Dr.

K N Modi University, Newai,

Rajasthan

Course portfolio
Session 2020-21

NAME OF FACULTY: RAKESH MAHAWAR

NAME OF SUBJECT:- 02BTME416: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

SEMESTER:- EVEN YEAR: 2020-21

CLASS:- B.TECH -IV SEMESTER

 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INDEX

1. TIME TABLE OF FACULTY

2. SYLLABUS
3. LECTURE PLAN
4. LECTURE NOTES
5. I-II MID TERM TEST
6. I-II MID TERM ATTENDENCE SHEET
7. I-II MID TERM MARK SHEET
8. UNIT TESTS
9. ASSIGNMENTS
 TIME TABLE

9:15-10.05 10:05-10:55 1055-11:45 11:45- 12:35-01:35PM 01:35-2:25 PM 2:25-3:15 3:15-4:05PM 4:05-

12:35 PM 4:55PM
MON. DPME- BTME- IV- BTME-VI – GAS DPME-II-
DPME-VI- III~MANUFAC APPLIED DYNAMIC & JET APPLIED ME-
REPAIR & TURING PRO- THERMODY- PROPULSION CHANICS
MAINTE- CESS NAMIC
NANCE 02DME310
TUE. DPME-VI- DPME –IV- BTME- IV- DPME-II- BVOC-VI-PROJECT AT SITE
REPAIR & MECHANICAL APPLIED ENGG. DRAWING LAB
MAINTE- ENGG. DRAW- THERMODY-
NANCE ING NAMICS
02BTME416
WED. DPME-VI- DPME –IV- DPME-II- DPME-II- BTME-VI – GAS
REPAIR & MECHANICAL APPLIED ME- APPLIED DYNAMIC & JET
MAINTE- ENGG. DRAW- CHANICS MECHAN- PROPULSION
NANCE ING ICS

THR. DPME-VI- DPME –IV- BTME- IV- DPME- BTME-VI – GAS

REPAIR & MECHANICAL APPLIED III~MATERIALS DYNAMIC & JET
MAINTE- ENGG. DRAW- THERMODY- & MATERIAL PROPULSION
NANCE ING NAMICS SCIENCE-
02BTME416 02DME308 ;
FRI. DPME-VI- DPME –IV- BTME- IV- DPME-II- BTME-VI – GAS
REPAIR & MECHANICAL APPLIED APPLIED ME- DPME-IV- MED LAB DYNAMIC & JET
MAINTE- ENGG. DRAW- THERMODY- CHANICS PROPULSION
NANCE ING NAMICS
02BTME416
SAT. ; DPME-II- BTME- IV- DPME-IV- MED LAB BTME-VI – GAS
APPLIED ME- APPLIED DYNAMIC & JET
CHANICS THERMODY- PROPULSION
NAMICS
02BTME416
 02BTME416: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

SYLLABUS
UNIT-I
Fuels and Combustion: Combustion analysis, Heating Values, Air requirement, Air/Fuel ratio,
Standard heat of Reaction and effect of temperature on standard heat of reaction, heat of for-
mation, Adiabatic flame temperature.
UNIT-II
Boilers: Steam generators-classifications. Working of fire-tube and water-tube boilers, boiler
mountings & accessories, Draught & its calculations, air pre heater, feed water heater, super
heater. Boiler efficiency, Equivalent evaporation. Boiler trial and heat balance.
Condenser: Classification of condenser, Air leakage, Condenser performance parameters
UNIT-III
Steam Engines: Rankine and modified Rankine cycles, Working of stream engine, Classifica-
tion of steam engines, Indicator diagram, Saturation curve, Missing quantity, Heat balance.
Steam& Gas Nozzles: Flow through nozzle, Variation of velocity, Area and specific volume,
Choked flow, Throat area, Nozzle efficiency, Off design operation of nozzle, Effect of friction
on nozzle, Super saturated flow.
UNIT-IV
Vapour Power cycles: Carnot vapour power cycle, Effect of pressure & temperature on Rankine
cycle, Reheat cycle, Regenerative cycle, Feed water heaters, Binary vapour cycle, Combined cy-
cles, Cogeneration.
Steam Turbines : Classification of steam turbine, Impulse and reaction turbines, Staging, Stage
and overall efficiency, Reheat factor, Bleeding, Velocity diagram of simple & compound multi-
stage impulse & reaction turbines & related calculations work done efficiencies of reaction, Im-
pulse reaction Turbines, state point locus, Comparison with steam engines, Losses in steam tur-
bines, Governing of turbines.
UNIT-V
Gas Turbine:Gas turbine classification Braytoncycle,Principles of gas turbine, Gas turbine cy-
cles with intercooling,reheat and regeneration and their combinations, Stage efficiency, Poly-
tropic efficiency. Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles.
Jet Propulsion: Introduction to the principles of jet propulsion, Turbojet and turboprop engines &
their processes, Principle of rocket propulsion, Introduction to Rocket Engine.
Books and References:
1. Applied thermodynamics by Onkar Singh, New Age International (P) PublishersLtd.
2. Basic and Applied Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag, Tata McGraw HillPub.
3. Thermal Engg. By P.L. Ballaney, KhannaPublisher
4. Theory of Stream Turbine by W.J.Kearton
5. Steam & Gas Turbine by R.Yadav, CPHAllahabad
6. Thermal Engg. By R.K. Rajput, LaxmiPublication
 Lesson Plan

B Tech-IV Sem Faculty: Department of Mechanical

Semester: VII Year: 2020-21

Course Title:: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS Course Code: 02BTME416

Total Contact Hours: 4 Exam marks: 100

Lesson Plan Author: Mr. Rakesh Medawar Date:

S.N Lecture Content

Delivered
Unit 1

1 Fuels and Combustion: Introduction

2 Combustion analysis, Heating Values,
3 Air requirement, Air/Fuel ratio,
4 Standard heat of Reaction and effect of temperature on standard heat of
reaction
5 Standard heat of Reaction and effect of temperature on standard heat of
reaction
6 heat of formation
7 Adiabatic flame temperature.
Unit-2
8 Boilers: Introduction,.,.
Condenser:,

9 Steam generators-classifications.
10 Working of fire-tube and water-tube boilers,
11 boiler mountings & accessories
12 Draught & its calculations,
13 air pre heater, feed water heater, super heater
14 Boiler efficiency
15 Equivalent evaporation
16 Boiler trial and heat balance
17 Classification of condenser
18 Air leakage,
19 Condenser performance parameters
 Unit-3
20 Steam Engines: Rankine and modified Rankine cycles
,
21 Working of stream engine, Classification of steam engines
22 Indicator diagram, Saturation curve
23 Missing quantity, Heat balance.

24 Steam& Gas Nozzles: Flow through nozzle

25 Variation of velocity, Area and specific volume
26 Nozzle efficiency
27 Effect of friction on nozzle
28 Super saturated flow

29 Choked flow, Throat area

30 Off design operation of nozzle
Unit-4
31 Vapour Power cycles: Carnot vapour power cycle
32 Effect of pressure & temperature on Rankine cycle
33 Reheat cycle, Regenerative cycle
34 Feed water heaters
35 Combined cycles, Cogeneration.
36 Steam Turbines : Classification of steam turbine,
37 Impulse and reaction turbines,
38 Staging, Stage and overall efficiency,
39 Reheat factor, Bleeding
40 Velocity diagram of simple
41 Velocity diagram multistage impulse & reaction turbines
42 work done, efficiencies of reaction, Impulse reaction Turbines, state point
locus
43 Comparison with steam engines, Losses in steam turbines
44 Governing of turbines
Unit-5
45 Gas Turbine:Gas turbine
Jet Propulsion: Introduction to the principles of jet propulsion
46 Braytoncycle
47 classification, Principles of gas turbine
48 Gas turbine cycles with intercooling, reheat and regeneration and their
combinations
49 Gas turbine cycles with intercooling, reheat and regeneration and their
combinations
50 Stage efficiency, Polytropic efficiency
51 Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles
52 Turbojet and turboprop engines & their processes
53 Principle of rocket propulsion
 54 Introduction to Rocket Engine.

Total -54

Course Learning Objectives (CLO) :

At the end of the course the students should be able to:

1. Understand principles of operation of various types of Steam Turbine, Condenser , Boilers,

Gas turbine ,& Jet propulsion.
2. Understand classification of Steam Turbine on the basis of (i) principle of operation (ii)
type of flow and (iii) their intended usage.
3. The focus will be on solving fluid flow problems related to Steam Nozzle, Gas turbines and
Steam Turbine.
4. To understand the determination of, turbine efficiencies with the help of velocity triangle
diagrams.
5. To understand the working principle of Steam Turbine and Gas turbines and Blade Theory
& off Design calculation of nozzle
ii) Relevance of the Course

1. This course will allow students to understand the basic concepts & fundamentals of Fuel&
combustion Turbines, Boiler, Gas Turbine. To analyse Steam Nozzle problems, working
principle of impulse and reaction turbines, velocity triangle, , determination of work done
and efficiency of turbines, performance characteristics turbines, to understand about work-
ing principles of Gas Turbine, jet Propulsion.
 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Sub Code: 02BTME416 CIE Marks:

L:T:P:S : 4:0:1 SEE marks:
Credits: 4 Exam Hrs:3

Prerequisite: Fundamental of Thermodynamics

Course Learning Objectives:

1 To create the basic awareness for applying the concepts of thermodynamics in processes used
in different industrial applications.
2 Understand The application of thermodynamic principles to the design and optimization of
engineering systems.
3 Apply the first and second law of thermodynamics to different units of power generation.
4 Calculate properties of moist air and COP of vapor refrigeration systems by using refrigera-
tion table and chart.
5 Understand about gas turbine cycles; calculate efficiency and the principles of jet propulsion,
Rocket Engine.

UNIT-I
Fuels and Combustion: Combustion analysis, Heating Values, Air requirement, Air/Fuel ratio, Stand-
ard heat of Reaction and effect of temperature on standard heat of reaction, heat of formation, Adiabatic
flame temperature.
UNIT-II
Boilers: Steam generators-classifications. Working of fire-tube and water-tube boilers, boiler mountings
& accessories, Draught & its calculations, air pre heater, feed water heater, super heater. Boiler efficien-
cy, Equivalent evaporation. Boiler trial and heat balance.
Condenser: Classification of condenser, Air leakage, Condenser performance parameters
UNIT-III
Steam Engines: Rankine and modified Rankine cycles, Working of stream engine, Classification of
steam engines, Indicator diagram, Saturation curve, Missing quantity, Heat balance.
Steam& Gas Nozzles: Flow through nozzle, Variation of velocity, Area and specific volume, Choked
flow, Throat area, Nozzle efficiency, Off design operation of nozzle, Effect of friction on nozzle, Super
saturated flow.
 UNIT-IV
Vapour Power cycles: Carnot vapour power cycle, Effect of pressure & temperature on Rankine cycle,
Reheat cycle, Regenerative cycle, Feed water heaters, Binary vapour cycle, Combined cycles, Cogener-
ation.
Steam Turbines : Classification of steam turbine, Impulse and reaction turbines, Staging, Stage and
overall efficiency, Reheat factor, Bleeding, Velocity diagram of simple & compound multistage impulse
& reaction turbines & related calculations work done efficiencies of reaction, Impulse reaction Tur-
bines, state point locus, Comparison with steam engines, Losses in steam turbines, Governing of tur-
bines.
UNIT-V
Gas Turbine:Gas turbine classification Braytoncycle,Principles of gas turbine, Gas turbine cycles with
intercooling,reheat and regeneration and their combinations, Stage efficiency, Polytropic efficiency.
Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles.
Jet Propulsion: Introduction to the principles of jet propulsion, Turbojet and turboprop engines & their
processes, Principle of rocket propulsion, Introduction to Rocket Engine.

Course Outcomes: After completing this course, the student will be able to:

1 Each student can use the basic concepts and fundamental of thermodynamics to Combustion
analysis of fuel, Heating Values of fuels and determine Air/Fuel ratio . [CO1]
2 Students able to Understand about Steam generators, Condenser performance parameters &
boilers and their mountings & accessories, , simple calculation of Boiler efficiency. Boiler heat
balance. [CO2]
3 Understand Steam Engines and their Working, heat balance of steam engine and steam / gas
nozzle flow, Off design operation of nozzle [CO3]
4 Each student able to understand analyze, evaluate Rankine cycles and Understand the basic
knowledge of blade profile, axial flow turbine and ability to solve problem, [CO4]
5 Student able to understand about gas turbine and rocket engines, jet propulsion

Text Books and References:

1. Applied thermodynamics by Onkar Singh, New Age International (P) PublishersLtd.
2. Basic and Applied Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag, Tata McGraw HillPub.
3. Thermal Engg. By P.L. Ballaney, KhannaPublisher
4. Theory of Stream Turbine by W.J.Kearton
5. Steam & Gas Turbine by R.Yadav, CPHAllahabad
6. Thermal Engg. By R.K. Rajput, LaxmiPublication
 Programme objectives [POs] of Mechanical Engineering

PO1: Engineering Knowledge

PO2: Problem Analysis
PO3: Design/development of solutions
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems
PO5: Modern tool usage
PO6: The engineer and society
PO7: Environment and sustainability
PO8: Ethics
PO9: Individual and team work
PO10: Communication
PO11: Project management and finance
PO12: Lifelong learning

Programme Educational Objectives [PEOs] of Mechanical Engineering

PEO1: Categorize, create and solve engineering problems related to various materials and their properties
using skills, techniques and state of art of mechanical engineering tools.
PEO2: Have good awareness of problem analysis related to design, manufacturing, production and mar-
keting.
PEO3: Apply the mechanical engineering principles to design and develop components which can be as-
sembled into systems.
PEO4: Conduct investigation of complex problem related to the thermal and mechanical behaviour
of materials and systems.
 Unit wise Plan

Unit -1

Course Code and Title: 02BTME416 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter Number and Title:1 Introduction: Turbomachines Planned Hours: 7Hrs

Learning Objectives:
1. Student able to understand about fuel and combustion Phenomenon
2. Understand the Combustion analysis, how find out heating value of fuels
3. Understand the air /fuel ratio and air requirement of fuel combustion
4. Understand about heat of reaction.
5. To understand about heat formation

Lesson Schedule

Class No. Portion covered per hour

1. Fuels and Combustion: Introduction

2. Combustion analysis, Heating Values,
3. Air requirement, Air/Fuel ratio,
4. Standard heat of Reaction and effect of temperature on standard heat of reaction
5. heat of formation
6. Adiabatic flame temperature.
Chapter End Review Questions
1. Calculate the minimum volume of air required to burn one Kg of coal having the following
composition by weight.
2. Measurements of exhaust gases from a methane-air combustion system show 3% of oxygen by
volume (dry base) in the exhaust. Assuming complete combustion, determine the excess per
centage of air, equivalence ratio, and
3. fuel/air ratio. Calculate the volumetric analysis of the flue gases when coal burns with 20% ex-
cess air from the previous calculation the actual air required 33.89K mol/100kg coal. T
4. The composition of dry flue gases obtained by burning a liquid fuel containing only hydrogen
and carbon is CO2 10.7%, O2 5.1%, N2 84.2%. Calculate the composition of fuel by weight
and excess air used
5. Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for the complete combustion of Methane ( CH4)
with 250% theoretical air in an adiabatic control volume.
 Unit – 2

Course Code and Title: 02BTME416 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter Number and Title: 2. Steam generators &Condenser Planned Hours:12Hrs

Learning Objectives
1. Understand about working of fire-tube and water-tube boilers and their classification
2. To understand about boiler mountings & accessories and their working process
3. Calculation of simple problem on Boiler efficiency and heat balance
4. Understanding types of condensers and their working

Lesson Schedule

Class No. Portion covered per hour

1. Steam generators-classifications.
2. Working of fire-tube and water-tube boilers,
3. boiler mountings & accessories
4. Draught & its calculations,
5. air pre heater, feed water heater, super heater
6. Boiler efficiency
7. Equivalent evaporation
8. Boiler trial and heat balance
9. Classification of condenser
10. Air leakage,
11. Condenser performance parameters
Model Questions
1. Write short notes on: (a) important provisions of Indian Boiler Act. (b) Fusible plug. (c)
Membrane type water wall. (d) Role of three T's in efficient combustion.
2. What are the main reasons of Boiler tube failure? How it can be avoided?.
3. Explain Following:
a. What may be the causes of fall in condenser vacuum in the surface condenser?
b. Compare safety valve, relief valve and safety relief valve.
c. List ten energy conservation opportunities available in a boiler system
4. What are the sources of air leakages into a condenser? Explain the effects of air leakage on the
performance of a condenser

5. What may be the causes of fall in condenser vacuum in the surface condenser?
 Unit – 3

Course Code and Title: 02BTME416 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Planned Hours:11
Chapter Number and Title:3. Steam Engine & Steam Nozzles Hrs

Learning Objectives
1. To developed basic understanding about steam engines and their classification.
2. Understand about Indicator diagram and heat balance of steam engine.
3. To understand about steam /Gas nozzles and flow process through nozzles
4. To understand basic calculation on nozzle efficiency
5. To understand Choked flow and off design operation of nozzle

.Lesson Schedule

Class No. Portion covered per hour

Steam Engines: Rankine and modified Rankine cycles

,
1. Working of stream engine, Classification of steam engines
2. Indicator diagram, Saturation curve
3. Missing quantity, Heat balance.
4. Steam& Gas Nozzles: Flow through nozzle
5. Variation of velocity, Area and specific volume
6. Nozzle efficiency
7. Effect of friction on nozzle
8. Super saturated flow
9. Choked flow, Throat area
10. Off design operation of nozzle

Model Questions
1. (a) Write down the expression for velocity at exit from steam nozzle.
(b) What are the various types of nozzles and their function
2. Explain Working of steam engine and classify the steam engins
3. Derive the expression for critical pressure ratio in a steam nozzle.
4. A convergent divergent nozzle receives steam at 7bar and 200oc and it expands isentr
opically into a space of 3bar neglecting the inlet velocity calculat e the exit area required for a
mass flow of 0.1Kg/sec . when the flow is in equilibrium through all and super saturated with
PV1.3=C.
5. A convergent divergent adiabatic steam nozzle is supplied with steam at 10 bar and 250°c.the
discharge pressure is 1.2 bar.assuming that the nozzle efficiency is 100% and initial velocity of
steam is 50 m/s. find the discharge velocity.
 Unit - 4

Course Code and Title: 02BTME416 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter Number and Title: 4. Vapour Power cycle & Steam Turbine
Planned Hours: 14Hrs

Learning Objectives:
1. To understand about Carnot vapour power cycle , Rankine cycle
2. To understand about basic of Reheat and regeneration cycle
3. To understand about Velocity diagram of impulse and reaction turbine
4. To calculate simple numerical problem of steam turbine
5. To understand losses in steam turbine and governing of turbines.
Lesson Schedule

Class No. Portion covered per hour

1. Vapour Power cycles: Carnot vapour power cycle

2. Effect of pressure & temperature on Rankine cycle
3. Reheat cycle,
4. Regenerative cycle
5. Feed water heaters
6. Combined cycles, Cogeneration.
7. Steam Turbines : Classification of steam turbine,
8. Impulse and reaction turbines,
9. Staging, Stage and overall efficiency,
10. Reheat factor, Bleeding
11. Velocity diagram of simple
12. Velocity diagram multistage impulse & reaction turbines
13. work done, efficiencies of reaction, Impulse reaction Turbines
14. , state point locus
15. Comparison with steam engines, Losses in steam turbines
16. Governing of turbines

Model Questions
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of regenerative cycles over simple Rankine cy-
cle?
2. Define Rankine efficiency, efficiency ratio and specific steam consumption?
3. What are the methods to increase thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle?
4. a. Differentiate impulse and reaction turbine
b. What is meant by compounding of turbines
c. What is meant by compounding of turbines?
5. A stage of an impulse turbine has two rows of moving blades separated by a row of fixed
guide blades. The moving blades have tip angles of 38° and the blade speed, nozzle and fixed
blade angles are designed on the assumption that the velocity of discharge from the nozzle is 540
m/s. The relative velocity of stream drops by 10% during passage through each ring of blades
and the final discharge is axial. Determine the blade speed
 Unit - 5

Course Code and Title: 02BTME416 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter Number and Title: 4. Gas Turbine Starting & Jet Propulsion
Planned Hours: 10Hrs

Learning Objectives:
1. To understanding about principal of Gas turbine and jet propulsion
2. Understand gas turbine cycle with reheat and regeneration
3. To understand working of turbojet and turboprop engines
4. To understand about Rocket propulsion and Rocket engines

Lesson Schedule

Class No. Portion covered per hour

1. Gas Turbine: Gas turbine

2. Jet Propulsion: Introduction to the principles of jet propulsion
3. Braytoncycle
4. classification, Principles of gas turbine
5. Gas turbine cycles with intercooling, reheat and regeneration and their combinations
6. Gas turbine cycles with intercooling, reheat and regeneration and their combinations
7. Stage efficiency, Polytropic efficiency
8. Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles
9. Turbojet and turboprop engines & their processes
10. Principle of rocket propulsion
11. Introduction to Rocket Engine.

