tools and mode of delivery of teaching and learning.

4. Computer-Based Instruction (CBI)

Computer Based Instruction (CBI) is defined as the use of the computer in the delivery of
instruction. Other similar terms include Computer Based Training (CBT), Computer Assisted
Instruction (CAI), and Computer Assisted Learning (CAL). CBI is the oldest form of computer
use in education; when most people think of computer applications in education, they think of
CBI first.
• Common Categories of CBI
• Drill and practice
• Tutorial
• Simulation
• Instructional game
• Problem-Solving
• Others
• Drill and Practice
The exercises are designed to increase fluency in a new skill or body of knowledge or to
refresh an existing skill or body of knowledge. This approach assumes that the learners
have previously been introduced to the content. This is traditionally associated with basic
mathematics and language skill practice.
In science education, it can be used to help students with such topics as: scientific
notation, terminology, parts of a microscope, classification, balancing equations,
nomenclature, etc. It is also good for basic skills/knowledge where rapid student response
is desired. It is best to use in a series of brief sessions and is mainly intended for use by
individuals. All exercises should be geared to a level appropriate for the students.
• Tutorial
This is a form of CBI in which the computer assumes the role of tutor –
introducing content, providing practice, and assessing learning. Tutorials are used to introduce

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 new content to learners in the same manner that a teacher does. Because tutorials present
content to students, they can be used in any area of the sciences for:
- Remediation when learners lack necessary background knowledge.
- Enrichment when learners wish to go beyond the basic.
- Introduction of content to all learners (freeing the instructor to do other things) It is also
good for verbal and conceptual learning. Tutorials may require significant investment of
students’ time. It also be effectively used by individuals or groups of 2-3 students. Tutorials
should be followed by opportunities for student application of knowledge.
• Simulation
This is a form of CBI that provides a simplified representation of real situation,
phenomenon, or process. It provides the opportunity for students to apply knowledge in a
realistic format but without the time, expense, or risk associated with the real thing. Some of the
best ways to use CBI in the sciences; simulation makes good use of what the computer does well.
Examples from science education include: Drosophila genetics, chemical reactions, physics of
moving objects, etc. It is also best used for application of knowledge, problem solving and
thinking skills. The time involvement may be brief or extended depending on the simulation. It
is also good for small groups of students, although can be used by individuals. Often, it requires
guidance and follow-up for effective use.
• Instructional Game
Usually another type of CBI (e.g., drill and practice or simulation) modified to include
gaming elements. The general features are an end goal and rules of play. It has a sensory appeal
and motivational elements (e.g., competition, cooperation, challenge, fantasy). Examples of this
type of CBI are found in education. Usually, they are aimed at younger learners such as those in
the elementary grades.
• Problem Solving
This is a CBI program that is designed to foster thinking of problem solving skills, but
does not fit into one of the other categories. It usually focuses on a specific type of problem
solving and provides practice on a number or variety of problems. Problem solving applications
have emerged in science education. Examples include topics such as: motion of bodies in
physics, chemical reactions, and biological topics such as genetics.

Advantages and Limitations of CBI

The following are the advantages:

• Interactive
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 • Provides immediate feedback
• Motivates learners
• Provides consistency in presentation
• Can adjust difficulty to level of learner
• Able to branch to provide appropriate content presentation to the learner
• Can present concepts or processes dynamically and using multiple forms of representation
• Can maintain records of student performance
• Frees the instructor to do other things
The following are some limitations:

• Equipment and software can be costly.