Model Questions

1. Give the basic concepts of gas turbine unit on block diagram, PV diagram and TS diagram
2. What are advantages of closed cycle gas turbine over the open cycle?
3. Explain the method INTER COOLING employed to increase the specific output and thermal
efficiency of Gas Turbine plant? Draw the T-S diagram for the same
4. a. Define propulsive efficiency
b. Differentiate shaft propulsion and Jet propulsion
c. Explain specific thrust as applied to jet engines?
5. A turbojet engine flying at a speed of 960km/hour consumes air at the rate of 54.5kg/sec.
Calculate i) exit velocity of the jet when the enthalpy change for the nozzle is 200Kj/kg and ve-
locity co-efficient is 0.97. ii) Fuel flow rate in kg/sec, when air fuel ratio is 75:1.
 UNIT-1
Fuel & Combustion

1.1 Properties of Mixtures

The thermal properties of a pure substance are described by quantities including

internal energy, u, enthalpy, h, specific heat, cp, etc. Combustion systems consist of
many different gases, so the thermodynamic properties of a mixture result from a
combination of the properties of all of the individual gas species. The ideal gas law
is assumed for gaseous mixtures, allowing the ideal gas relations to be applied to
each gas component. Starting with a mixture of K different gases, the total mass, m,
of the system is

X
K
m¼ mi ; 1.1)
i¼1

where mi is the mass of species i. The total number of moles in the system, N, is

X
K
N¼ Ni ; (1.2)
i¼1

where Ni is the number of moles of species i in the system. Mass fraction, yi, and
mole fraction, xi, describe the relative amount of a given species. Their definitions
are given by

mi Ni
yi  and xi  ; (1.3)
m N
where i ¼ 1,2,. . .,K. By definition,

X
K X
K
yi ¼ 1 and xi ¼ 1:
i¼1 i¼1
With Mi denoting the molecular mass of species i, the average molecular mass, M,
of the mixture is determined by
P
Ni Mi X
m
M¼ ¼ i ¼ xi M i : (1.4)
N N i

From Dalton’s law of additive pressures and Amagat’s law of additive volumes
along with the ideal gas law, the mole fraction of a species in a mixture can be found
from the partial pressure of that species as

Pi Ni Vi
¼ ¼ ¼ xi ; (1.5)
P N V

where Pi is the partial pressure of species i, P is the total pressure of the gaseous
mixture, Vi the partial volume of species i, and V is the total volume of the mixture.
The average intrinsic properties of a mixture can be classified using either a molar
base or a mass base. For instance, the internal energy per unit mass of a mixture, u,
is determined by summing the internal energy per unit mass for each species
weighted by the mass fraction of the species.
P
mi ui X
U i
u¼ ¼ ¼ y i ui ; (1.6)
m m i

where U is the total internal energy of the mixture and ui is the internal energy per
mass of species i. Similarly, enthalpy per unit mass of mixture is
X
h¼ y i hi
i

and specific heat at constant pressure per unit mass of mixture is

X
cp ¼ yi cp;i :
i

A molar base property, often denoted with a ^ over bar, is determined by the sum
of the species property per mole for each species weighted by the species mole
fraction, such as internal energy per mole of mixture
X
u^ ¼ xi u^i ;
i

enthalpy per mole of mixture

X
h^ ¼ xi h^i ;
i
and entropy per mole of mixture
X
s^ ¼ xi s^i :
i

Assuming constant specific heats during a thermodynamic process, changes of energy,

enthalpy, and entropy of an individual species per unit mass are described as follows:

Dui ¼ cv;i ðT2  T1 Þ (1.7)

Dhi ¼ cp;i ðT2  T1 Þ (1.8)

T2 Pi;2
Dsi ¼ cp;i ln  Ri ln (1.9)
T1 Pi;1

Pi,1 and Pi,2 denote the partial pressures of species i at state 1 and state 2, respectively.
Ri is the gas constant for species i (Ri ¼ R^u =Mi ¼ universal gas constant/molecular
mass of species i). The overall change of entropy for a combustion system is
X
DS ¼ mi Dsi :
i

A summary of the thermodynamic properties of mixtures is provided at the end

of the chapter.

1.2 Combustion Stoichiometry

For a given combustion device, say a piston engine, how much fuel and air should
be injected in order to completely burn both? This question can be answered by
balancing the combustion reaction equation for a particular fuel. A stoichiometric
mixture contains the exact amount of fuel and oxidizer such that after combustion is
completed, all the fuel and oxidizer are consumed to form products. This ideal
mixture approximately yields the maximum flame temperature, as all the energy
released from combustion is used to heat the products. For example, the following
reaction equation can be written for balancing methane-air combustion
 
79
CH4 þ ? O2 þ N2 ! ?CO2 þ ?H2 O þ ?N2 ; (1.10)
21

where air consisting of 21% O2 and 79% N2 is assumed.1 The coefficients associated
with each species in the above equation are unknown. By balancing the atomic
abundance on both the reactant and product sides, one can find the coefficient
for each species. For instance, let’s determine the coefficient for CO2: on the reactant
side, we have 1 mol of C atoms; hence the product side should also have 1 mol of
C atoms. The coefficient of CO2 is therefore unity. Using this procedure we can
determine all the coefficients. These coefficients are called the reaction stoichiometric
coefficients. For stoichiometric methane combustion with air, the balanced reaction
equation reads:

CH4 þ 2ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! 1CO2 þ 2H2 O þ 7:52N2 : (1.11)

Note that on the reactant side there are 2·(1 + 3.76) or 9.52 mol of air and
its molecular mass is 28.96 kg/kmol. In this text, the reactions are balanced using
1 mol of fuel. This is done here to simplify the calculations of the heat of reaction
and flame temperature later in the chapter. Combustion stoichiometry for a general
hydrocarbon fuel, Ca Hb Og , with air can be expressed as
   
b g b b g
Ca Hb Og þ aþ  ðO2 þ3:76N2 Þ!aCO2 þ H2 Oþ3:76 aþ  N : (1.12)
4 2 2 4 2

The amount of air required for combusting a stoichiometric mixture is called

stoichiometric or theoretical air. The above formula is for a single-component fuel
and cannot be applied to a fuel consisting of multiple components. There are two
typical approaches for systems with multiple fuels. Examples are given here for a
fuel mixture containing 95% methane and 5% hydrogen. The first method develops
the stoichiometry of combustion using the general principle of atomic balance,
making sure that the total number of each type of atom (C, H, N, O) is the same in
the products and the reactants.

0:95CH4 þ 0:05H2 þ 1:925ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ !

0:95CO2 þ 1:95H2 O þ 7:238N2 :

The other method of balancing a fuel mixture is to first develop stoichiometry

relations for CH4 and H2 individually:

CH4 þ 2ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! CO2 þ 2H2 O þ 2  3:76N2

H2 þ 0:5ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! H2 O þ 0:5  3:76N2

Then, multiply the individual stoichiometry equations by the mole fractions of the
fuel components and add them:
 0:95  fCH4 þ 2ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! CO2 þ 2H2 O þ 2  3:76N2 g
0:05  fH2 þ 0:5ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! H2 O þ 0:5  3:76N2 g
)0:95CH4 þ 0:05H2 þ 1:925ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ !
0:95CO2 þ 1:95H2 O þ 7:238N2

1.2.1 Methods of Quantifying Fuel and Air Content

of Combustible Mixtures

In practice, fuels are often combusted with an amount of air different from the
stoichiometric ratio. If less air than the stoichiometric amount is used, the mixture is
described as fuel rich. If excess air is used, the mixture is described as fuel lean. For
this reason, it is convenient to quantify the combustible mixture using one of the
following commonly used methods:
Fuel-Air Ratio (FAR): The fuel-air ratio, f, is given by

mf
f ¼ ; (1.13)
ma

where mf and ma are the respective masses of the fuel and the air. For a stoichio-
metric mixture, Eq. 2.13 becomes

mf  Mf
fs ¼  ¼ ; (1.14)
ma stoichiometric ða þ b4  2gÞ  4:76  Mair

where Mf and Mair (~28.84 kg/kmol) are the average masses per mole of fuel and air,
respectively. The range of f is bounded by zero and 1. Most hydrocarbon fuels have
a stoichiometric fuel-air ratio, fs, in the range of 0.05–0.07. The air-fuel ratio (AFR) is
also used to describe a combustible mixture and is simply the reciprocal of FAR, as
AFR ¼ 1/f. For instance, the stoichiometric AFR of gasoline is about 14.7. For most
hydrocarbon fuels, 14–20 kg of air is needed for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel.
Equivalence Ratio: Normalizing the actual fuel-air ratio by the stoichiometric fuel-
air ratio gives the equivalence ratio, f.

f mas Nas NO2s

f¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ (1.15)
fs ma Na NO2;a

The subscript s indicates a value at the stoichiometric condition. f <1 is a lean

mixture, f ¼ 1 is a stoichiometric mixture, and f >1 is a rich mixture. Similar to f,
the range of f is bounded by zero and 1 corresponding to the limits of pure air and
fuel respectively. Note that equivalence ratio is a normalized quantity that provides
the information regarding the content of the combustion mixture. An alternative
variable based on AFR is frequently used by combustion engineers and is called
lambda (l). Lambda is the ratio of the actual air-fuel ratio to the stoichiometric
air-fuel ratio defined as

AFR 1=f 1 1
l¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ (1.16)
AFRs 1=fs f =fs f

Lambda of stoichiometric mixtures is 1.0. For rich mixtures, lambda is less than
1.0; for lean mixtures, lambda is greater than 1.0.
Percent Excess Air: The amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount is
called excess air. The percent excess air, %EA, is defined as
 
ma  mas ma
%EA ¼ 100 ¼ 100 1 (1.17)
mas mas

For example, a mixture with %EA ¼ 50 contains 150% of the theoretical (stoichio-
metric) amount of air.
Converting between quantification methods: Given one of the three variables (f, f,
and %EA), the other two can be deduced as summarized in Table 2.1 with their
graphic relations. In general, the products of combustion include many different

Table 2.1 Relations among the three variables for describing reacting mixtures
f (fuel air ratio by mass) f (equivalence ratio) %EA (% of excess air)
f ¼ fs  f f 1f
f¼ %EA ¼ 100
100  fs f s f
f ¼ 100  f =fs
%EA þ 100 f¼ %EA ¼ 100
1
%EA þ 100 f =fs
fuel air ratio (mass)

Equivalence ratio, φ

0.5 10 400
fs = 0.05 fs = 0.05
% of excess air

0.4 8 300
0.3 6 200
0.2 4 100
0.1 2 0
0 0 −100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Equivalence ratio, φ Fuel air ratio (mass) Equivalence ratio, φ
Equivalence ratio, φ
fuel air ratio (mass)

0.5 10 400
% of excess air

f = 0.05 8
0.4 s 300
fs = 0.05
0.3 6 200
0.2 4 100
0.1 2 0
0 0 −100
0 200 400 −100 0 100 200 300 400 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
% of excess air % of excess air Fuel air ratio (mass)
species in addition to the major species (CO2, H2O, N2, O2), and the balance of
the stoichiometric equation requires the use of thermodynamic equilibrium
relations. However, assuming that the products contain major species only
(complete combustion) and excess air, the global equation for lean combustion
fb1 is
 
1 b g
Ca Hb Og þ a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ !
f 4 2
     (1.18)
b 3:76 b g b g 1
aCO2 þ H2 O þ a þ  N2 þ a þ   1 O2
2 f 4 2 4 2 f

100
In terms of %EA, we replace f by and the result is
%EA þ 100
  
%EA b g
C a Hb Og þ þ 1 a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ !
100 4 2
     (1.19)
b %EA b g b g %EA
aCO2 þ H2 O þ 3:76 þ 1 a þ  N2 þ a þ  O2
2 100 4 2 4 2 100

The amount of excess air can be deduced from measurements of exhaust gases.
The ratio of mole fractions between CO2 and O2 is

xCO2 a %EA a
¼   ! ¼  
xO2 b g %EA 100 b g xCO2
aþ  aþ 
4 2 100 4 2 xO2

or using Table 2.1

100 1
f¼ !f¼ a
(1.20)
100 þ %EA 1þ 
a þ b4  2g
xCO2
xO 2

For rich combustion (f>1), the products may contain CO, unburned fuels, and
other species formed by the degradation of the fuel. Often additional information on
the products is needed for complete balance of the chemical reaction. If the
products are assumed to contain only unburned fuel and major combustion pro-
ducts, the corresponding global equation can be written as
 
1 b g
Ca Hb Og þ a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ !
f 4 2
    (1.21)
a b 3:76 b g 1
CO2 þ H2 O þ a þ  N2 þ 1  Ca Hb Og
f 2f f 4 2 f
Example 1.1 Considering a stoichiometric mixture of isooctane and air,
determine:
(a) the mole fraction of fuel
(b) the fuel-air ratio
(c) the mole fraction of H2O in the products
(d) the temperature of products below which H2O starts to condense into liquid at
101.3 kPa
Solution:
The first step is writing and balancing the stoichiometric reaction equation. Using
Eq. 2.12,
   
18 18
C8 H18 þ 8 þ  0 ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! 8CO2 þ 9H2 O þ 3:76 8 þ  0 N2
4 4
C8 H18 þ 12:5ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! 8CO2 þ 9H2 O þ 3:76  12:5  N2

From here:
NC8 H18 1
(a) xC8 H18 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0165
NC8 H18 þ Nair 1 þ 12:5  4:76
Mf 114
(b) fs ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:066
ða þ b4  2gÞ  4:76  Mair 12:5  4:76  28:96
N H2 O 9
(c) xH2 O ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:141
N CO2 þ N H2 O þ N N2 8 þ 9 þ 3:76  12:5
(d) The partial pressure of water is 101 kPa  0.141 ¼ 14.2 kPa. A saturation table
for steam gives the saturation temperature at this water pressure ffi 53 C.
Example 1.2 How many kg (lb) of air are used to combust 55.5 L (~14.7 US gal-
lons) of gasoline?
Solution:
We will use isooctane C8H18 to represent gasoline. The stoichiometric fuel-air
ratio is

Mf
fs ¼ b g
ða þ 
4 2Þ
 4:76  Mair
114 kg=kmol
¼
ð8 þ 18=4  0Þ  4:76  28.84 kg/kmol
¼ 0:066

One gallon of gasoline weighs about 2.7 kg (6 lb). The total fuel thus weighs
about 40 kg (88 lb). The required air weighs about 40/fs  610 kg  1,300 lb. This is
a lot of weight if it must be carried. Hence, for transportation applications, free
ambient air is preferred.
Example 1.3 In a model “can-combustor” combustion chamber, n-heptane
(C7H16) is burned under an overall lean condition. Measurements of dry exhaust
give mole fractions of CO2 and O2 as xCO2 ¼ 0.084 and xO2 ¼ 0.088. Determine the
%EA, equivalence ratio f, and l.
Solution:
To avoid condensation of water inside the instruments, measurements of exhaust
gases are taken on a ‘dry’ mixture that is obtained by passing the exhaust gases
through an ice bath so that most water is condensed. Further removal of water can
be done with desiccants. The mole fractions measured under dry conditions will be
larger than at real conditions since water is removed. However, this will not impact
the relation deduced above, as both xCO2 and xO2 are increased by the same factor.

%EA a 7
¼  ¼ ¼ 0:667 ! %EA
100 b g xCO2 ð7 þ 16=4  0Þð0:084=0:088Þ
aþ 
4 2 xO 2
¼ 66:7

Next we use the relations given in Table 2.1 to convert %EA to f and l

100 100
f¼ ¼ ¼ 0:6
%EA þ 100 66:7 þ 100

1
l¼ ¼ 1:67
f

1.3 Heating Values

Heating values of a fuel (units of kJ/kg or MJ/kg) are traditionally used to quantify
the maximum amount of heat that can be generated by combustion with air at
standard conditions (STP) (25 C and 101.3 kPa). The amount of heat release from
combustion of the fuel will depend on the phase of water in the products. If water is
in the gas phase in the products, the value of total heat release is denoted as the
lower heating value (LHV). When the water vapor is condensed to liquid, additional
energy (equal to the latent heat of vaporization) can be extracted and the total
energy release is called the higher heating value (HHV). The value of the LHV can
be calculated from the HHV by subtracting the amount of energy released during
the phase change of water from vapor to liquid as

NH2O;P MH2O hfg

LHV ¼ HHV  (MJ/kg), (1.22)
Nfuel Mfuel
where NH2O,P is the number of moles of water in the products. Latent heat for water
at STP is hfg ¼ 2.44 MJ/kg ¼ 43.92 MJ/kmol. In combustion literature, the LHV is
normally called the enthalpy or heat of combustion (QC) and is a positive quantity.