• Development takes time and money.
• Not all learning outcomes are well addressed by CBI.
• Unsophisticated applications may not make good use of the computer.
• Simple CBI has limited modalities (but multimedia is changing that).
Development Tools for CBI

- Programming Languages
• Pascal, C, BASIC, etc.
• Powerful and flexible
• Usually relatively inexpensive
• Difficulty to learn and to use
- Authoring Systems
• Authorware Professional, IconAuthor, TenCORE, Quest, etc.
• Relatively easy to learn and use
• Powerful for some applications, but limited for others
• Expensive
- Multimedia/Hypermedia tools
• HyperCard, HyperStudio, Toolbook, Linkway Live, Director, Visual BASIC
• Relatively easy to learn and use
• Relatively powerful and flexible
• Moderately priced

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Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : unesdoc.unesco.org/images/00130001356/135607epdf
http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1736

 E-Journals/E-Books
 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Submit a reaction paper on the output of the e-research given as a reading assignment.
2. List down possible problems to be encountered in the use of TBL in terms of:
2.1 Technology
2.2 Policy/Legislation and Funding
2.3 Teaching
2.4 Learning-Technology Applications
2.5 Teacher/Administrator Training

References/Bibliography
Conley, David T. “Some Emerging Trends in School Restructuring.” ERIC Digest, 1992

Advanced Distributed Learning. Gaming, 2005

http://www.adInet.org/technologies/gaming/

Marquarett, M. and Kearsley, G. Technology-Based Learning. Maximizing

Human Performance and Corporate Success. Boca Raton: St. Lucie Pres, 1999

Thousand, J. Villa, A. Nevin A. “Creativity and Collaborative Learning”, Baltimore Brookes Press,
1994.

Verduin, J.R., Jr. Helping Students Develop Problem Solving and Investigative Skills in
Cooperative Settings. Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas, 1996

MODULE 9
INTEGRATIVE EDUCATION MODEL
LESSON 1
INTEGRATIVE EDUCATION MODEL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

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 1. discuss the vital components of Integrative Education Model; and,
2. discuss the applicability of the model.

Keywords and Phrases

• Integrative education
• responsive learning environment
• relaxation systems
• encoding techniques
• empowering language
• intuition

INTRODUCTION
The Integrative Education Model is a new teaching strategy for gifted children. The scenario is
more of teacher and support different from the traditional education structures and limits. Barbara Clark
(1999) conceptualized this model after exploring current brain research implications and theories for
education of the gifted.

Key Components of Integrative Education Model

Barbara Clark identified seven (7) key components of the model. She suggested applications of the model
to areas such as physics, psychology and the neurosciences.

1. A Responsive Learning Environment. Teachers and parents are required to develop new and
supportive attitudes towards learning. Participation, necessary to learning, is encouraged to
insure the assimilation of concepts. While the responsive learning environment has a
different format for each group of learners, some basic characteristics are as follows:
• There is an open, respectful, and cooperative relationship among teachers, students,
and parents. They work together in planning, implementing, and evaluating the
learning experiences of the students.
• The environment is much like a laboratory or workshop. Strategies include
experimentation and involvement of students. Access to many learning activities
and materials is available.
• The curriculum is flexible and integrative. The needs and interests of the students
provide the base from which the curriculum is revised and developed.
• There is a minimum of total group lessons. There is an existing curriculum, with
most instruction occurring in small groups or between individuals. Groups can be
formed by teachers or students and activities are centered on needs or interest.

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 • The student is an active participant in the learning process. Movement, decision-
making, self-directed learning, invention, and inquiry are encouraged both inside and
outside the classroom. Students may work alone, with a partner, or in groups. Peer
teaching is important.
• Assessment, contracting, and evaluation are all used as tools to determine
performance and growth of students. Meetings and conferences are regularly held to
keep student, teacher, and parents informed of progress and provide guidance for
future planning.
• Cognitive, affective, physical, and intuitive activities are all valued parts of the
classroom experience.
• There is an atmosphere of trust, acceptance, and respect. Values are internalized
rather than taught.
2. Relaxation and Tension Reduction. If the integration of mind and body is to succeed,
relaxation techniques must be learned to allow the body to cooperate with the mind’s
energy. At least six systems of relaxation are available: Autogenics, hypnotic suggestion,
biofeedback, progressive relaxation, yoga breathing and meditation. Students gain by exposure to
several methods, and they can choose the one that works best for them.
Physical environment, too, can play an important part in facilitating or inhibiting
the reduction of tension. The use of calming music and colors can aid in reducing anxiety
and tension. Also order in a classroom is meaningful and especially appreciated by children
who are sensitive to their environments.
3. Movement and Physical Encoding. Brain researchers agree that physical movement is
important to learning. A child’s movement is quite natural until entering school, where there
is less and less opportunity to integrate movement and physical sensing into the learning
experience. Among the few, disciplines that retain this important aspect of learning are the
arts and the physical sciences. Laboratories are used for physics and chemistry, but not in
mathematics or history. Though some efforts have been made by psychology and sociology
teachers to incorporate experimentation and real life involvement, the teaching process has
relied on students sitting at desk listening to a lecture or watching a demonstration in order
to develop knowledge of the area being taught.
If teachers want to become better educators then they must acknowledge the
importance of movement. The purposeful change of place, position or posture as part of the
learning process, and physical encoding – the learning process which uses the physical body
to transfer information from the abstract or symbolic level to a more concrete level – are