1.3.1 Determination of HHV for Combustion Processes

at Constant Pressure

A control volume analysis at constant pressure with no work exchanged can be used
to theoretically determine the heating values of a particular fuel. Suppose reactants
with 1 kmol of fuel enter the inlet of a control volume at standard conditions and
products leave at the exit. A maximum amount of heat is extracted when the
products are cooled to the inlet temperature and the water is condensed. Conserva-
tion of energy for a constant pressure reactor, with HP and HR denoting the
respective total enthalpies of products and reactants, gives

 Qrxn;p ¼ HR  Hp : (1.23)

The negative value of Qrxn,p indicates heat transfer out of the system to the surround-
ings. It follows from above that the heating value of the fuel is the difference in the
enthalpies of the reactants and the products. However, in combustion systems,
the evaluation of the enthalpies is not straightforward because the species entering
the system are different than those coming out due to chemical reactions. Qrxn,p is
often referred to as the enthalpy of reaction or heat of reaction, with the subscript
p indicating that the value was calculated at constant pressure. The enthalpy of
reaction is related to the enthalpy of combustion by Qrxn,p ¼ QC.

1.3.1.1 Enthalpy of Formation

In combustion processes, reactants are consumed to form products and energy is

released. This energy comes from a rearrangement of chemical bonds in the
reactants to form the products. The standard enthalpy of formation, Dh^oi , quantifies
the chemical bond energy of a chemical species at standard conditions. The
enthalpy of formation of a substance is the energy needed for the formation of
that substance from its constituent elements at STP conditions (25 C and 1 atm).
The molar base enthalpy of formation, Dh^oi , has units of MJ/kmol, and the mass base
enthalpy of formation, Dh^oi , has units of MJ/kg. Elements in their most stable forms,
such as C(graphite), H2, O2, and N2, have enthalpies of formation of zero. Enthalpies
of formation of commonly encountered chemical species are tabulated in Table 2.2.
A departure from standard conditions is accompanied by an enthalpy change.
For thermodynamic systems without chemical reactions, the change of enthalpy of
an ideal gas is described by the sensible enthalpy,
Table 1.2 Enthalpy of formation of common combustion species
Species Dh^o (MJ/kmol) Species Dh^o (MJ/kmol)
H2O (g) 241.83 H +217.99
CO2 393.52 N +472.79
CO 110.53 NO +90.29
CH4 74.87 NO2 +33.10
C3H8 104.71 O +249.19
C7H16 (g) (n-heptane) 224.23 OH +39.46
C8H18 (g) (isooctane) 259.25 C (g) +715.00
CH3OH (g) (methanol) 201.54 C2H2 (acetylene) +226.73
CH3OH (l) (methanol) 238.43 C2H4 (ethylene) +52.28
C2H6O (g) (ethanol) 235.12 C2H6 (ethane) 84.68
C2H6O (l) (ethanol) 277.02 C4H10 (n-butane) 126.15

Fig. 2.1 Constant-pressure Q = −393,522 kJ (heat out)

flow reactor for determining
enthalpy of formation
1 kmol C
C + O2 → CO2 1 kmol CO2
1 kmol O2

@ 25°C, 101.3 kPa CV @ 25°C, 101.3 kPa

ZT
h^si ¼ c^p ðTÞdT;
To

where the subscript i refers to species i, T0 denotes the standard temperature (25 C),
and ^ indicates that a quantity is per mole. Note that the sensible enthalpy of any
species is zero at standard conditions. The ‘absolute’ or ‘total’ enthalpy, h^i , is thus
the sum of the sensible enthalpy and the enthalpy of formation:2

h^i ¼ Dh^oi þ h^si (1.24)

One way to determine the enthalpy of formation of a species is to use a constant-

pressure flow reactor. For instance, the enthalpy of formation of CO2 is determined
by reacting 1 kmol of C(graphite) with 1 kmol of O2 at 25 C at a constant pressure
of 101.3 kPa. The product, 1 kmol of CO2, flows out of this reactor at 25 C
as sketched in Fig. 1.1. An amount of heat produced in the reaction is transferred

2
When phase change is encountered, the total enthalpy needs to include the latent heat,
h^i ¼ Dh^oi þ h^si þ h^latent .
out of this system, therefore the enthalpy formation of CO2 is negative
Dh^oCO2 ¼ 393.52 MJ/kmol. This means that CO2 at 25 C contains less energy
than its constituent elements C(graphite) and O2, which have zero enthalpy of
formation. The enthalpy of formation is not negative for all chemical species.
For instance, the enthalpy formation of NO is Dh^oNO ¼ +90.29 MJ/kmol, meaning
that energy is needed to form NO from its elements, O2 and N2. For most unstable
or “radical” species, such as O, H, N, and CH3, the enthalpy of formation is
positive.

2.3.1.2 Evaluation of the Heat of Combustion

from a Constant-Pressure Reactor

Using the conservation of energy equation (2.23), we can now evaluate the enthalpies
of the reactants and products. Inserting the expression for the total enthalpy,
X   X  
Qrxn:p ¼ HR  Hp ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R þ h^si;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P þ h^si;P
i i
" # (2.25)
X X X X
¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P þ Ni;R h^si;R  Ni;P h^si;P ;
i i i i

where Ni is the number of moles of species i. The sensible enthalpies of common

reactants and products can be found in Appendix 1. When the products are cooled
to the same conditions as the reactants, the amount of heat transfer from the
constant-pressure reactor to the surroundings is defined as the heating value. At
STP the sensible enthalpy terms drop out for both reactants and products and the
heat release is
X X
 Q0rxn;p ¼ Ni; R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P (2.26)
i i

Usually excess air is used in such a test to ensure complete combustion. The
amount of excess air used will not affect  Q0rxn;p at STP. Unless the reactant
mixtures are heavily diluted, the water in the products at STP normally will be
liquid.3 Assuming that water in the products is liquid, HHV is determined:

Q0rxn; p
HHV ¼ : (2.27)
Nfuel Mfuel

The negative sign in front of Q0rxn;p ensures that HHV is positive.

2.3.2 Determination of HHV for Combustion Processes
from a Constant-Volume Reactor

A constant-volume reactor is more convenient than the constant-pressure reactor to

experimentally determine the HHV of a particular fuel. For a closed system,
conservation of energy yields

 Qrxn;v ¼ UR  Up (2.28)

Because of the combustion process, the same type of accounting must be used to
include the change in chemical bond energies. The internal energy will be evaluated
by using its relation to enthalpy. Note that relation h ¼ u + pv is mass based and
the corresponding molar base relation is h^ ¼ u^ þ R^u T. At STP (T ¼ T0 ¼ 25 C), the
total internal energy of the reactants, UR, inside the closed system is

UR ¼ HR  PV
X
¼ HR  Ni;R R^u T0
i (2.29)
X X
¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;R R^u T0
i i

The total internal energy of products is evaluated in a similar manner:

X X
UP ¼ Ni;P Dh^oi;P  Ni;P R^u T0 (2.30)
i i

Using the internal energy relations, we can re-express the heat release at constant
volume in terms of enthalpies as

Q0rxn;v ¼ UR  UP
" #
X X X X
¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;R R^u T0  Ni;P Dh^oi;P  Ni;P R^u T0
i i i i
!
X X X X
¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P þ Ni;P  Ni;R R^u T0
i i i i
(2.31)

Therefore, HHV for combustion processes is calculated as

 
P P
Q0rxn;v  Ni;P  Ni;R R^u T0
i i
HHV ¼ ; (2.32)
Nfuel Mfuel
where Nfuel is the number of moles of fuel burned and Mfuel is the molecular
mass of the fuel. The negative sign in front of Q0rxn;v is to make sure that HHV is
positive. For a general fuel, CaHbOg, the difference between –Qrxn,v and –Qrxn,p is
!  
X X b g
Ni;P  ^ ^
Ni;R Ru T0 ¼ DN Ru T0 ¼ þ  1 R^u T0 (2.33)
i i
4 2

and is usually small in comparison to HHV; therefore normally no distinction is

made between the heat of reaction at constant pressure or constant volume.

2.3.2.1 Experimental Determination of HHV: The Bomb Calorimeter

To experimentally measure the heating value of a fuel, the fuel and air are often
enclosed in an explosive-proof steel container (see Fig. 2.2), whose volume does
not change during a reaction. The vessel is then submerged in water or another
liquid that absorbs the heat of combustion. The heat capacitance of the vessel plus
the liquid is then measured using the same technique as other calorimeters. Such an
instrument is called a bomb calorimeter.
A constant-volume analysis of the bomb calorimeter data is used to determine
the heating value of a particular fuel. The fuel is burned with sufficient oxidizer in a
closed system. The closed system is cooled by heat transfer to the surroundings
such that the final temperature is the same as the initial temperature. The standard
conditions are set for evaluation of heating values. Conservation of energy gives

UP  UR ¼ Q0rxn;v (2.34)

Thermocouple
Stirrer Igniter

Insulated container
filled with water

Reaction chamber
(bomb)

Sample cup

Fig. 2.2 Bomb calorimeter

 Because the final water temperature is close to room temperature, the water in
the combustion products is usually in liquid phase. Therefore the measurement leads
to the HHV from a constant-volume combustion process as described by Eq. 2.32:
( ! )
X X  
HHV ¼ Q0rxn;v  Ni;P  Ni;R R^u T0 = Nfuel Mfuel ;
i i

where Nfuel is the number of moles of fuel burned and Mfuel is the molecular weight
of the fuel. The negative sign in front of Q0rxn;v ensures that HHV is positive. In a
bomb calorimeter, if the final temperature of the combustion products is higher than
the reactants by only a few degrees (<10 C), the error is negligible. The amount of
heat transfer is estimated by

 Q0rxn;v ¼ ðmsteel  cp;steel þ mwater  cp;water ÞDT; (2.35)

where DT is the temperature change of the water and the steel container.
The bomb calorimeter can also measure the enthalpy of formation of a chemical
species. For instance, to determine enthalpy of formation of H2O, we start out with
1 mol of H2 and 0.5 mol of O2. These element species have zero enthalpy of
formation; therefore
X
Ni;R Dh^i;R ¼ 0:
0

The only product is the species of interest, namely H2O. We therefore can write the
enthalpy of formation of H2O, Dh^i;P0
, as
 
P P
Q0rxn;v þ Ni;P  Ni;R R^u T0
Q0rxn;v þ DN R^u T0
Dh^i;P
0
¼ i i
¼ (2.36)
Ni;P Ni;P

where
X X
DN ¼ Ni;P  Ni;R :
i i

2.3.3 Representative HHV Values

Listed in Table 2.3 are higher heating values of some common and less common fuels.
Example 2.4 A table of thermodynamic data gives the enthalpy of formation
for liquid water as Dh^H0 2 OðlÞ ¼ 285.8 kJ/mol. A bomb calorimeter burning 1 mol of
H2 with O2 measures 282.0 kJ of heat transfer out of the reacted mixture. Estimate
the error of the enthalpy measurement.
Solution:
We start out with the combustion stoichiometry

H2 ðgÞ þ 0:5O2 ðgÞ ¼ H2 OðliqÞ;

DN ¼ 1:5 ðChange in moles of gas in the mixtureÞ

Applying the ideal gas approximation to the energy balance with Q0rxn;v ¼ 282.0 kJ,

Dh^H2 OðlÞ ¼ Q0rxn;v þ DN R^u T0 ;

0

¼ 282:0 kJ/mol  1 mol þ ð1:5 mol  8:314 J/mol  K  298K  0:001 kJ/JÞ
¼ ð282:0  3:72ÞkJ ¼ 285:7 kJ

The error is (285.8  285.7)/285.8 ¼ 0.03%. In this case, more heat is given off
if the reaction is carried out at constant pressure, since the P-V work (1.5R^u T0 ) due
to the compression of 1.5 mol of gases in the reactants would contribute to Dh^H0 2 OðlÞ .
However, this difference is only about 1–2% of the enthalpy of formation. The
enthalpy of formation for gaseous H2O is obtained by adding the latent heat
to Dh^H0 2 OðlÞ :

Dh^H0 2 OðgÞ ¼ Dh^H0 2 OðlÞ þ h^fg ¼ 241:88 kJ/mol;

Table 2.3 Heat values of various fuels

Heating value
Fuel MJ/kg BTU/lb kJ/mol
Hydrogen 141.8 61,100 286
Methane 55.5 23,900 890
Ethane 51.9 22,400 1,560
Propane 50.35 21,700 2,220
Butane 49.5 20,900 2,877
Gasoline 47.3 20,400 ~5,400
Paraffin 46 19,900 16,300
Diesel 44.8 19,300 ~4,480
Coal 15–27 8,000–14,000 200–350
Wood 15 6,500 300
Peat 6–15 2,500–6,500
Methanol 22.7 9,800 726
Ethanol 29.7 12,800 1,368
Propanol 33.6 14,500 2,020
Acetylene 49.9 21,500 1,300
Benzene 41.8 18,000 3,270
Ammonia 22.5 9,690 382
Hydrazine 19.4 8,370 622
Hexamine 30.0 12,900 4,200
Carbon 32.8 14,100 393.5
where

h^fg ¼ 43:92 kJ/mol:

Example 2.5 The heat released by 1 mol of sugar in a bomb calorimeter experiment
is 5,648 kJ/mol. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion per mole of sugar.
Solution:
The balanced chemical reaction equation is

C12 H22 O11 ðsÞ þ 12O2 ðgÞ ¼ 12CO2 ðgÞ þ 11H2 OðliqÞ

Since the total number of moles of gas is constant (12) in the products and reactants,
DN ¼ 0. Therefore, work is zero and the enthalpy of combustion equals the heat
transfer: 5,648 kJ/mol.

2.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature

One of the most important features of a combustion process is the highest temperature
of the combustion products that can be achieved. The temperature of the products
will be greatest when there are no heat losses to the surrounding environment and all of
the energy released from combustion is used to heat the products. In the next two
sections, the methodology used to calculate the maximum temperature, or adiabatic
flame temperature, will be presented.

2.4.1 Constant-Pressure Combustion Processes

An adiabatic constant-pressure analysis is used here to calculate the adiabatic flame

temperature. Under this idealized condition, conservation of energy is:

HP ðTP Þ ¼ HR ðTR Þ; (2.37)

where
X X
HP ðTP Þ ¼ Ni;P h^i;P ¼ Ni;P ½Dh^oi;P þ h^si;P ðTP Þ
i i

and
X X
HR ðTR Þ ¼ Ni;R h^i;R ¼ Ni;R ½Dh^oi;R þ h^si;R ðTR Þ:
i i

Figure 2.3 is a graphic explanation of how the adiabatic flame temperature is

determined. At the initial reactant temperature, the enthalpy of the product mixture
 HR (T)
HR (TR) = Hp (TP)
HR (TR)
Enthalpy Ο x

Energy
Release
HP(T)

Ο
HP (TR)

Reactant Adiabatic Flame

Temperature Temperature
Temperature, T

Fig. 2.3 Graphical interpretation of adiabatic flame temperature

is lower than that of the reactant mixture. The energy released from combustion
is used to heat up the products such that the condition HP ðTP Þ ¼ HR ðTR Þ is met.
The task is finding the product temperature given the enthalpy of reactants.
Three different methods can be used to obtain TP:
1. Using an average cp value,
2. An iterative enthalpy balance,
3. Finding the equilibrium state using computer software (such as Cantera).
The first two methods can be performed manually if complete combustion is
considered and provide only quick estimates. An equilibrium state solver takes into
account dissociation of products at high temperature, making it more accurate than
the first two methods.
Method 1: Constant, average cp
From conservation of energy, Hp ðTp Þ ¼ HR ðTR Þ, which can be expressed as
X X
Ni;P ½Dh^oi;P þ h^si;P ðTP Þ ¼ Ni;R ½Dh^oi;R þ h^si;R ðTR Þ
i i

Rearranging yields
( )
X X X X
Ni;P h^si;P ðTP Þ ¼  Ni;P Dh^oi;P  Ni;R Dh^oi;R þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
i i i i
X
¼ Q0rxn;p þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ (2.38)
i
with
X X
 Q0rxn;p ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P : (2.39)
i i

Note that water in the products is likely in gas phase due to the high combustion
temperature; therefore  Q0rxn;p ¼ LHVNfuelMfuel ¼ LHVmf when the fuel is
P
completely consumed. The second term, Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ, in Eq. 2.38 represents
i
the difference of sensible enthalpy between TR and T0 (25 C) for the reactant
mixture. With the assumption that the sensible enthalpy can be approximated by
hˆsi,P(TP)  cˆpi (TP  T0) with cˆpi  constant, we have
X X X
ðTP  T0 Þ Ni;P c^pi  c^p ðTP  T0 Þ Ni;P ¼ Q0rxn;p þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ (2.40)
i i i

Rearranging the equation one finds TP as

P
Q0rxn;p þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
TP ¼ T0 þ Pi
Ni;P c^pi
i
Q0rxn;p
 TR þ P (2.41)
Ni;P c^pi
i
LHV  Nfuel  Mfuel
¼ TR þ P ;
Ni;P c^pi
i

where the following approximation has been applied4

P P
Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ Ni;R c^p i;R ðTR  T0 Þ
i
P ¼ i
P  TR  T0
Ni;P c^pi Ni;P c^pi
i i

When reactants enter the combustor at the standard conditions, the above
equation reduces to (as sensible enthalpies of reactants are zero at T0)

LHV  Nfuel  Mfuel

TP ¼ T0 þ P : (2.42)
Ni;P c^pi
i

P P
4
Ni;R c^p i;R and Ni;p c^pi are assumed to be approximately equal.
i i
 The above procedure is general and can be applied to any mixture. Note that
the specific heat is a function of temperature, so the accuracy of this approach
depends on the value selected for the specific heat cˆp.
If the heating value of a fuel is given, a mass-based analysis for the same control
volume can be conducted. The initial mixture consists of fuel and air with mf and ma,
respectively. By mass conservation, the products have a total mass of mf + ma. The
sensible enthalpy of the products is approximated by Hs,P ¼ (ma + mf ) cp;P  (TP – T0),
where cp;P is an average value of specific heat evaluated at the average temperature of
 where T ¼ ðTp þ TR Þ=2. Similarly, the
the reactants and products, i.e., cp;P ¼ cp ðTÞ;
sensible enthalpy of the reactants is estimated by Hs,R ¼ (ma + mf ) cp;R  (TR – T0),
where cp;R is an average value of specific heat evaluated at the average temperature of
reactants and the standard temperature, i.e., cp;R ¼ cp ðTÞ,  where T ¼ ðTR þ T0 Þ=2.
From conservation of energy, Hs,P equals the amount of heat released from
combustion plus the sensible enthalpy of the reactants, Hs,P ¼ Q0rxn;p þ Hs;R ¼ mfb
LHV þ Hs,R, where mfb is the amount of fuel burned. For fb1, mfb ¼ mf since there
is enough air to consume all the fuel in a lean mixture. For rich combustion (f > 1), the
limiting factor is the amount of air available, ma. Therefore, for f>1, the amount of
fuel burned (with air, ma) is mfb ¼ ma fs , where fs is the stoichiometric fuel/air ratio by
mass. Then the adiabatic flame temperature is calculated for a lean mixture as fb1

mf  LHV þ ðma þ mf Þ cp;R ðTR  T0 Þ

TP ffi T0 þ
ðma þ mf Þ
cp;P
mf  LHV mf =ma  LHV
 TR þ ¼ TR þ (2.43)
ðma þ mf Þ cp;P ð1 þ mf =ma Þcp;P
f  LHV f  fs  LHV
¼ TR þ ¼ TR þ
ð1 þ f Þ
cp;P ð1 þ f  fs Þ
cp;P

where cp;R  cp;P is used in deriving the second line. Similarly, for the rich mixtures
one gets

fs  LHV fs  LHV
fr1 Tp ¼ TR þ ¼ TR þ (2.44)
ð1 þ f Þ
cp;P ð1 þ f  fs Þ
cp;P

Note that fs is very small for hydrocarbon fuels (e.g., fs ¼ 0.058 for methane).
As such, the product (flame) temperature increases almost linearly with equiva-
lence ratio, f, for lean combustion as shown in Fig. 2.4. As expected, the flame
temperature peaks at the stoichiometric ratio. In rich combustion, the flame
temperature decreases with f.
Method 2: Iterative enthalpy balance
A more accurate approach is to find the flame temperature by iteratively assigning
the flame temperature Tp until Hp(Tp)  HR(TR). The enthalpy of reactants is
assumed given. The enthalpy of products can be expressed in the following form
 2500
Estimate with constant cp

2000
Enthalpy balance
Temperature (K)

1500 Simulated flame

1000 Equilibrium

500

0
0.1 1 10
Equivalence Ratio, φ

Fig. 2.4 Comparison of flame temperatures with different approaches

X X X
HP ðTP Þ ¼ Ni;P h^i;P ¼ Ni;P ½Dh^oi;P þ h^si;P ðTP Þ ¼ HR ðTR Þ ¼ Ni;R h^i;R
i i i

Next, we rearrange the above equation to find an expression for the sensible
enthalpy of the products as
X X X X
Ni;P Dh^oi;P þ Ni;P h^si;P ðTP Þ ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
i i i i
X X X X
Ni;P h^si;P ðTP Þ ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ (2.45)
i i i i
X X
Ni;P h^si;P ðTP Þ ¼ Q0rxn;p þ Ni;P h^si;R ðTR Þ:
i i

With an initial guess of flame temperature, Tp1, one evaluates Hp(Tp1) from tables
such as those in Appendix 3. If Hp(Tp1) < HR(TR), we guess a higher flame temper-
ature, Tp2. One repeats this process until the two closest temperatures are found
such that Hp(Tf1) < HR(TR) < Hp(Tf2). The product temperature can be estimated by
linear interpolation. This method, although more accurate, still assumes complete
combustion to the major products.
Method 3: Equilibrium State (Free software: Cantera; Commercial software:
Chemkin)
Dissociation5 of products at high temperature (T > 1,500 K at ambient pressure) can
take a significant portion of energy from combustion and hence the product

5
Dissociation is the separation of larger molecules into smaller molecules. For example,
2H2O ↔2H2 + O2.
temperature is lower than that calculated with only major components as products.
The equilibrium state determines the species concentrations and temperature
under certain constraints such as constant enthalpy, pressure, or temperature. The
equilibrium flame temperature is expected to be lower than the temperatures
estimated with Method 1 or Method 2. In addition, the chemical equilibrium state
is often used in combustion engineering as a reference point for chemical kinetics
(the subject of Chap. 3) if infinite time is available for chemical reactions. At this
ideal state, forward and backward reaction rates of any chemical reaction steps are
balanced. By constraining certain variables such as constant pressure and enthalpy,
the chemical equilibrium state can be determined by minimizing the Gibbs
free energy, even without knowledge of the chemical kinetics. Computer programs
(such as STANJAN, Chemkin, Cantera) are preferred for this task, as hand
calculations are time consuming.

2.4.2 Comparison of Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Calculation Methods

The presented methods of estimating adiabatic flame temperature will produce

different values from each other. Predicted adiabatic flame temperatures of a
methane/air mixture at ambient pressure using these methods are compared in
Fig. 2.4 for a range of equivalence ratios. Also included are the results from a
flame calculation using a detailed, non-equilibrium flame model. On the lean side,
the results agree reasonably well among all methods, as the major products are CO2,
H2O, unburned O2, and N2. Visible deviations arise near stoichiometric conditions
and become larger in richer mixtures. One reason for the deviation is the assump-
tions made about product species in the rich mixtures. For rich mixtures at the
equilibrium state, CO is preferred over CO2 due to the deficiency in O2. Because the
conversion of CO into CO2 releases a large amount of energy, the rich mixture
equilibrium temperatures are lower than those from the flame calculation, which
has a residence time of less than 1 s. Among the methods, the results from the
detailed flame model calculations are closest to reality, as real flames have finite
residence times and generally do not reach equilibrium.
Example 2.6. Estimate the adiabatic flame temperature of a constant-pressure reactor
burning a stoichiometric mixture of H2 and air at 101.3 kPa and 25 C at the inlet.
Solution:
The combustion stoichiometry is H2(g) þ 0.5 (O2(g) +3.76 N2(g)) !
H2O (g) þ 1.88 N2(g)
X X
Q0rxn;p ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P
i i

¼ Dh^oH2 þ 0:5Dh^oO2 þ 1:88Dh^oN2  1  Dh^oH2O

¼ 0 þ 0 þ 0  1 mol  ð241:88 kJ/molÞ ¼ 241:88 kJ
Method 1: Assuming a constant (average) c^p at 1,500 K,
c^p; H2 Oð1; 500 KÞ ¼ 0:0467 kJ/mol  K
and

c^p;N2 ð1;500 KÞ ¼ 0:0350 kJ/mol  K:

P
Q0rxn;p þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
Tp ¼ T0 þ Pi
Ni;p c^p;i
i
ð241:88 þ 0ÞkJ=mol
¼ 300 þ
ð0:047 þ 1:88  0:035Þ kJ/mol  K
2;148 K

The average temperature of the products and reactants is now (2,148 K + 298 K)/
2 ~ 1,223 K, indicating that the initial assumption of Tave ¼ 1,500 K was too high.
Using the new average temperature of 1,223 K to evaluate the specific heats, the
calculated flame temperature becomes Tp ~ 2,253 K. The average temperature is now
Tave ¼ 1,275 K. This new average temperature can be used to calculate the specific
heats and the process should be continued until the change in the average temperature
is on the order of 20 K. By doing this procedure, we obtain TP ~ 2,230 K.
Method 2: Iterative enthalpy balance:

HP ðTP Þ ¼ HR ðTR Þ
X X X X
Ni;p Dh^oi;p þ Ni;p h^si;p ðTp Þ ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
i i i i

NH2 O Dh^oH2 O þ NH2 O h^s;H2 O ðTP Þ þ NN2 Dh^oN2 þ NN2 h^s;N2 ðTP Þ
¼ NH Dh^o þ NH h^s;H ðTR Þ þ NO Dh^o þ NO h^s;O ðTR Þ
2 H2 2 2 2 O2 2 2

þ NN2 Dh^oN2 þ NN2 h^s;N2 ðTR Þ

1  Dh^0H2 O þ h^s;H2 O ðTP Þ þ 0 þ 1:88  h^s;N2 ðTP Þ ¼ 0 þ 0 þ 0 þ 0 þ 0 þ 0

Dh^0H2 O þ h^s;H2 O ðTP Þ þ 1:88  h^s;N2 ðTP Þ ¼ 0:

The first step is to guess the product temperature. For this case, let’s pick
TP ¼ 2,000 K. We now plug in the value for the heat of formation of water and
use thermodynamic property tables to evaluate the sensible enthalpy terms.

TP (K) HP(TP) (MJ)

2,000 K 241.83 + 72.69 + 1.88·56.14 ¼ 63.6 MJ
2,500 K 241.83 + 98.96 + 1.88·74.31 ¼ 3.1 MJ
 Our initial guess of TP ¼ 2,000 K was too low. The process was repeated with a
higher guess of TP ¼ 2,500 K which resulted in a much smaller remainder, implying
that TP ~ 2,500 K. For more accuracy, we can use linear extrapolation (or interpolation
if we bracketed the real value):

TP  2; 500 0 þ 3:1
¼
2;500  2;000 3:1 þ 63:6

TP ¼ 2;526K

Method 3: Cantera. Assume H2, O2, and H2O are the only species in the system;
equilibrium temperature is 2,425.1 K. The equilibrium mole fractions are listed
below

Mole fractions
Species xreactant xproduct
H2 0.2958 0.0153
O2 0.1479 0.0079
N2 0.5563 0.6478
H2O 0 0.3286

Note that there is a small amount (~1.5%) of H2 existing in the products due to
the dissociation of H2O at high temperature. Results of the above three methods
agree with each other within 100–200 K which is less than 12% of the flame
temperature. If radicals, such as H, OH, and O, are also included in the products,
the equilibrium temperature drops to 2,384 K because additional dissociation
occurs. This 41 K difference is about 1.7% of the flame temperature.
Example 2.7 The space shuttle burns liquid hydrogen and oxygen in the main
engine. To estimate the maximum flame temperature, consider combustion of 1 mol
of gaseous hydrogen with 0.5 mol of gaseous O2 at 101.3 kPa. Determine the
adiabatic flame temperatures using the average cp method.
Solution:
The combustion stoichiometry is

H2ðgÞ þ 0:5O2ðgÞ ! H2 OðgÞ

 Q0rxn;p ¼ LHV of H2 at constant pressure

X X
Q0rxn;p ¼ Ni;R Dh^oi;R  Ni;P Dh^oi;P ¼ Dh^oH2 þ 0:5Dh^oO2  1Dh^oH2O
i i
¼ 0 þ 0  1 molð241:88 kJ/molÞ ¼ 241:88 kJ

Guessing a final temperature of about 3,000 K, we use average specific heats

evaluated at 1,500 K
 P
Q0rxn;p þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
TP ¼ T0 þ Pi
Ni;P c^pi
i
241:88 kJ=mol
¼ 300 K þ
0:047 kJ/mol  K
5; 822 K

Discussion:
This temperature is evidently much higher than the NASA reported value of
~3,600 K. What is the main reason for such a BIG discrepancy? The estimated
temperature is well above 2,000 K and one expects a substantial dissociation of
H2O back to H2 and O2. That is, H2(g) þ 0.5 O2 (g) ↔ H2O (g). Now we use Cantera
or a commercial software program, such as Chemkin, to compute the equilibrium
temperature with only three species H2, O2, and H2O. The predicted adiabatic flame
temperature drops to 3508.7 K. The mole fractions of these three before reaction
and after combustion are listed below.

Species Reactant Product

H2 0.6667 0.2915
O2 0.3333 0.1457
H2O 0 0.5628

As seen in the table, the dissociation is very significant; about 30% of the
products is H2. Let’s find out how much fuel is not burned by considering the
following stoichiometric reaction:

H2 ðgÞ þ 0:5O2 ðgÞ ! X  H2 þ 0:5X  O2 þ ð1  XÞ  H2 OðgÞ

The mole fraction of H2 in the products is

X X
xH2 ¼ ¼ :
X þ 0:5X þ 1  X 0:5X þ 1

With xH2 ¼ 0.2915, we get X ¼ 0.3412. If we assume 66% of fuel is burned, a new
estimate based on c^p at 1,500 K leads to

0:66  241:88 kJ=mol

Tp ¼ 300 K þ 3;700 K
0:047 kJ/mol  K

that is in much better agreement with the equilibrium result. If we estimate c^p
at 1,800 K we get

0:66  241:88 kJ=mole

Tp ¼ 300 K þ 3;514:7 K:
0:04966 kJ/mole  K
If we include additional species, H, OH, and O in the products, the predicted
equilibrium temperature drops to 3,076 K. The table below shows the mole frac-
tions of each species in this case.

Species Reactant Product

H2 0.6667 0.1503
O2 0.3333 0.0510
H2O 0 0.5809
OH 0 0.1077
O 0 0.0330
H 0 0.0771

Evidently, the radicals OH, H, and O take some energy to form; note that their
values for enthalpy of formation are positive. Because the space shuttle engine
operates at 18.94 MPa (2,747 psi, ~186 atm) at 100% power, the pressure needs to
be taken into consideration as the combination of radicals occurs faster at higher
pressures. The predicted equilibrium temperature at 18.94 MPa is 3,832.4 K and the
mole fractions are listed below.

Species Reactant Product

H2 0.6667 0.1169
O2 0.3333 0.0336
H2O 0 0.7051
OH 0 0.1005
O 0 0.0143
H 0 0.0296

The energy needed to vaporize liquid H2 and O2 and heat them from their boiling
temperatures to 25 C are estimated to be 8.84 kJ/mol and 12.92 kJ/mol (energy ¼
latent heat + sensible energy from boiling point to STP). With H2 þ 0.5O2, the total
energy required is then 8.84 þ 0.5·12.92 or about 15.3 kJ/mol. The temperature
drop due to this process is about ~15.3 kJ/(0.049 kJ/mol-K) ¼ 148 K. With this, we
estimate the space shuttle main engine temperature is 3,832  148 K or ~3,675 K.
The following information is used for estimating energy to vaporize H2 and O2:
(1) for H2, latent heat of vaporization 445.7 kJ/kg, boiling temperature ¼ 252.8 C,
cp ~ 4.12 kJ/kg-K; (2) for O2, latent heat of vaporization 212.7 kJ/kg, boiling
temperature ¼ 183 C, cp ~ 0.26 kJ/kg-K.

2.5 Chapter Summary

The following shows the relations among different thermodynamics properties

expressed in terms of mass fractions and mole fractions.
Property Mass fraction, yi Mole fraction xi
Species densityri (kg/m3) ryi rP
K
xi Mi

xj Mj
j¼1

Mole fraction, xi [] yi =Mi –

P
K
yj =Mj
j¼1

Mass fraction, yi, – xi Mi

P
K
xj M j
j¼1

Mixture molecular mass, M (kg/kmol) P

K
1 P
K
yj =Mj xj Mj
j¼1 j¼1

Internal energy of mixture, u (kJ/kg) P

K P
K
yj  u j 1
M xj  u^j
j¼1 j¼1

Enthalpy of mixture, h (kJ/kg) P

K P
K
yj  h j 1
M xj  h^j
j¼1 j¼1

Entropy of mixture, s (kJ/kg-K) P

K P
K
s j  hj 1
M xj  s^j
j¼1 j¼1

Specific heat at constant pressure cp(kJ/kg-K) P

K P
K
yj  cpj 1
M xj  c^pj
j¼1 j¼1

Specific heat at constant volume cv (kJ/kg-K) P

K P
K
yj  cvj 1
M xj  c^vj
j¼1 j¼1

Internal energy of mixture, u^ (kJ/kmol) P

K P
K
M yj  uj xj  u^j
j¼1 j¼1

Enthalpy of mixture, h^ (kJ/kmol) P

K P
K
M yj  hj xj  h^j
j¼1 j¼1

Entropy of mixture, ^s (kJ/kmol-K) P

K P
K
M yj  sj xj  s^j
j¼1 j¼1

Specific heat at constant pressure c^p (kJ/kmol-K) P

K P
K
M yj  cpj xj  c^pj
j¼1 j¼1

Specific heat at constant volume c^v (kJ/kmol-K) P

K P
K
M yj  cvj xj  c^vj
j¼1 j¼1

Definitions
Enthalpy of combustion or heat of combustion: Ideal amount of energy that can
be released by burning a unit amount of fuel.
Enthalpy of reaction or heat of reaction: Energy that must be supplied in the
form of heat to keep a system at constant temperature and pressure during a reaction.
Enthalpy of formation or heat of formation: Heat of reaction per unit of product
needed to form a species by reaction from the elements at the most stable conditions.
Combustion stoichiometry for a general hydrocarbon fuel, Ca Hb Og
   
b g b b g
Ca Hb Og þ a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ ! aCO2 þ H2 O þ 3:76 a þ  N2
4 2 2 4 2

Variables to quantify combustible mixtures

m
Fuel/air ratio by weight: f ¼ maf
m
For stoichiometric mixture: fs ¼ masf
Equivalence ratio: f ¼ fs ¼ ma
f mas

1=f
Normalized air/fuel ratio l ¼ AFR
AFR
s
¼ 1=f s
¼ f =f1 s ¼ f1
Percent of excess air
   
ðma  mas Þ ma 1
%EA ¼ 100 ¼ 100  1 ¼ 100 1
mas mas f

Global equation for lean combustion fb1

 
1 b g
Ca Hb Og þ a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ
f 4 2
    
b 3:76 b g b g 1
! aCO2 þ H2 O þ a þ  N2 þ a þ   1 O2
2 f 4 2 4 2 f

in terms of l
 
b g
Ca Hb Og þ l a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ
4 2
   
b b g b g
! aCO2 þ H2 O þ 3:76  l  a þ  N2 þ ðl  1Þ a þ  O2
2 4 2 4 2

Global equation for rich combustion f>1with the assumption that products contain
unburned fuel
 
1 b g
Ca Hb Og þ a þ  ðO2 þ 3:76N2 Þ
f 4 2
   
a b 3:76 b g 1
! CO2 þ H2 O þ a þ  N2 þ 1  Ca Hb Og
f 2f f 4 2 f

Enthalpy of formation (heat of formation) determined by bomb calorimeter

Q0rxn;v þ DN  R^u T0
Dh^oi ¼
Ni;P
X X b g
DN ¼ Ni;P  Ni;R ¼ þ  1
i i
4 2
 where Q0rxn;v is the heat released from a constant-volume reactor where the
products and reactants are at STP.
Heating values at STP (T0) from a constant-volume reactor
 
P P P P
Ni;R Dh^i;R  Ni;P Dh^i;P þ Ni;R R^u T0
o o
Ni;p 
i i i i
HHV ¼ ðMJ=kgÞ
Nfuel Mfuel

NH2O;P MH2O hfg

LHV ¼ HHV  ; hfg ¼ 2;440kJ=kg
Nfuel Mfuel

Heating values at STP (T0) determined from a constant-pressure reactor

P P
Ni;R Dh^i;R  Ni;P Dh^i;P
o o

i i
HHV ¼
Nfuel Mfuel

Adiabatic flame temperature for reactants at standard conditions

Method 1: Estimate based on average c^p values
P
Nfuel Mfuel LHV þ Ni;R h^si;R ðTR Þ
TP ¼ T0 þ P i
Ni;P c^pi
i

Nfuel Mfuel LHV

TP  TR þ P
Ni;P c^pi
i

or if mixture is not stoichiometric: mass-base analysis using LHV and f

f  LHV f  fs  LHV
f b 1 TP ¼ TR þ ¼ TR þ
ð1 þ f Þ
cp ð1 þ f  fs Þ
cp
fs  LHV fs  LHV
f > 1 TP ¼ T R þ ¼ TR þ
ð1 þ f Þ
cp ð1 þ f  fs Þ
cp

Method 2: Enthalpy Balance

HP ðTP Þ ¼ HR ðTR Þ
X X
HP ðTP Þ ¼ Ni;P h^i;P ¼ Ni;P ½Dh^oi;P þ h^si;P ðTP Þ
i i

Trial and error of TP such that HP(TP) matches HR(TR)

Exercises

2.1 Consider an isentropic combustion system with a total of K species. Assuming

constant specific heats, show that the mixture temperature and pressure at two
different states are related to the respective pressures as
 ðg1Þ=g
T2 P2
¼
T1 P1
where