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 integral to this movement, and can produce more precise learning with a higher rate of
retention. Encoding techniques might consist of the use of rhythms, role playing, physically
manipulating materials, and the creation of situations or actual events.
This is similar to a language-teaching method called Total Physical Response (TPR)
which is based on the belief that students will learn better when full bodily motion is
involved in the process. This was developed by educator James J. Asher. TPR is supposed to
replace the traditional learning strategy of sitting at a desk and reading a book. Verbal
commands are replaced by physical ones.
4. Empowering Language and Behavior. Teachers should allow the learner to experience
thought processes while feeling supported. This is an example of empowering language.
Giving a student undivided attention and indicating that you are listening when that student
is sharing a concern or achievement is an example of empowering behavior. These verbal,
nonverbal, and overt physical responses usually result in competence, support, closeness,
appreciation, and helpful feedback.
Empowering language becomes an important part of classroom communication between
teachers, between student and teacher and between students. Students who are given
opportunities to work in an environment in which empowering language is valued become
more responsible, more motivated, and exhibit a positive self-concept. All of these
characteristics can be shown to enhance academic achievement. The risks involved in
creativity are taken, the highest levels of cognitive production made possible. The results of
attention to this component of the Integrative Education Model enrich all phases of the
student’s world.
5. Choice and Perceived Control. Many researchers have found that choice and the resulting
perception of control are significant factors in student academic achievement and self-
concept. Interestingly, it is not just the choice of control that makes the difference, but their
perception of that choice. Unless students clearly see those choices and believe that they can
really make an acceptable decision, the positive effect will be missing. Good decision-
making must begin with opportunities for choice and alternative thinking. To become
skilled at making appropriate and positive decisions students must have opportunities for
guided practice.
These decision-making skills also help young people establish values by which they can
live, that work effectively and lead to satisfying, fulfilling lives.
6. Complex and Challenging Cognitive Activity. One of the components of the Integrative
Education Model that has been given the most attention by educators is the concern for the

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 development of complex and challenging cognitive activities. Many models have been
developed to aid in meeting this concern.
There remains, however, a most important matter. Since cognition can no longer include
only the specialization of only half of our cortical function, we must integrate the other
cortical specialization: the spatial, gestalt processes. Of even more concern is the theoretic
construct which encourages only one of the four brain functions to be developed. Cognition,
even in its expanded definition, only involves the function of the cortex, leaving the brain
stem (physical/sensing) and the midbrain, limbic area (feelings), as well as the prefrontal
cortex (intuition), completely out of the learning process. Integration of all functions must
be accomplished to allow the most effective development of the human potential.
By including all the models now available, planning for optimizing education has an
excellent starting point, a cadre of valuable tools with which to begin. If we include all
human function in our concept of learning, we can plan for more effective and meaningful
learning experiences.
7. Intuition and Integration. This last component of the Integrative Education Model involves
both an area of brain function and total brain process. The brain is organized in a highly
integrated manner, most of its area composed of associative tissue. The brain system is
biologically designed for high levels of synthesis, and as educators incorporate these
processes in to their educational systems, learning experiences will become more effective
and efficient, the students will be more motivated and successful.
The intituitive function has been the least recognized by educators, but attitudes toward
intuition seem to be changing. Since it has been shown that brain functions are biologically
different, a new effort is being made to bring the right brain’s holistic, integrative, inventive
ways of knowing into the learning process to provide a more balanced education.
Breakthroughs in brain research and physics have caused the very nature of reality to be
reconsidered. New findings on human energy, meditation, personal space, fantasy, imagery
and dreams have much to offer in education program.
Clark’s Seven Keys allow a view of the Integrative Education Model from several vantage
points, including the physical and emotional setting, the attitudes and communication skills
of teachers and learners, brain compatible strategies and techniques, and the demand for
function integration. From these components come tools students can use to help them
become better learners.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : http://www.context.org/ICLIB/ICI8/Clark.htm

104
  E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
6. Many research studies have shown that the home environment has a powerful effect on what
children and youth learn within and outside school. Therefore, cooperative efforts of school and
parents have strong beneficial effects on learning and can support the Integrative Education
Model. Name at least ten (10) areas of interest usually included in the “curriculum of the home”
which may be synchronized with the special curriculum of this model.
7. What do you propose to enhance this model of teaching through motivations with the use of
ICT? Describe and explain.
8. List down the advantages and disadvantages of using the Integrative Education Model.

References/Bibliography
Aldrich, C. Six Criteria of an Educational Simulation. Learning Circuits, 2004.

Kindley, R. Scenario-based e-Learning. Learning Circuits, 2002.

Landrum, T.J. and Kauffmann, J.M. Behavioral Approaches to classroom Management. Mahwha,
NJ, 2006

Marquardt, M. Kearseley. Technology-based Learning: Maximizing Human Performance and

Corporate Success. Boca Raton: St. Lucie Press, 1999.

Popham, W.J. Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know (4th edition), Boston, MA:
Allyn and Bacon, 2005

Ravitch, Diane. Education Speak. Associations for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Virginia USA, 2007

MODULE 10
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION MODEL
LESSON 1
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION MODEL

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. describe the adaptive instruction model as a sound educational practice;

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 2. discuss the achievement effectives of adaptive education; and,
3. compare advantages and disadvantages of the forms of adaptive instruction.

Keywords and Phrases

• adaptive instruction
• cooperative learning
• tutoring
• instruction in learning strategy
• mastery learning

INTRODUCTION
Adaptive education is considered one of the most effective educational practices in primary and
secondary schools. It shows large, positive learning effectiveness for students in widely varying
conditions.

According to research findings (Walberg, 1998) adaptive instruction is an integrated diagnostic-

prescriptive process that combines educational practices such as – tutoring, mastery learning,
cooperative learning, and instruction in learning strategies, into a classroom management system to fit
instruction to student’s individual and small-group needs.

This model invites more research studies for other findings since it aims at diverse ends that are
difficult to measure. Some variables or factors to be further tested through research are motivation,
student choice, teacher’s preference, parental approval and involvement, student autonomy and others.

Tutoring
Tutoring gears learning based on student needs. It has supported and yielded large learning
effects in improving student performance particularly in mathematics. Due to some factors like
mathematics anxiety, mental ability motivation, etc., some students fall behind in fast-paced
mathematics class and for them to catch up their problems should be identified and remedied. The
assessment and follow-up process are individualized.

Peer tutoring in the classroom may also be done and may work well similarly as teacher tutoring.
When practiced well in the classroom, it will promote values and social skills among students. This can
give students positive experiences and enhance their self-esteem. Teachers can assign even slow-learning
students or those with disabilities to lead the group in activities.

Mastery Learning
Mastery Learning is an alternative teaching method for students who need corrective
instructions for not being able to reach a goal through a pre-set number of objectives for a lesson.

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 It is necessary for the teacher to have a careful sequencing, monitoring and control of the learning
process. The teacher usually conducts pre-testing of the students: first, to determine if students have or
do not have the pre-requisite skills for the subject matter at hand. If the students have achieved mastery
of the subject matter, this allows the teacher to avoid assigning materials that has already been mastered.
Pre-testing will insure that the students have achieved mastery of the steps in the sequence of the
learning process and thus insure that they will make satisfactory progress in subsequent more advanced
steps. Both the teachers and students will be informed of corrective measures and remedies to be done or
additional time to be allotted.