P
K
mi cp;i
i¼1
g¼ :
PK
mi cv;i
i¼1

2.2 Measurements of exhaust gases from a methane-air combustion system show

3% of oxygen by volume (dry base) in the exhaust. Assuming complete
combustion, determine the excess percentage of air, equivalence ratio, and
fuel/air ratio.
2.3 There has been a lot of interest about replacing gasoline with ethanol, but is
this really a good idea? We’re going to compare a blend of ethanol (70%
ethanol and 30% gasoline by volume) to gasoline. Calculate the lower heating
value (LHV) of a 70% ethanol/30% isooctane mixture in terms of kJ/mol of
fuel. Assume complete combustion. How does this compare to the tabulated
value for gasoline (isooctane)? Assuming a 20% thermal efficiency, if you
need to get 100 kW of power from an engine, how much of each fuel (in mol/
s) do you need? If you have a stoichiometric mixture of the ethanol/gasoline
blend and air in your 100 kW engine, how much CO2 are you emitting in g/s?
How does this compare to the same engine running a stoichiometric mixture
of 100% gasoline and air?
2.4 Gasoline is assumed to have a chemical composition of C8.26 H15.5.
(a) Determine the mole fractions of CO2 and O2 in the exhaust for an engine
with normalized air/fuel ratio l ¼ 1.2 with the assumption of complete
combustion.
(b) The enthalpy of formation of C8.26 H15.5 is 250 MJ/kmol. Determine the
LHV of gasoline in terms of MJ/kg. The molecular mass of C8.26 H15.5 is
114.62 kg/kmol.
(c) Using an average cp for the products at 1,200 K, estimate the adiabatic
flame temperature at constant pressure of 1 atm for the lean (l ¼ 1.2)
mixture.
2.5 A mixture of methane gas and air at 25 C and 1 atm is burned in a water
heater at 150% theoretical air. The mass flow rate of methane is 1.15 kg/h.
The exhaust gas temperature was measured to be 500 C and approximately
 Additional
Q
propane Q

3-way
catalyst

heater Station 1 Station 2

T1 = 500K T2
T0
φ = 0.8

Fig. 2.5 Exercise 2.7

1 atm. The volumetric flow rate of cold water (at 22 C) to the heater is
4 L/min.
(a) Draw a schematic of the water heater and name its most important
elements.
(b) Using Cantera, determine the amount of heat generated from burning of
1 kg of methane.
(c) Calculate the temperature of the hot water if the heat exchanger were to
have an efficiency of 1.0, i.e., perfect heat transfer.
2.6 An acetylene-oxygen torch is used in industry for cutting metals.
(a) Estimate the maximum flame temperature using average specific heat cp.
(b) Measurements indicate a maximum flame temperature of about 3,300 K.
Compare with the result from (a) and discuss the main reasons for the
discrepancy.
2.7 A space heater burns propane and air with intake temperature at T0 ¼ 25 C
and pressure at 1 atm (see Fig. 2.5). The combustible mixture enters the heater
at an equivalence ratio f ¼ 0.8. The exhaust gases exit at temperature
T1 ¼ 500 K and contain CO2, H2O, O2, and N2 only at station 1. In order to
use a 3-way catalyst for exhaust treatment, additional propane is injected into
the exhaust to consume all the remaining oxygen in the exhaust such that the
gases entering the catalyst contain only CO2, H2O, and N2 at station 2.
Assume that the entire system is at P ¼ 1 atm and complete combustion
occurs in both the heater and in the exhaust section.
(a) The volumetric flow rate of propane entering the heater is 1 L/min.
Determine the injection rate of propane into the exhaust between station
1 and station 2 (see Fig. 2.5). Note that the propane at the injection station
is at the same conditions as heater inlet, i.e., T ¼ 25 C and P ¼ 1 atm.
(b) With the assumption of constant specific heats for the gases, estimate the
temperature at station 2, T2. The specific heat can be approximated by that
of N2 at 700 K as c^p ¼ 30:68 kJ=kmol  K,
46 2 Thermodynamics of Combustion

Fuel:
Tfuel = 25°C
Pfuel = 1 atm
Products
Air:
Tair = 427°C
Pair = 1 atm
.
Qloss

Fig. 2.6 Exercise 2.9

2.8 Two grams of solid carbon, C(s), are combusted with pure oxygen in a
500 cm3 bomb calorimeter initially at 300 K. After the carbon is placed inside
the bomb, the chamber is evacuated and then filled with gaseous oxygen from
a pressurized tank.
(a) Determine the minimum O2 pressure inside the bomb necessary to allow
complete combustion of the solid carbon.
(b) When the bomb is cooled back to its initial temperature of 300 K,
determine the pressure inside the bomb.
2.9 Consider the combustion chamber in a jet engine at cruising altitude. For
simplicity, the combustor is operated at 1 atm of pressure and burns a
stoichiometric (f ¼ 1) mixture of n-heptane (C7H16) and air. The intake
conditions are as indicated in Fig. 2.6.
(a) Write the stoichiometric chemical reaction for the fuel with air.
(b) If the mass flow rate of fuel is 1 kg/s, what is the mass flow rate of air?
(c) What is the rate of heat loss from the combustion chamber if 10% of the
LHV (heat of combustion) of the fuel is lost to surroundings?
(d) What is the temperature of the products?
(e) How does the temperature change if we burn fuel rich (f > 1)? How
about fuel lean (f < 1)? (Hint: Easiest to show with a plot)
2.10 An afterburner is a device used by jet planes to increase thrust by injecting
fuel after the main combustor. A schematic of this system is shown in Fig. 2.7.
In the main combustor, hexane is burned with air at an equivalence ratio of
f ¼ 0.75. The products of the main combustor are CO2, H2O, O2 and N2, all of
which enter the afterburner. In the afterburner, additional hexane is injected
such that the equivalence ratio is f ¼ 1.25. In the afterburner the hexane
reacts with the excess O2 from the main combustor to form CO, H2O, and
CO2 only. Combined with the products of the main combustor, the gases
exiting the afterburner are CO, CO2, H2O, O2 and N2. The entire system is
Exercises 47

CO,
T1 = ?
air main After- CO2,
T = 20oC combustor CO2, H2O, O2, N2 burner H2O,
O 2 , N2
T2 = ?

hexane hexane
T = 20oC T = 20oC

Fig. 2.7 Exercise 2.10

insulated, and the pressure everywhere is atmospheric. The inlet temperature

of the hexane and air is 20 C. Determine the temperature of the exhaust gases
at each stage (Fig. 2.7). Note: An approximate answer is sufficient and it can
be assumed that the specific heats for the gases are constant and approxi-
mately equal to that of N2 at 1,000 K.
http://www.springer.com/978-1-4419-7942-1
 UNIT-II

Boilers

Steam is extensively used for various applications such as power production, industrial processes, work
interaction, heating etc. With the increasing use of steam in different engineering systems the steam
generation technology has also undergone various developments starting from 100 B.C. when Hero of
Alexandria invented a combined reaction turbine and boiler.

Boiler, also called steam generator is the engineering device which generates steam at constant pressure.
It is a closed vessel, generally made of steel in which vaporization of water takes place. Heat required for
vaporization may be provided by the combustion of fuel in furnace, electricity, nuclear reactor, hot
exhaust gases, solar radiations etc.

Earlier boilers were closed vessels made from sheets of wrought iron which were lapped, riveted and
formed into shapes of simple sphere type or complex sections such as the one shown in Fig. 1.1. It is the
‘Wagon boiler’ of Watt developed in 1788.

According to A.S.M.E. (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, U.S.A.) code a boiler is defined as a
combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing or recovering heat together with the apparatus for
transferring the heat so made available to water which could be heated and vaporized to steam form.
Boiler technology got revolutionized during Second World War, when the need arose for the boilers to
supply steam to field installations. Field requirements were critical as the boiler installation and
commissioning should take place in minimum time. Therefore the ‘Package boilers’ which were complete
with all auxiliaries as one unit came up and gradually transformed into modern boiler having lot of
accessories and mountings. Thus in a boiler other than heat supplying unit, shell and tubes, a number of
other devices are
used for its control, safe and efficient operation. Devices which are mounted on boiler for its control and
safe operation are called “mountings” while devices which are mounted on boiler for improving its
performance are called “accessories”. Thus boiler mountings are necessary while boiler accessories are
optional.

Types of Boilers

Boilers are of many types. Depending upon their features they can be classified as given under:

(a) Based upon the orientation/axis of the shell: According to the axis of shell boiler can be classified as
vertical boiler and horizontal boiler.
(i) Vertical boiler has its shell vertical.
(ii) Horizontal boiler has its shell horizontal.
(iii) Inclined boiler has its shell inclined.
(b) Based upon utility of boiler: Boilers can be classified as
(i) Stationery boiler, such boilers are stationery and are extensively used in power plants,
industrial processes, heating etc.
(ii) Portable boiler, such boilers are portable and are of small size. These can be of the
following types,
Locomotive boiler, which are exclusively used in locomotives. Marine boiler, which are used for

marine applications.

(c) Based on type of firing employed: According to the nature of heat addition process boilers can be
classified as,
(i) Externally fired boilers, in which heat addition is done externally i.e. furnace is outside
the boiler unit. Such as Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler etc.
(ii) Internally fired boilers, in which heat addition is done internally i.e. furnace is within the
boiler unit. Such as Cochran boiler, Bobcock Wilcox boiler etc.
(d) Based upon the tube content: Based on the fluid inside the tubes, boilers can be,
(i) Fire tube boilers, such boilers have the hot gases inside the tube and water is outside
surrounding them. Examples for these boilers are, Cornish boiler, Cochran boiler,
Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler etc.
(ii) Water tube boilers, such boilers have water flowing inside the tubes and hot gases surround
them. Examples for such boilers are Babcock-Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-Mont
boiler, Benson boiler etc.

(e) Based on type of fuel used: According to the type of fuel used the boilers can be,
(i) Solid fuel fired boilers, such as coal fired boilers etc.
(ii) Liquid fuel fired boilers, such as oil fired boilers etc.
(iii) Gas fired boilers, such as natural gas fired boilers etc.

(f) Based on circulation: According to the flow of water and steam within the boiler circuit the boilers
may be of following types,
(i) Natural circulation boilers, in which the circulation of water/steam is caused by the density
difference which is due to the temperature variation.
(ii) Forced circulation boilers, in which the circulation of water/steam is caused by a pump i.e.
externally, assisted circulation.

(g) Based on extent of firing: According to the extent of firing the boilers may be,

(i) Fired boilers, in which heat is provided by fuel firing.

(iii) Unfired boilers, in which heat is provided by some other source except fuel firing such
as hot flue gases etc.
(iv) Supplementary fired boilers, in which a portion of heat is provided by fuel firing and
remaining by some other source.

Fire and Water tube Boilers

Fire tube boilers are those boilers in which hot gases (combustion products) flow inside the tubes and
water surrounds them. Water extracts heat for its phase transformation from the hot gases flowing inside
the tubes, thus heat is indirectly transferred from hot gas to water through a metal interface.

Such boilers came up in eighteenth century and were extensively used for steam
generation in variety of applications. With the passage of time and coming up of another types of boilers
the fire tube boilers have lost their charm to some extent due to limitations in terms of steam pressure.
Fire tube boilers are used for applications having small steam requirement. Different types of fire tube
boilers have been discussed ahead.

Water tube boilers are those boilers in which water flows inside the tubes and hot gases surround them.
This type of boilers came up as a solution to the problem of explosion faced in fire tube boilers when the
pressure and steam generation capacity were increased. In such boilers the shell behaved as heated
pressure vessel subjected to internal pressure which set up tensile stresses (hoop stress) in walls.

Mathematically, this stress can be given as, Hoop stress = P*D/ (2t)

Where P is internal working pressure, D is diameter of shell and t is thickness of shell wall.

Above expression shows that if ‘P’ (pressure) increases then either ‘D’ (diameter) should be decreased
or‘t’ (thickness) be increased to keep stress within acceptable limits. While increasing thickness the mass
of boiler and cost of manufacturing both increase therefore the reduction of ‘D’ (diameter) is an attractive
option. This became the basis for water tube boilers in which small diameter of tube facilitated quite high
pressure steam generation.
Such boilers came up in late eighteenth and nineteenth century. George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox
gave straight-tube boiler of water tube boiler type in 1867 which was subsequently modified and
developed as present ‘Babcock and Wilcox boiler’.
Water tube boilers may be further classified based on type of tubes employed. These can be Straight
water tube boilers and Bent water tube boilers. Straight water tube boilers are those in which tubes
carrying water are straight from one end to the other end. At the two ends headers are provided.

In general water comes down from drum into down header and after passing through tubes get heated and
evaporated to steam which is carried back to drum through up-comer header or riser. Circulation of water
is caused by the density difference as density of feed water is more than density of hot water/wet/dry
steam due to lower temperature of feed water.

Bent water tube boilers are those in which bent tubes are employed for carrying water. Bent water tubes
are advantageous over straight water tubes in many respects. Bent tubes offer better access into boiler and
ease of inspection and maintenance. Also tube arrangement can be modified so as to maximize heating
surface and exposure of tubes to hot gases.

Circulation is better in case of bent tube boilers as compared to straight tube, since the orientation of
tubes in case of former is generally at inclination from vertical while for later it is horizontal. Stirling
boiler is one such boiler. In water tube boilers the heat distribution generally occurs amongst economizer
tubes, evaporator tubes, super heater tubes. Hottest gases are designed to come in contact with super
heater tubes. The
evaporator tubes are in between super heater and economizer tubes.

Simple Vertical Boiler

Simple vertical boiler shown in Fig. 1.4 has a vertical boiler shell of cylindrical shape. It has fire box of
cylindrical type inside the shell. Vertical passage of tubular type called uptake is provided over fire box
for exhaust of flue gases. Cross tubes are provided for improving water circulation and increasing heating
surface. At the bottom of fire box a fire grate is provided for burning fuel. Total heating surface area is
about 7–10 times grate area. Man hole and hand holes are provided in the shell for access to inside of
shell. Hot gases raising from fire grate go upwardly and heat the water contained in shell and tubes.

Steam generated in shell can be tapped through a steam stop valve placed on the crown of shell. Such
boilers have steam generation capacity up to 1000 kg per hour and maximum steam pressure up to 10 bar.
Size of the boiler ranges from 0.6 m diameter to 2 m diameter and height from 1.2 m to 4 m high. Boiler
efficiency is nearly 50%.
Cochran Boiler

This is a fire tube boiler of vertical type and came up as a modification over the simple vertical boiler in
order to maximize heating surface. Total heating surface area is 10–25 times the grate area. It has
cylindrical shell with hemispherical crown. Hemispherical geometry offers maximum volume space for
given mass of material and is also very good for strength and maximization of radiant heat absorption.
Figure. 1.5 shows the schematic of Cochran boiler with various mountings upon it. Fire box is also of
hemispherical form. Flue gases flow from fire box to refractory material lined combustion chamber
through a flue pipe. Incomplete combustion if any can get completed in combustion chamber and hot
gases subsequently enter into tubes. After coming out of fire tubes hot gases enter into smoke box having
chimney upon it. As the fire box is separately located so any type of fuel such as wood, paddy husk, oil
fuel etc. can be easily burnt. These boilers are capable of generating steam up to pressure of 20 bar and
steam generating capacity from 20 kg/hr to 3000 kg/hr. Boilers have dimensions ranging from 1m
diameter and 2 m height to 3 m diameter and 6 m height. Efficiency of such boilers ranges between 70
and 75%.
Lancashire Boiler

It is a horizontal fire tube boiler. General arrangement in the boiler is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Boiler is mounted on brickwork setting with front end of shell sloping about 1: 250 for emptying the
shell. It has a circular shell connected to end plates supported by gusset plates. Two fire tubes run
throughout the length of the boiler. Fire tubes are of diameter less than half the diameter of shell and
diameter of fire tubes is reduced as shown to have access to lower side of boiler.

Fire Bridge is provided to prevent fuel from falling over the end of furnace. Fire bridge also helps in
producing a better mixture of air and gases for perfect combustion by partly enveloping the combustion
space. Hot gases start from grate area, enter into fire tubes and come out at back of boiler from where
these gases flow towards the front of boiler through bottom flue. Upon reaching the front these hot gases
flow through the side flues and enter the main outlet. Outlet passage may also be used commonly by more
than one boilers. About 85% of actual heat transferred is transferred through surface of fire tubes while
15% is transferred through bottom and side flues.
Plan, elevation and side views of Lancashire boiler shown in figure explain the furnace,

different firetubes, bottom flues, side flues etc. Dampers are provided at the end of side flues for
regulating the pressure difference (draught) for exit of burnt gases. Other mountings and accessories are
shown in the elevation of Lancashire boiler.
Cornish Boiler

This is a horizontal fire tube boiler having single flue gas tube. General arrangement is very similar to
Lancashire boiler. Water surrounds the flue gas tube in the shell. Hot flue gases after passing through the
tube are divided into two portions at the end of boiler and pass through side flue passages to reach upto
the front of boiler and then enter into bottom flue gas passage for escaping out through chimney after
traversing the entire length of bottom passage. Hot gases thus traverse complete length of passage from
end to end of boiler thrice i.e. through main flue gas tube, side flues and bottom flues. Heat transfer is
more from side flues than bottom flue due to sedimentation in bottom. These boilers are generally capable
of producing steam up to the rate of 1350 kg/hr and maximum steam pressure up to 12 bar. Shell is
generally of length 4 to 7 m and diameter
1.2 to 1.8 m.

Locomotive Boiler

These boilers were invented for getting steam to run a steam engine used in locomotives. These are fire
tube type of boilers. It has basically three parts i.e. smoke box, shell and fire box. Figure 1.8 shows a
general arrangement in locomotive boiler.

Inside fire box the fuel (coal) is burnt over the grate. For feeding fuel the fire hole is used. Hot gases
produced in fire box are diverted by fire brick arch and enter into the fire tubes surrounded with water.
Steam produced gets collected in a steam drum fitted on top
of the shell. Arrangement for super heating is there in these boilers.
As shown the wet steam goes through inlet headers of super heater and after passing through tubes, it
returns to the outlet header of super heater and is taken out for steam engine. A very large door is
provided at the end of smoke box so as to facilitate cleaning and maintenance of complete boiler.

As it is a moving boiler, therefore, its chimney is completely eliminated. For expelling the burnt gases
(draught) the exhaust steam coming out from steam engine is being used. Thus it is an artificial draught
used in these boilers for expelling burnt gases.

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

It is a water tube boiler suitable for meeting demand of increased pressure and large evaporation capacity
or large sized boiler units. Figure 1.9 shows the Babcock and Wilcox boiler. It has three main parts:

(i) Steam and water drum

(ii) Water tubes
(iii) Furnace.
Steam and water drum is a long drum fabricated using small shells riveted together. End cover plates can
be opened as and when required. Mountings are mounted on drum as shown. Drum is followed by water
tubes which are arranged below drum and connected to one another and drum through headers. Header in
which water flows from drum to tubes is called down take header while headers in which flow is from
tubes to drum is called uptake header.

Soot deposition takes place in mud box which is connected to down take header. “Blow off cock” for
blowing out the sediments settled in mud box is shown in figure. Super heater tubes are also shown in the
arrangement, which are U-shape tubes placed horizontally between drum and water tubes. Superheating
of steam is realized in super heater tubes.

Below the super heater and water tubes is the furnace, at the front of which fuel feed hopper is attached.
Mechanical stoker is arranged below the hopper for feeding fuel. Bridge wall and baffles made of fire
resistant bricks are constructed so as to facilitate hot gases moving upward from the grate area, then
downwards and again upwards before escaping to the chimney. A smoke box is put at the back of furnace
through which smoke goes out via chimney, put at top of smoke box. A damper is used for regulating
pressure difference (draught) causing expulsion of hot gases.
The complete boiler unit with all mountings and accessories is suspended by steel slings from girders
resting on steel columns. It is done so as to permit free expansion and contraction of boiler parts with
temperature.

High Pressure Boiler

High pressure boilers generally operate in supercritical range. Need of such boilers is felt because high
pressure and temperature of steam generated in boiler improves plant efficiency. These boilers have
forced circulation of water/steam in the boiler. This forced circulation is maintained by employing
suitable pump. The steam drum is of very small size and in some cases it may be even absent too. This is
because of using forced circulation. In case of natural circulation drum size has to be large. Schematic of
high pressure boiler is shown in figure 1.10. In fact the high pressure boilers have been possible because
of availability of high temperature resistant materials. Here direct heating of water tubes is done by the
excessively hot gases present in fire box. The fire box has large volume as otherwise exposed water tubes
shall melt. Heat is picked by number of parallel tubes containing water. These parallel tubes appear as if
it is a wall
due to close spacing of tubes. Water circulation circuit is shown in line diagram.

High pressure boilers may have natural circulation in case the steam pressure desired lies between 100
and 170 bar and size is not constraint. High pressure boilers have capability of generating larger quantity
of steam per unit of furnace volume.

High pressure boilers are disadvantageous from safety point of view and therefore, stringent reliability
requirements of mountings is there.

Benson Boiler

It is a water tube boiler capable of generating steam at supercritical pressure. Figure 1.11 Shows the
schematic of Benson boiler. Mark benson, 1992 conceived the idea of
generating steam at supercritical pressure in which water flashes into vapour without any latent heat
requirement. Above critical point the water transforms into steam in the absence of boiling and
without any change in volume i.e. same density. Contrary to the bubble formation on tube surface
impairing heat transfer in the normal pressure boilers, the supercritical steam generation does not have
bubble formation and pulsations etc. due to it. Steam generation also occurs very quickly in these
boilers. As the pressure
 and temperatures have to be more than critical point, so material of construction should be strong
enough to withstand thermal stresses. Feed pump has to be of large capacity as pressure inside is quite
high, which also lowers the plant efficiency due to large negative work requirement. Benson boilers
generally have steam generation pressure more than critical pressure and steaming rate of about 130–
135 tons/hr. Thermal efficiency of these boilers is of the order of 90%.

La Mont Boiler

This is a water tube boiler having forced circulation. Schematic showing the arrangement inside boiler is
given in Fig. 1.12. Boiler has vertical shell having three distinct zones having water tubes in them,
namely evaporator section, superheater section and economizer section.

Feed water is fed from feed pump to pass through economizer tubes. Hot water from economizer goes
into drum from where hot feed water is picked up by a circulating pump. Centrifugal pump may be
steam driven or of electric driven type. Pump increases pressure and water circulates through
evaporation section so as to get converted into steam and enters back to drum. Steam available in drum
enters into superheater tubes and after getting superheated steam leaves through steam main.
Boiler Mountings and Accessories

Boiler mountings and accessories have been defined earlier and shown on the different boilers. Different
mountings are

(i) Water level indicator

(ii) Safety valves
(iii) High steam and low water safety valves
(iv) Fusible plug
(v) Pressure gauge
(vi) Stop valve
(vii) Feed check valve
(viii) Blow off cock
(ix) Manhole and mud box
Various boiler accessories are:

(i) Superheater
(ii) Economiser
(iii) Air preheater
(iv) Feed pump
Water level indicator: It is used for knowing the level of water in boiler as water level inside boiler
should not go below a certain limit. General arrangement is shown in Fig.
1.13 with the different parts in it. It has two tubes one is front glass tube while other is metal tube.
Water level is seen through glass tube which is made strong enough to withstand
high steam pressure and temperature. Two control cocks are provided for regulating steam and water
passage from boiler to glass tube.

For blow off purpose a blowing cock is also provided as shown. In case of breakage of glass tube the
possibility of accident is prevented by providing two balls. As glass tube breaks the rush of water and
steam carries the two balls with it and closes the openings for glass tube, thus water and steam flowing
out can be prevented. Numbers of other types of water level indicators are also available.
Safety valve: Its function is to prevent the steam pressure from exceeding a limiting maximum pressure
value. Safety valve should operate automatically by releasing excess steam and bring pressure down
within safe limits. These are of different types such as ‘dead weight safety valve’, ‘lever safety valve’
‘spring loaded safety valve’ etc. Figure
1.14 gives the general description of ‘dead weight safety valve’.

It has a large vertical pipe on the top of which a valve seat is fixed. Valve rests upon this valve seat. A
weight carrier is hung on the top of valve upon which cast iron rings enclosed in cast iron cover are
placed in weight carrier as dead weight.

When the pressure of steam exceeds the total weight of valve, it is lifted and falls back as steam pressure
gets reduced.

It has a large vertical pipe on the top of which a valve seat is fixed. Valve rests upon this valve seat. A
weight carrier is hung on the top of valve upon which cast iron rings enclosed in cast iron cover are
placed in weight carrier as dead weight.

When the pressure of steam exceeds the total weight of valve, it is lifted and falls back as steam pressure
gets reduced.

Fusible plug: It is a safety device used for preventing the level of water from going
down below a critical point and thus avoid overheating. Fusible plug is mounted at crown plate of
combustion chamber.

Fusible plug has gun metal body and a copper plug put with fusible metal at interface of copper plug and
gun metal body. As water level goes down the heat available from furnace could not be completely
utilized for steam formation and so the overheating may cause melting of fusible metal.

Fusible metal is a low melting point metal. Thus upon melting of lining the copper plug falls down and
water falls from this opening onto furnace and thus quenches fire.

Pressure gauge: It is mounted at front top. Generally Bourdon type pressure gauge are being used for
pressure measurement. Pressure is continuously monitored so as to avoid occurrence of over shooting of
boiler pressure. Although safety devices to protect boiler against pressure rising beyond a limit are
provided but pressure gauges are also used for monitoring pressure.
Stop valve: It regulates the flow of steam from the boiler as shown in Fig 1.15. This is generally
mounted on highest part of boiler shell and performs function of regulating the flow of steam from
boiler. Stop valve generally has main body of cast steel, valve, valve seat and nut etc. are of brass. Stop
valve can be easily operated by rotating the hand wheel which causes lifting or lowering of spindle, thus
causing opening or closing of valve.
Feed check valve: It is a non return valve at the end of delivery pipe from feed water pump and is placed
on boiler shell slightly below normal water level. Figure 1.16 shows the arrangement in a feed check
valve. It has a check valve whose opening and closing are regulated by the position of spindle. By hand
wheel rotation the position of spindle can be altered suitably. Feed check valve permits unidirectional
flow of water from feed pump to be boiler shell. Under normal running the pressure of feed water
coming from pump is more than pressure inside the boiler and so the feed water continues to enter the
shell. While during the non working of feed pump the pressure in boiler shell is more and so the check
valve gets closed.

Blow off cock: It is used for periodical cleaning by discharging the water and sediments from bottom of
boiler. Figure 1.17 shows the blow off cock. Blow off cock is fitted to the bottom of boiler shell. Blow
off cock has a plug of conical type put into the mating casing. Plug position is altered for opening and
closing the flow. Plug has rectangular opening which when comes in line with inlet and outlet passage
then blow off cock is open and when opening is not in line then cock is closed. Plug is rotated by
spindle.
 Blow off cock also helps in regulating the salt concentration as frequent draining helps in throwing out
the salt deposited over period of time. Opening blow off cock removes deposited sediments in boiler.

Superheater: Its purpose is to super heat steam and is a type of heat exchanger in which steam flows
inside tubes and hot gases surround it. Figure 1.18 shows the smooth tube hairpin type super heater
(Sudgen’s superheater) and convective and radiant superheater.

In hair pin superheater the steam generated is passed through isolating valve to U-shaped steel tubes.
Superheated steam leaves superheater through tube connected to steam stop valve. Hot gases from fire
tube are diverted over superheater tubes by damper as shown. These hot gases upon passing over steel
tubes leave boiler through bottom flue. The convective and radiant superheater as shown has two set of
tubes picking up heat through convection and radiation.

Fig 1.18

Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 27

Economizer: It is also a heat recovery device in which feed water is heated from heat available with
exhaust gases. Thus hot feed water available from economizer lowers the fuel requirement in combustion.
It is also a type of heat exchanger having exhaust gas and feed water as two fluids. General arrangement
in economizer is shown in Fig. 1.19. Economizer also helps in removal of dissolved gases by preheating
of water and thus minimizes tendency of corrosion and pitting. Hotter feed water also reduces thermal
strain in boiler parts. Economizer is located in the boiler structure so as to expose the economizer surface
to hot gases. Its location varies with the boiler designs. Typical economizer called Green’s economizer as
shown in Fig. 1.19 has vertical pipes of cast iron fitted with two headers at bottom and top respectively.
Feed water passes through bottom header, economizer tubes and top header to boiler. Thus economizer is
simply a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from hot flue gases to water inside the tubes through
metal interface. Top header is also provided with a safety valve so as to avoid explosion due to excessive
pressure of water developing inside economizer tubes. Bottom header is also provided with a blow off
valve so as to throw out the sediments deposited in feed water. Economizer is also provided with scrapers
fitted to clean pipes from the deposition of soot carried by the flue gases. Continuous scrapping is always
desired so as to maximize heat transfer rate. Economizer also has a by pass provided so that flue gases
can be diverted when economizer is out of full or part operation due to failure or cleaning purpose or feed
water temperature control.
Air preheater: It is used for recovering the heat going along with exhaust gases by the air before being
sent to furnace. Heat is recovered by passing exhaust gases through an air to air heat exchanger as shown
in Fig. 1.20. Air preheaters are generally placed after economizer and before chimney. Air when
preheated before supply to furnace/combustion chamber helps in achieving ‘faster rate of combustion’,
‘possibility of burning inferior quality coal/fuel’ and ‘increased rate of evaporation from boiler’ etc.

Air preheaters are of tubular type, plate type and regenerative type. This classification of air preheaters
bases upon the kind of arrangement used for heat exchange between two fluids. Generally, tubular type
air preheater are generally used in small boilers. Tubular air preheater has hot flue gases passing inside
tubes and air blown over these tubes.
In case of plate type air preheater there are number of plates having air and flue gases flowing through
alternative spacing. In regenerative type air preheater there is a wire mesh rotor which is alternatively
heated and cooled by the hot flue gases and air to be used for combustion.

Feed pump: Feed pump is used for sending water into boiler at the pressure at which steam generation
takes place. It is generally of three types i.e. centrifugal pump, reciprocating pump and injectors.

A reciprocating type feed pump is shown in Fig. 1.21. In boilers the pumps raise feed water pressure to
the value more than the highest operating pressure of boiler. Pumps also have capability to deliver feed
water in excess to the maximum evaporation rate of boiler. This excess capacity of feed pump is
generally 15–20% of maximum continuous rating
and is required to meet one or more of following situations.

(i) Sometimes excessive steam demand may occur.

(ii) Since boilers are to be blown out frequently to remove depositions and salts, therefore
excess capacity is required.
(iii) Malfunctioning of boiler may cause carrying away of water with steam, thereby causing
water shortage in boiler.
(iv) Over a period of time pump capacity decreases and so excess pump capacity is desired.
Boiler Draught
Draught refers to the pressure difference created for the flow of gases inside the boiler. Boiler unit has a
requirement of the expulsion of combustion products and supply of fresh air inside furnace for
continuous combustion. The obnoxious gases formed during combustion should be discharged at such
an height as will render the gases unobjectionable. A chimney or stack is generally used for carrying
these combustion products from inside of boiler to outside, i.e. draught is created by use of chimney.

Draught may be created naturally or artificially by using some external device. Draught can be classified
as below:

1. In this the pressure difference is created naturally without using any positive displacement
device.
2. Artificial draught is created using some external assistance causing forced displacement of gases.
It can be created either by using mechanical devices or steam. Artificial draught can be of
induced type, forced type or combination of two types.

Thus the draught in boiler may be said to be required for, ‘providing and maintaining the supply of
sufficient air for combustion’, ‘expulsion of combustion products from furnace region’ and ‘discharge of
burnt gases to atmosphere’. The amount of draught required shall depend upon, ‘type of boiler’, ‘rate of
fuel burning’, rate at which combustion products are produced’ and ‘the air requirement rate’. As the
pressure difference is very small so draught is measured in ‘mm’ of water. Mathematically, pressure due
to 1 mm of water column is equivalent to 1 kgf/m2
Natural Draught

It is produced employing chimney. The natural draught is produced by a chimney due to the fact that the
hot gases inside the chimney are lighter than the outside cold air i.e. density difference of hot gases
inside chimney and cold atmospheric air. Thus in a boiler unit the combustion products (hot) rise from
fuel bed through chimney, and are replaced by fresh air (cold) entering the grate. It means that amount of
draught produced by a chimney depends upon flue-gas temperature. Intensity of draught produced by
chimney also depends upon height of chimney. Draught produced by a taller chimney is large as the
difference in weight between the column of air inside and that of air outside increases with height.
Generally draught is less than 12 kgf/m2 in chimneys.

In stricter terms the word ‘chimney’ is used for brick or concrete structure and ‘stack’ is used for
metallic one. Chimneys are generally made of steel, brick or reinforced concrete. Steel chimneys or
stacks are most desirable for smaller boiler units due to small initial cost, ease of construction and
erection. On account of small space requirement as compared to other stacks, self sustaining steel stacks
are used in some large power plants. Steel stacks have problem of rust and corrosion, so painting
requirements are quite stringent. Brick chimneys are required where permanent chimney with longer life
is required. Such chimneys have inherent disadvantages of leakages etc. across the construction,
therefore careful construction is required. Leakage of air across chimney wall effects intensity of
draught.

Brick chimneys are constructed of round, octagonal, or square section. Generally brick
 chimney has two walls with air space between them and inner wall having fire brick lining. Concrete
chimneys are used due to the absence of joints, light weight and space economy as compared with brick
chimneys.

Also the reinforced concrete chimney is less expensive compared to brick chimney along with minimum
chances of leakage across walls.

Calculations: As it is obvious from earlier discussion that the vertical duct called chimney creates natural
draught so estimation of height of chimney is very important. Figure 1.22 shows the schematic of
chimney in a boiler unit. During no working of boiler the pressure inside boiler is atmospheric pressure.
Pressure at outlet of chimney will be less than atmospheric pressure due to altitude difference.

During boiler operation the chimney shall be filled with hot gases and the pressure at bottom of chimney
(pb ) shall be summation of ‘pressure at chimney outlet’, (p0) and ‘pressure due to hot gas column of
height H’.

Pressure at bottom of chimney = Pressure at outlet + Pressure due to hot gas column

Pb = P0 + ρg g H

However, the pressure at grate level remains unchanged. Pressure difference between the grate level
pressure and bottom of chimney causes flow of gases. This pressure difference is also called static
draught.

Let us consider the combustion of fuel in furnace. Combustion products are released as a result of this
combustion process. Fuel may be considered to be comprising of hydrocarbons.
Fuel + Air → Combustion products + Heating value

In the hydrocarbon fuel major constituents are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen etc. As a result of complete
combustion carbon gets transformed into carbon dioxide and hydrogen yields steam. The combustion
products have major fraction of carbon dioxide and steam, but the volume of steam is negligible
compared to volume of combustion product. The volume of combustion products can be taken equal to
volume of air supplied, measured at same temperature and pressure.

Let us assume various properties as,

Ta = Atmospheric temperature, K
Tg = Average temperature of hot gases inside chimney, K

T0 = Absolute zero temperature, 273.15_K

ρa = Density of air at absolute temperature, 1.293 kg/m3 ρ g = Density of hot gases inside chimney,

kg/m3

Δp = Pressure difference, draught in Pa

Δp’ = Pressure difference, draught in kgf/m2

hg = Equivalent height of hot gas column to produce draught, _p in ‘metres’.

hw = Equivalent height of water column in ‘mm’ to produce draught, _p m = Mass of air supplied per kg

of fuel

C = Hot gas velocity in chimney, m/s

Mg = Discharge rate through chimney, kg/s

Pressure of hot gases in chimney at grate level = Density of hot gases x height of chimney x
gravitational acceleration

Pressure due to cool air (outside) column of height H at grate level

= Density of air at Ta x Height x g

 Natural Draught produced = Difference of pressures due to cool air column and hot gas column of
height ‘H’.

Actually in boilers this draught requirement is different from that theoretically estimated due to the
draught losses. The magnitude of these losses varies from boiler to boiler due to different arrangements
within them. Some of generic losses shall be because of:

 Frictional losses due to resistance offered by passage surface roughness, different equipments as
grate, superheater, air preheater, economizer etc. through which gas passes.
 Pressure losses in bends, baffles, supports etc.
 Kinetic energy required with gases for moving at certain velocity throughout.

Therefore while designing the chimney due considerations should be made for overcoming above losses.
These losses constitute about 20% of the static draught produced.

Hot gas velocity in chimney: Assuming chimney to be frictionless the hot gas velocity in chimney could
be given using the equivalent hot gas column height;

Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 35

For the chimney having friction losses, the hot gas velocity shall be lesser. If the equivalent pressure loss
due to friction in hot gas column is given by hf then the velocity of hot gases

Where K is a constant and its value is available for different types of chimneys as given below. It
depends upon the friction loss fraction.

K = 0.825 for brick chimney, and

K = 1.1 for steel chimney

Diameter of chimney: Diameter of chimney could be estimated from the mass flow rate of hot gases
through chimney and its velocity.

Discharge through chimney: Mass flow rate of hot gases through chimney could be obtained as,
Discharge through chimney can be mathematically maximized for certain conditions. A look at
expression of discharge given earlier shows that for a particular chimney.

Differentiating discharge with respect to hot gas temperature and equating it to zero for optimum
condition,

For the condition of maximum discharge, draught can be obtained as,

Efficiency of chimney: It has been explained in natural draught that the pressure difference is created due
to density difference caused by temperature difference. Hence it is obvious that the flue gases should
leave at quite high temperature for creating required density difference. Thus the flue gases leave with
sufficient heat energy, which could be used in boiler if some other mechanism is employed for exhaust of
flue gases such as artificial draught. Therefore, efficient chimney should have such a design so that flue
gases leave at lowest possible temperature. Efficiency of chimney is quantification of the cost of natural
draught in terms of energy, i.e. the large amount of usable energy going along waste hot gases. Normally
this efficiency of chimney is less than 1 percent.