In doing so, the specific time allotment for slow learners will allow the fast-learners to proceed
further with the lessons and skip those which they already know.

The emphasis of mastery learning is on outcomes and products and careful monitoring of
students’ performance and progress. Thus, it is imperative for the teacher to organize the subject matter
very well. It requires careful planning, careful choice of materials and specific formal steps or procedures.
The teacher must present the lesson to the whole class at the same time. It is expected that the subject
matter may be too hard for some students and too easy for others. Teachers must be prepared to identify
the needs of diverse students and develop the assessment strategies so that individual students are
appropriately classified to provide corrective feedback or reinforcement when necessary.

Cooperative Learning
Although cooperative learning has been discussed in previous lessons, as part of the Adaptive Education
Model, it is identified as a strategy when heterogenous grouping is done to assist in peer instruction. As
revealed by previous research studies, learning proceeds more effectively than usual when exchanges
among teachers and students are directed towards students’ problems and interests.

In a classroom setting where the teacher is the lecturer, only one person can speak or recite at a
time. Some students who are shy or are slow-learners may be reluctant to speak at all. In a similar
classroom setting where students are grouped, each member can participate extensively and slow-
learners have more chances of airing their problems and difficulties than in a whole class discussion.

Cooperative learning offers many advantages not only in terms of enhancing academic
achievement but also in internalizing values such as teamwork, leadership, cooperation, unity,
cohesiveness, cooperative skills, group management, how to give and receive criticisms politely, how to
plan, monitor and evaluate their individual and joint activities with others.

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 Teachers become more like facilitators, evaluators or consultants. However, researchers
recommend that cooperative learning should not take up the whole day activity; it will be more
productive if other teaching strategies would supplement cooperative learning. Likewise, cooperative
learning means more than merely assigning children to small groups. Teachers must also carefully design
and prepare the directions and instructions for the group to follow. The teacher must be sensitive to the
needs of a heterogenous group where there is a mix of strengths and weaknesses by the students in the
group. The teacher is required to monitor the group work and insure that every member of the group is
working to produce desired increased learning.

The Teaching of Learning Strategies

One of the teaching functions is to provide independent practice. Students are allowed to apply
the new learning on their own, either in seatwork, cooperative works, or homework.

This model encourages self-monitoring, self-teaching and management of the student’s own
learning. The teaching function is transferred to the students who is given more time to review and
manage himself through his own skills and self-awareness.

However, Walberg (2001) recommends the following phases of this model to strengthen
opportunities for effective independent learning:

• Modeling, in which the teacher exhibits the desired behavior

• Guided practice, in which students perform with assistance from the teacher; and,
• Application, during which students work independently with the teacher.

Readings ASSIGNMENT
 Links : http://www.context.org/ICLIB/ICI8/Clark.htm

 E-Journals/E-Books

 PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup

 Password: powersearch

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss the strengths (pros) and weaknesses (cons) of the following models of adaptive
education
1.1 Mastery Learning
1.2 Tutoring
1.3 Cooperative Learning
1.4 The Teaching of Learning Strategies

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 2. Examine each of the above models of adaptive education and describe under what situations each
approach is appropriate.
3. Partial delegation of authority in the classroom by the teacher is not acceptable to most
educators. React to this statement and defend your stand on the observation and criticisms.

References/Bibliography
Driscoll, M.P. Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2005

Kulik, C.C., Kulik, J.A., & Bangert-Drowns, R.L. Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Programs: A
Meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 1990

Marquardt, M. Kearseley. Technology-based Learning: Maximizing Human Performance and

Corporate Success. Boca Raton: St. Lucie Press, 1999.

Popham, W.J. Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know (4th edition), Boston, MA:
Allyn and Bacon, 2005

Ravitch, Diane. Education Speak. Associations for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Virginia USA, 2007

Slavin, R.E. & Karweit, N.L. Mastery Learning and Student Teams: A Factorial Experiment in
Urban General Mathematics Classes. American Educational Research Journal, 1984

Woolfolk, A. Educational Psychology (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2005

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