Chimney efficiency is defined as the ratio of “energy with unit mass of gas in natural draught” and “the
extra heat carried by same mass of gas due to high temperature in natural draught as compared to that in
artificial draught”.

Artificial Draught

Artificial draught refers to the externally created draught employing some equipment for it. Its
requirement is felt, when the natural draught becomes insufficient for exhaust of flue gases. In general it
is seen that for draught requirements being more than 40 mm of
 water, the natural draught does not work and becomes highly uneconomical. In the modern large power
plants this draught produced by chimney is insufficient and requires some artificial method. Also the
size of boiler units in use today forbid the use zof natural draught as the flue gas handling capacity is
limited. In case of natural draught the fuel rate upto (20 kg/hr per m2 of grate area could be handled
while with artificial draught it
goes up to 300 kg/hr per m2 of grate area. Apart from these limitations the economy of using artificial
draught over natural draught beyond a limit also make it attractive. For same steam generation the fuel
consumption gets reduced by up to 15% with use of artificial draught in a boiler.

Artificial draught may be produced either by mechanical means such as fans, blowers etc. or by using
steam jet for producing draught. Thus artificial draught can be classified as,

(i) Mechanical draught

(ii) Steam jet draught.

Artificial draught systems do not require tall chimney/stack, but small stack is always required for
discharge of flue gases to certain height in atmosphere for minimizing pollution.

Mechanical Draught

Mechanical draught produced using fans, blowers etc. could be of forced type, induced type or the
combination of the two. Line diagram showing the arrangements is shown in Fig. 11.37.

(i) Forced draught: It is the arrangement in which high pressure air is delivered to the furnace so as to
force flue gases out through stack. Air under pressure may be fed to stokers or grate for which a
fan/blower is put at the bottom of furnace. As due to pressurized air the pressure inside furnace becomes
more than atmospheric pressure so it should be properly sealed, otherwise gas may leak through the
cracks in setting into the boiler unit. Also the flames from furnace may flare out upon opening the fire
door, so it should be equipped with dampers to shut off air supply when furnace doors are opened. It is
obvious from here that the fan in case of forced draught shall handle fresh atmospheric air.

(ii) Induced draught: Induced draught is the one in which the suction created on furnace side draws flue
gases and throws them out through small chimney/stack. Fan is located at base of chimney in induced
draught so as to reduce pressure at fuel bed below atmospheric pressure. The fan in induced draught
shall handle hot flue gases. Power

Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 39

required to drive the fan/blower in case of induced draught is less than that in case of forced draught fan.
Mathematically it can be given as below.

For volume of fluid handled being V (m3/s) at pressure of p, the power required shall be,

In case of induced draught fan, as hot flue gases are to be handled, so, total mass handled by fan for mf
kg of fuel burnt per unit time = mf + m * mf

= mf (1 + m), kg/s
Equivalent Evaporation

From earlier discussions it is seen that there exists a large variety of the boilers in terms of their
arrangement, efficiency, steam generation rate, steam condition, type of fuel used, firing method and
draught etc. For comparing one boiler with other any of the
above parameters cannot be considered as they are interdependent. Therefore, for comparing the
capacity of boilers working at different pressures, temperatures, and different final steam conditions etc.
a parameter called “equivalent evaporation” can be used. Equivalent evaporation actually indicates the
amount of heat added in the boiler for steam generation. Equivalent evaporation refers to the quantity of
dry saturated steam generated per unit time from feed water at 100 0C to steam at 1000C at the saturation
pressure corresponding to 1000C.

Sometimes it is also called equivalent evaporation from and at 100 0C. Thus, mathematically it could be
given as,

Boiler Efficiency

Boiler efficiency quantifies how effectively the heat is being used in boiler. Thus it could be given by
the ratio of heat actually used for steam generation and total heat available due to combustion of fuel in
boiler.

Here mf is the mass of fuel burnt per hour, C.V. is calorific value of fuel used (kcal/kg), m is mass of
steam generated per hour and enthalpies h and hw are that of final steam and feed water, kcal/kg.
Generally high heating value of fuel is used as calorific value of fuel.
 STEAM CONDENSERS
Condenser is one of the important elements of a steam power plant. It is placed at the exhaust end of a
steam engine or steam turbine. A steam condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is exhausted from
steam engine or steam turbine. The steam is cooled by- means of cooling water. The condensed steam
formed together with air and other non- condensable gases is removed by pumps. The condensed steam is
called condensate.

The exhaust steam leaving the prime mover (steam engine or steam turbine) still contains considerably
large amount of heat. So, the exhaust steam is passed into a condenser in which heat exchange between
steam and cooling water takes place.

The work done and efficiency of a turbine plant are increased if back or exhaust pressure of turbine is
reduced. This is because the average temperature at which heat is rejected in the cycle is reduced.

There exists a relation between temperature and pressure. If the back or exhaust pressure of steam is low,
the temperature is also low. Thus, by lowering the back pressure, the temperature at which heat is rejected
is reduced and in turn work done and efficiency are increased. In order reduce the back pressure for
increasing work done and efficiency, the steam should be exhausted in a closed vessel where it is
condensed. The condensation of steam in a closed vessel enables expansion of steam to a lower back
pressure (Temperature).

In a non condensing plant (plants which doesn't employ a condenser), the back pressure should be higher
or equal to atmospheric pressure otherwise steam can't exhaust to atmosphere.

Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 43

Area A-5-3-4 shows the work done by a steam turbine which is not fitted with a condenser (Non
condensing turbine). Area A B 2 1 shows work done by a condensing steam turbine. The shaded area 1-
2-3-4 shows the increase in work done by fitting a condenser to a non condensing steam turbine.

The condensation of steam in a closed vessel produces partial vacuum as volume reduces greatly. I kg of dry
steam at 1.013 bar and with a volume of 1.67 m3, if condensed in a closed vessel, it will be condensed
into water at a temperature of 100°C, liquid condensed will occupy only 0.001 m3 and pressure falls to
about 0.2 bar. It means that the exhaust pressure can be lowered from 1.013 bar to 0.2 bar.

So, by fitting a condenser to a steam turbine or steam engine, the range of expansion of steam can be
increased as the exhaust steam can be discharged at a pressure below atmospheric and hence work
output from turbine can be increased.

Steam engines can't take advantage of very low vacuum as they are intermittent flow machines and they
have to force the expanded steam out of cylinder through restricted exhaust ports and passages.

Steam turbines being continuous flow machines (steam flow takes place continuously from inlet to outlet
without any obstruction) can take advantage of low vacuum because they have large exhaust outlets
through which steam can be discharged after expansion.

There is a limit for reduction in back pressure beyond which it is not economical. This limit is based on
the increased cost involved in the creation and maintenance of higher vacuum. In steam turbines, steam can
be expanded upto 0.035 bar or even less depending upon the temperature of the cooling water and capacity
ofthe plant.

The condensed steam (condensate) still contains considerable amount of heat and it can be reused as
feed water to the boiler.

OBJECTS OF CONDENSER

A steam condenser has 2 objects:

1. The primary object is to maintain ve4y low back pressure on the exhaust side of steam turbine. This
enables steam to expand to a greater extent by which maximum possible energy from steam can be
converted into mechanicalwork.
2. The secondary object of steam condenser is to supply pure, hot feed water to the boiler. Thus, by fitting a
condenser, the thermal efficiency of steam power plant can be greatly increased and also the capacity
without increasing thesize

ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSER IN STEAM POWER PLANT

The following advantages can be obtained by employing a condenser in a steam power plant:

1. It increases expansion ratio of available steam (increased available enthalpy drops) and thus increases
efficiency of the plant.

2. It reduces back pressure of steam, thus more work can be obtained.

3. The condensate can be recovered and can be reused as feed water to the boiler. This reduces cost of
power generation. Recovery of condensate is important in case of marine plants.

4. Recovery of condensate reduces make up water that must be added.

5. Supplying hot feed water reduces thermal stresses; steam consumption also can be reduced.

6. As condensate recovered is pure, the cost of water treatment is saved.

ELEMENTS OF A STEAM CONDENSING PLANT

A Steam Condensing Plant

The following are the important elements in a steam condensing plant:

1. Condenser.

2. Condensate pump

3. Hot well.

4. Boiler feed pump.

5. Air extraction pump.

6. Cooling tower.

Steam condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is condensed. Steam gives up heat energy to cooling
water during the process of condensation.

A pump that removes condensed steam from the condenser and supplies to hot well is called -condensate
extraction pump. Dry air pump is a pump for removing non condensable gases from the condenser. If a
single pump is used for removing air and condensate, it is known as wet air pump.

Hot well is a reservoir for collecting condensate from a condenser. From the hot well, the water is fed to
boiler. Boiler feed pump pumps condensate from hot well to boiler.

A cooling tower is an arrangement for re-cooling the cooling water of condenser. It is essential where
there's scarcity of water.

Cooling Tower: The cooling water is placed at a certain height. The hot water falls down in radial sprays
from a height and atmospheric air enters from base of tower. Partial evaporation of water takes place which
reduces the temperature of circulating water. This cooled water is collected in the pond at the base of
the tower a pumped back into the condenser.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSERS

Depending upon the way of condensing the exhaust steam, steam condensers are of 2 types:

1. Jet condensers or mixing typecondensers.

2. Surface condensers or non mixing typecondensers.

In jet condensers, cooling water comes in direct contact with the exhaust steam. As the name implies,
cooling water is sprayed into the exhaust steam in the form of a jet so that rapid condensation takes
place. The temperature of cooling water and condensate is same when leaving thecondenser.

With these condensers, the condensate can't be used as feed water to the boiler as it is not free from
salts and impurities. Because of the loss of condensate and high power requirement for jet condenser
pumps, these condensers are rarely used in modern power plants. These are employed where water of
good quality is easily available in sufficient quantity.

In surface condensers, there is no direct contact between the steam to be condensed and the cooling
water. Cooling water passes through number of tubes while exhaust steam passes over the outer surface
of the tubes. Here, the temperature of condensate may be higher than cooling water at exit. Both cooling
water and condensate are separately with drawn. The condensate is pure and can be used as feed water
to the boiler.

This type of condenser is essential in ships and other marine applications which can carry limited
quantity of fresh water for the boiler. Also widely used in land installations where impure water can be
used for cooling or better quality of water for feed is to be used economically.

A jet condenser is much simplier and less costly than a surface condenser. JET CONDENSERS

There are 3 classes of jet condensers:

1. Low level jet condensers (parallel flow and counter flow).

2. High level or Barometric jet condensers.

3. Ejector condenser.

In low level jet condensers, the condensing chamber is at low elevation and overall height of the unit is
low enough so that condenser can be placed directly beneath the steam turbine.

Combined or separate pumps are required to extract cooling water, condensate and air from the
condenser.

In high level jet condensers, the condensing chamber is placed at sufficiently high level to enable water
to drain away by gravity. No water pump is required to remove condensate and cooling water but an
air pump is required to remove air and other gases from
condenser.

In ejector condensers, the steam and water mix in a series of combining cones and the kinetic energy of
water is utilised in removing condensate and air from the condensers. No separate pump is required to
remove condensate and air.
LOW LEVEL JET CONDENSERS

According to direction of flow of water and steam, low level jet condensers are sub classified as :

1. Parallel flow jet condensers.

2. Counter flow jet condensers.

In parallel flow jet condensers, both steam and water enter at top and fall together to bottom where the
mixture is removed by an extraction pump. This arrangement is best suited for turbine work where
exhaust steam comes from underside of turbine.

In counter flow jet condensers, water and steam flow in opposite directions. Steam enters at bottom
and flows upwards while water enters at top and falls downwards. Air extraction pump is at the top.
 Parallel Flow Jet Condenser

The exhaust steam enters at top into the condenser. Cold water enters from top and is sprayed. The
baffles or trays ensure proper mixing of steam and water. A condensate extraction pump discharges
condensate to the hotwell. Surplus condensate from the hotwell gravitates to cooling pond. A separate
dry pump may be incorporated to maintain proper vacuum.

Counter Flow Jet Condenser

COUNTER FLOW JET CONDENSER

In these condensers, exhaust steam enters at the bottom, flows upwards and meets the down coming cooling water.
Air pump is placed at the top ofthe condenser shell.

Vacuum is created by the air pump. This draws the supply of cooling water which falls in large
number of jets through perforated conical plates. The falling water is caught in the trays from which it escapes into
a second series of jets and meets the exhaust steam entering at the bottom. Rapid condensation occurs, condensate
and cooling water descend through a vertical pipe to the condensate pump from which it is delivered to hot well.

HIGH LEVEL OR BAROMETRIC JET CONDENSER

It is so named because it is placed at a height greater than that of water barometer. If a long pipe over 10 metres
was closed at one end filled with water, inverted without slipping any water and the open end is submerged in an
open tank of water, the atmospheric pressure would hold water up in the pipe to a height of 10.368 m at sea level.
This fact is made use of in a barometric condenser by making the discharge pipe more than 10 metres in height
and thus making it impossible for any vacuum in the condenser to cause the water to rise high enough and flood
the engine.
High Level Jet Condenser

Exhaust steam enters at bottom, flows upwards, and meets the down coming cooling water. Vacuum is
created by air pump placed at the top of the condenser shell. The condensate and cooling water flow by
gravity into hot well and thus, there is no need of condensate extraction pump. The surplus water from hot
well flows to cooling pond through an overflow pipe. The shell is placed at a height greater than 10.36
metres - barometric height of water column.

EJECTOR CONDENSER

The principle of operation of this condenser is that the momentum of flowing water ejects throws out the
condensate and air without the aid of a pump.

In these condensers, steam and water mix up while passing through a series of metal cones. The exhaust
steam enters the condenser through a non return valve arrangement. Water enters at top and while
flowing through the truncated cones its velocity increases and pressure drops. Due to the decreased
pressure, the exhaust steam is drawn through the cones and finally lead to divergingcone.

In diverging cone, part of kinetic energy is transformed into pressure energy so

that the condensate is discharged into hot well. So, the condenser acts as an air pump and as well as a
condenser.

The non returns valve prevents sudden back rush of water into engine exhaust pipe in case of sudden
failure of water supply to condenser.
An ejector condenser requires more cooling water than any other type of jet condensers.

SURFACE CONDENSERS

These may be subdivided into 2 types:

1. Condensers in which exhaust steam passes over a series of tubes through which cooling water flows.

2. Evaporative surface condenser in which steam passes through a series of tubes and cooling water flows in the
form of a thin film outside the tubes. Surface condensers may also be classified as - 2 flow or multi flow
condensers.

Depending upon the direction of flow of condensate, surface condensers are classified as:

1. Down flow surface condenser.

2. Central flow surface condenser.

3. Inverted flow surface condenser.

4. Regenerative surface condenser.

5. Evaporative surface condenser.

2 FLOW SURFACE CONDENSERS

It consists of a cast iron shell cylindrical in shape and closed at each end to form a water box. Numbers of water
tubes are fixed to the tube plates. Exhaust steam enters at top and condensed by coming in contact with cold
surface of tubes through which cooling water circulates.
The cooling water enters at one end of tubes in one half of the condenser (one pass-one flow) and then
enters into the tubes of second half of the condenser (second pass). Next, the water goes to outlet.

The resulting water from condensation of steam and air associated with uncondensed water vapour
are extracted from the bottom of the condenser.

This type of condenser requires 2 pumps: Wet air pump to remove air and condensate, water circulating
pump to circulate cooling water under pressure.

This is called 2 flow or 2 pass condenser because the cooling water circulates the whole
length of condenser twice. By introducing more partitions in the water boxes, the same condenser may
be converted into 3 flow or even 4 flow condenser. The rate of heat transmission increases with
increase in number of flows but power required to circulate water also increases. As steam flows in a
direction right angle to the direction of flow of water, it is also called as -Cross flow surface condenser.

DOWN FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER

Down flow surface condenser

gravity as well as suction of extraction pump located at the bottom. The condensate is collected at the
bottom and then pumped by the extraction pump.
A baffle is provided to cover the suction pipe of the dry air pump to prevent entry of condensed steam into it. As
steam flows perpendicular to the direction of flow of water (inside the tubes), this is also called as - Cross flow
surface condenser.

CENTRAL FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER

In this, the exhaust steam enters at the top of the condenser shell and flows downwards. The suction
pipe of the air extraction pump is placed in the centre of the 'nest' of the tubes. This causes the steam to
flow radially inwards towards the centre. The tubes carry circulating cooling water. The condensate is
collected at the bottom and then pumped by the extraction pump.

This condenser is more efficient than down flow type as steam has access to the whole periphery of the
tubes.

INVERTED FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER

This condenser has air extraction pump at the top. The exhaust steam enters at the bottom, rises up and
then again flows down to the bottom of the condenser by flowing near outer surface of the condenser.
Condensate extraction pump is located at the bottom.

REGENERATIVE SURFACE CONDENSER

In this condenser, the condensate is heated by a regenerative method. The condensate after leaving the
tubes is passed through the exhaust steam from the steam engine or steam turbine. Thus, it raises the
temperature of the condensate for use as feed water to the boiler.

EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER
It consists of sheets of gilled piping which is bent backwards and forward and placed in a vertical plane
The steam to be condensed enters at the top of a series of gilled pipes outside of which a film of cold
water falls from a water header. At the same time, a current of air circulates over the water film causing
rapid evaporation of some of the cooling water. As a result, the steam gets condensed. The water which is
not evaporated falls into a collecting tank from which it is reused again. Its original temperature is
restored by adding requisite quantity of cold water.

This condenser can run on minimum quantity of water and even without cooling water in cold weather
and on light loads.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SURFACE CONDENSER

For a surface condenser to work effectively, the following requirements should be met:
1. There should be no leakage of air in the condenser. The pressure in the condenser also depends upon
the amount of air. Owing to high vacuum pressure in the condenser, it is impossible to prevent air from
leaking through the joints thereby
increasing the pressure in the condenser and thus limiting the amount of work done by unit mass of steam
in steam engine or steam turbine. Air leakage also results in lowering the partial pressure of steam
andtemperature.

This means that latent heat increases and so more cooling water is required which results in low overall
efficiency.
2. The steam should enter the condenser with least possibleresistance.

3. The drop in pressure of steam should be minimum (To extract more work) and steam should be well
distributed in the vessel for effectivecondensation.

4. The circulating cooling water should flow through the tubes with least resistance and with a velocity
consistent with high efficiency.

5. The condensate should be removed as quickly as possible at maximum practicable to obtain higher
thermal efficiency.

6. There should be no under cooling of condensate. This can be achieved by regulating quantity of
cooling water such that the temperature of exit water is equal to saturation temperature of steam.

7. Air should be removed from the condenser with minimum possible expenditure of energy.

COMPARISON OF JET AND SURFACE CONDENSERS

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of jet and surface condensers. Advantages of Jet

Condensers:
1. Intimate mixing -There is a thorough mixing of exhaust steam and cooling water. So, heat transfer is
much better.

2. Smaller quantity of cooling water — Due to direct mixing of steam with cooling water, small quantity
of cooling water is enough for condensation ofgiven quantity of exhaust steam.

3. It requires less buildingspace.

4. The equipment is simple and cost is less.

5. Maintenance cost is low.

6. Use of impure water ispossible.

7. With barometric condenser, there is no danger of flooding.

8. Cooling water pump is not required for barometric condenser.

Disadvantages:

1. The condensate is wasted. Due to direct mixing of steam with cooling water (which may be not
pure); condensate can't be used as feed water to the boiler and is wasted.

2. Failure of condensate pump would flood theengine.

3. As cooling water leaves the dissolved air, lower vacuum is achieved.

4. More power is required for air extraction pump.

5. It is less suitable for high capacity plants due to low vacuum efficiency.

6. The barometric condenser requires a long pipe which increases the cost of condenser and
possibility of more air leakages. Also, it is difficult to accommodate.

Advantages of Surface Condensers:

1. Steam and cooling water are not mixed and hence condensate can be used again and again as
boiler feed water.

2. It requires less quantity of makeup water which saves the cost of feed water treatment.

3. High vacuum can be obtained which results in greater plant efficiency.

4. It is suitable for large capacityplants.

5. Any type of cooling water can be used.

6. Power required by air and cooling water pumps is much less.

 Disadvantages:

1. High initial cost.

2. Maintenance cost is more.

3. As water doesn't mix with steam, more cooling water is needed to affect perfect condensation.

4. It requires large floor space.

5. The plant is complicated.

MEASUREMENT OF VACUUM IN A CONDENSER
In case of condensers, vacuum means pressure below atmospheric. It is usually expressed in mm of
mercury. The pressure in the condenser should be minimum possible to obtain maximum work from
the steam engine or turbine. The vacuum that can be obtained
depends upon - Temperature of water, tightness of joints and valves, amount of air infiltration. This
vacuum is not uniform throughout the condenser. It is least at the air pump suction, high in
condenser body and still higher at engine exhaust valve.

Measurement of Vacuum in a Condenser

The vacuum depends upon the Barometric pressure(Atmospheric pressure) and absolute pressure in
the condenser.

Barometric pressure is a variable quantity and it varies from place to place. For the purpose of
comparison, it is convenient to refer vacuum gauge reading to a standard barometric pressure
(Atmospheric pressure) of 760 mm of Mercury. Mathematically, vacuum gauge reading is
'corrected' to a standard barometer.
Standard or corrected vacuum = (760 mm of Hg - Absolute pressure in condenser - in mm of Hg) =
[760 - (Barometer reading
- Vacuum gauge reading)] mm of Hg) 760 mm of Hg =1.013 bar 1 bar = 105N/m2

1 mm of Hg = 133 N/m2

= 0.00133 bar

The loss of vacuum in a condenser is mainly due to - air infiltration, reduced circulation of cooling
water, accumulation of scale inside and outside the tubes and plugging of ejector jet.

METHODS TO OBTAIN MAXIMUM VACUUM

Following are some of the methods employed to obtain maximum possible vacuum in condensers:

1. Air Pump: Air pumps are provided to maintain desired vacuum in the condenser by extracting air
and other non condensable gases. There are 2 types of pumps: Dry air pump which removes air only
and wet air pump - which removes a mixture of condensate and non condensable gases.

2. Steam Air Ejector: When a wet air pump is used, then steam air ejectors are employed to remove
air from the mixture. The operation consists in utilising the viscous drag of a high velocity steam
jet for the ejection of air and other non condensable gases from the chamber.

3. De-aerated Water: If dissolved air is removed from feed water, then it is called - Deaerated water.
The de-aerated water helps in maintaining better vacuum and controls corrosion of boiler shell and
piping of theplant.

4. Air Tight Joints: Various joints in the plant should be made air tight to avoid aiinfiltration.

DALT0N’S LAW 0F PARTIALPRESSURES

This law is very helpful for analytical treatment of problems dealing with a mixture of gases or of
gas and vapour.

This law states that - "In a mixture of perfect gases that don't react chemically with one another,
total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of partial pressures which each gas would exert if
separately occupy the whole volume at the temperature of the mixture".

Let there is a mixture of air and steam in condenser. Let t = Temperature of the mixture

Pa = Partial pressure of air at temperature t

Ps = Partial pressure of steam (water vapour) at temperature P = Total pressure in the condenser

Then, according to Dalton's law, P= P a + Ps

So, the total pressure is the sum of partial pressures of steam and non condensable gases. The non condensable
gases lie in dissolved form in the water and get separated on heating the water. The non condensable gases
chiefly consist of C02 and air. Amount of C02 is extremely small compared to air and can be neglected.

The Dalton's law also states that - "Each constituent of the mixture in the container occupies the whole volume of

the container and exerts its own partial pressure in the container".

Let V = Volume of container - m3

ma = Mass of air in the condenser - Kg ms= Mass of steam in the condenser -Kg

Va= Specific volume of air at temperature t - m3/kg

Vs = Specific volume of steam at temperature t - m3/kg According to Dalton's law, V =ma.va

= ms .vs

Total mass of mixture in the

container =

m=ma+ ms
VACUUM EFFICIENCY

In steam condensers, we have a mixture of air and steam. If no air is present in the condenser, then
total absolute pressure would be equal to partial pressure of steam and maximum vacuum would be
obtained in the condenser.

The ratio of actual vacuum obtained at the steam inlet to the condenser to the maximum vacuum
(Ideal vacuum) which could be obtained in a perfect condensing plant (No air is present) is called -
Vacuum efficiency.

Actual vacuum = Barometric pressure - Absolute pressure in condenser. (Actual pressure).

Ideal vacuum = Barometric pressure - Absolute pressure of steam corresponding to temperature of

condensation. (Ideal pressure). So, vacuum efficiency is a measure of the degree of perfection to
maintain desired vacuum in the
condenser. Always, there will be some amount of air present in the condenser due to leakage and
dissolved air present in the steam. So, vacuum efficiency depends upon the quantity of air removed
from the condenser by the air pump. Generally, the vacuum efficiency is about 98%.
The performance of a condenser is given by the term - Condenser efficiency. It is the ratio of actual
temperature rise of cooling water to maximum possible rise.

Condenser efficiency is defined as the ratio of difference between outlet and inlet temperatures of
cooling water to difference between saturation temperature corresponding to absolute pressure in the
condenser and inlet temperature of cooling water

The condenser efficiency generally varies from 75% to 85%. QUANTITY OF CIRCULATING

COOLING WATER REQUIRED

The function of circulating cooling water in a condenser is to absorb heat from steam and thereby to
condense it. In surface condenser, the temperature of condensate and exit water is not the same while
in jet condenser, it is the same. To design a condenser, it is essential to calculate the quantity of
 cooling water necessary for a certain capacity of steam to be condensed.

Determination the amount of cooling water is a problem of simple heat exchange. Heat lost by steam

= Heat gained by cooling water

Heat lost by steam = ms . (HT - Hc) Where ms = Mass of condensate kgs/hr

HT = Total heat of steam entering the condenser kJ/kg HC= Total heat in the condensate kJ/kg Heat

gained by cooling water = mw . cw . (t0 - ti)

Where mw= Mass of cooling water required - kgs/hr cw = Specific heat of cooling water kJ/kg ti = Inlet

temperature of cooling water. t0 = Outlet

temperature of coolingwater.

Although the steam is supplied in superheated state to steam engine or steam turbine, usually, it is
wet when enters the condenser.

Heat lost by wet steam = Latent heat + Sensible heat due to cooling of condensate due to air which
leaks into condenser

SOURCES OF AIR IN A CONDENSER

The performance of a condenser is adversely affected by the presence of air in the condenser.

Following are the main sources through which air may enter into condenser:

Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 61

1. The dissolved air in the feed water enters boiler which in turn enters condenser with the
exhaust steam. The amount of air coming in depends upon the treatment of feed water.

2. Air leaks from atmosphere through various joints which are internally under less pressure than
atmosphere. The amount of air depends upon accurate workmanship, care in design and making of
joints.

3. Leakage through condenser accessories like atmospheric relief valve etc.

4. In case of jet condenser, some air comes in with injection water - cooling water in which it is
dissolved.

EFFECTS OF AIR IN A CONDENSER

The following are the important effects of presence of air in a condenser:

1. With increased amount of air, condenser pressure or back pressure increases. This reduces the
useful work done.

2. Presence of air lowers partial pressure of steam and so lowers saturation temperature of steam.
With
the lowering saturation temperature, latent heat of steam increases and so more cooling water is
required.

3. Air is a poor conductor of heat and so reduces rate of heat transmission. So, surface area of the
tubes has to be increased for agiven condenser capacity.
The presence of air reduces the rate of condensation of steam since abstraction of heat by cooling
water is partly from steam and partly fromair.

5. The air extraction pump is required to remove air only but some quantity of steam escapes with
air. This reduces the amount of condensate. Also, the condensate is under cooled with the result that
more heat has to be supplied to the feed water in the boiler.

6. Larger the amount of air present in the condenser, capacity of air pump increases and greater is
the corrosive action by the air. Corrosive action is roughly proportional to the concentration of
oxygen present in the condenser.

It is most important to check all air leakages and to remove any air that may be in the condenser. In
practice, it is impossible to remove all the air. So, it is continuously removed by air pump which
sucks air from condenser, compresses it to a little above atmospheric pressure so that it is forced
out.

AIR PUMPS

It is essential to extract the air present in the condenser as it adversely affects the performance of a
condenser. Air extraction pumps remove air and other non condensable gases from the condenser.
The primary function of an air pump is to maintain vacuum in the condenser as nearly as possible
corresponding to exhaust steam temperature. This is done by removing air and other non
condensable
gases from the condenser. There are 2 types of air pumps:

1. Dry air pump which removes aironly.

2. Wet air pump which removes air and non condensable gases along with condensate. Air pumps may

be classified as:

1. Reciprocating piston or bucket pumps.

2. Rotary pumps.

3. Steam jet air pumps.

4. Wet jet pumps.

Here, we discuss about one type of reciprocating piston or bucket pump only

EDWARD'S AIR PUMP

This is a commonly used reciprocating piston wet air pump. The fig shows an Edward's air pump.

The delivery valve is placed in the cover which is on the top of the pump barrel lever. The reciprocating piston
is flat on its upper surface and conical at bottom. The pump lever has a ring of ports around its lower end for
whole circumference. This communicates with the condenser.

When the piston is at the top of the barrel, the condensate and air from the condenser is collected in the conical
portion of lower part of barrel through the ports. On the downward stroke of the piston, vacuum is produced
above it since the delivery valves are closed and sealed by water. The piston uncovers the ports. When it
moves downwards, the mixture rushes into space above the piston. This mixture is compressed when the
piston goes to top and raises the pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure. The delivery valves are now
open which allow mixture to pass on the top of the cover. Condensate flows to hot well which is at
atmospheric pressure. A relief valve is placed to release the pressure. This pump is most suitable for
condensing vapour in land and marine steam plants.
 UNIT-III

STEAM POWER PLANT

It is a combination of several components or devices whose objective is to convert heat energy of fuel into
mechanical work and then to obtain electric power.

To have heat energy, we need certain source of energy. This source of heat energy is called Fuel. Energy
remains locked in the fuel. By burning the fuel, the chemical energy of fuel gets converted into thermal or
heat energy. This burning of fuel is known as - combustion. The place where combustion of fuel takes place
is called Boiler.

We can't convert heat energy directly into work. There must be a medium which takes up heat energy
released by combustion of fuel and acts on another device to produce mechanical work. In steam power
plant, steam that comes from water is used as working medium as water is cheaply available in large
quantity, safe and good conductor of heat.

Water absorbs heat from combustion of fuel, changes its phase and turns into steam. In that process, it
absorbs high amount of heat - latent heat of evaporation.

With continuous absorption of heat, steam changes its state - wet steam to dry saturated steam and then to
superheated steam and the pressure of steam increases.

After attaining required pressure, the high-pressure steam is allowed to flow through a passage called
nozzle over f ring of moving blades attached to a shaft. The unit which houses the shaft with blades
(number of blades mounted circumferentially over a shaft) is called -Turbine.

The high-pressure steam while flowing through the nozzle increases its kinetic energy and then expands
over the blades of turbine and in doing so, imparts rotary motion to the blades. In this way, heat energy of
fuel is converting into mechanical work.

Now, the low pressure, expanded steam from turbine goes to atmosphere. This exhaust steam from
turbine still contains enough heat and can be used for different purposes - for process work, expansion in
low-pressure turbines or for preheating feed water to the boiler.
To increase the work done from the turbine, a unit called condenser is placed after the turbine. With the
inclusion of condenser, steam in turbine can be expanded to a greater extent and we can get more work
from the turbine.
In condenser, the exhaust steam from condenser is cooled and then recirculated as feed water to the
boiler. These are the important components in a steam power plant. To increase the efficiency of the plant
and to have satisfactory running of the plant, other components are also included in the plant.

The fig. 2.1 shows the phases of energy transformation that take place in a steam power plant.

FIGURE 2.1 : PHASES OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN A STEAM POWER PLANT

LAYOUT OF A STEAM POWER PLANT

The purpose of a steam power plant is to generate electric power only or to generate steam for industrial purpose
besides generation of electric power. Steam is extensively used in industries like Textile, Sugar, Paper, Refinery,
and Chemical etc.

BOILER

It is a closed vessel inside which combustion of fuel takes place. Tubes are arranged in the walls of the
boiler through which water passes. The water by absorbing heat of combustion turns into steam.

TURBINE

Steam from super heater passes through nozzles and enters into turbine. The high-pressure steam now
expands over the blades of the turbine rotor (shaft upon which the circumferential blades are mounted). The
pressure of steam drops down along with its enthalpy (total heat content). This drop in heat energy
(enthalpy) is converted into mechanical energy. As a result, the shaft of the turbine rotates.

CONDENSER
This is located after the turbine so that steam after expansion in the turbine exhausts into the condenser.
The exhaust steam from the turbine enters the condenser and major portion of it gets condensed. The
condensed steam is called condensate and is recirculated as feed
water to the boiler. The steam that remains in the condenser is used to preheat the feed water to the
boiler, with the addition of a condenser, we can extract more work from the turbine.
FEED PUMP
It is a pump which takes up purified, preheated water and then forces into the boiler with pressure.
As boiler works at higher pressure, feed pumps are necessary to raise the pressure of water for its
entry to boiler.

VAPOUR POWER CYCLES

A common method of producing mechanical work is by transfer of heat from a heat reservoir at a high
temperature to a working fluid which undergoes through a thermodynamic cycle.

A heat engine cycle or thermodynamic cycle is a combination of thermodynamic processes through

which the working fluid passes in a certain sequence. The cycle begins with one set of conditions
(pressure, volume, temperature etc.), undergoes different changes in different processes and while doing
so, converts part of the heat energy into mechanical work and rejects the remaining heat to a low
temperature reservoir called - sink and finally comes back to original state - attains initialconditions.

Any machine designed to carry out a thermodynamic cycle and converts heat energy into mechanical
work is called a - heat engine. The thermodynamic cycle upon which it operates is known as - heat engine
cycle or power cycle.

The power cycles may use vapour or gas as the working fluid. Cycle which use vapour as the working
substance are known as vapour power cycles. The most commonly used vapour is -steam. In
thermodynamic cycles, the transfer of heat from high temperature reservoir (also called -source) to
working fluid and from working fluid to sink will be irreversible. But, the processes of working fluid itself
may be reversible. The process is internally reversible. The cycles composed of reversible processes are
called - ideal cycles.

In vapour power cycles, change of phase of working fluid takes place while in gas power cycles, the
working fluid remains in one phase throughout the cycle. In vapour power cycles, water is universally
used as a working fluid as it is easy to change its phase, ease of handling and its chemical stability.

The vapour power cycle consists of a series of steady flow processes, each process carried out in a separate
component designed for that purpose. Each component in the cycle / plant constitutes an open system and
as the working fluid passes through each component, it
AT
E
passes through a cycle of mechanical and thermodynamic states.

In the analysis of the cycles, all the processes are assumed to be reversible. RANKINE CYCLE
FIGURE 2.3 COMPONENTS IN A RANKINE CYCLE

The fig. 2.4 shows P-V, T-S and H-S diagrams of a Rankine cycle which uses steam as its working fluid.

A Rankine cycle is a basic cycle for a simple steam power plant. It is a theoretical cycle upon which
steam engine or steam turbine works. It is a modified form of Carnot cycle and an ideal cycle for
comparing the performance of steam power plants."
Processes of Rankine Cycle:

Process a-a’: The point 'a' represents water at initial pressure p1 and corresponding saturation
temperature T2. The water is pumped into the boiler by feed pump raising its pressure to boiler pressure
p1. The pumping process is isentropic compression. During this process, the temperature rises slightly.

Process a' -b : As water enters the boiler, water is first heated upto evaporation temperature at constant
pressure px. The temperature increases to T1. Sensible heat is supplied during this process.

Process b - c: Water evaporates completely at temperature T1 and constant pressure p1.During this
process, the heat supplied is latent heat of vaporization. The final condition (Point C) may be wet, dry or
super heated depending upon the quantity of heat supplied.

Process c - d: Steam expands isentropically in the turbine from P1, T1 to p2, T2 and does the work.

Process d-a: The exhaust steam from the turbine at constant pressure p2 and temperature T2 is
condensed in a condenser where latent heat of steam is removed. The process is isothermal
compression.

At point a; the working fluid restores its original conditions - returns to its original state. Thus the cycle
gets completed. In a steam power plant, supply of heat and rejection of heat are more easily performed at
constant pressure than at constant temperature. In the operation of the cycle, the work done in pumping
feed water to the boiler is very small at low pressures and is usually neglected. The fig. 1.5 shows the P-
V and T-S diagrams for the Rankine cycle, neglecting pumping work.

ASSUMPTIONS IN THE WORKING OF RANKINE CYCLE

The following assumptions are made in the working of Rankine cycle:

1. The same working fluid is repeatedly circulated in a closed circuit;

2. Heat is added in boiler only and rejected in condenser only. Except boiler and condenser, there is no heat
transfer between working fluid and surroundings.

3. There is no pressure drop in the piping system.

4. Expansion in the prime mover occurs without friction or heat transfer i.e., expansion is isentropic
in which case entropy of working fluid entering and leaving the prime mover is same.
5. The working fluid is not under cooled in the condenser i.e., the temperature of water
leaving the condenser is same as saturation temperature corresponding to the exhaust pressure.

EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE

Refer the fig. 1.4 , Let

H1 = Enthalpy of 1kg of steam at pressure p1 at entrance to the prime movers at c, c' or c". H2 = Enthalpy
of 1 kg of steam at pressure p2 as its leaves the prime mover at d, d’ or d”.

h2 - Enthalpy of 1kg of water at pressure p2 as it enters the feed pump at a work done by the prime
mover

(H1 - H2) is known as isentropic enthalpy drop or Rankine heat drop.

VARIABLES AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE

The important thermodynamic variables in a Rankine cycle are :

1. Steam pressure at inlet to turbine.

2. Steam temperature or degree of superheat at inlet to turbine.

3. Steam pressure at exhaust or condenser pressure. (Also called - Back pressure).

At higher pressure, heat rejection is less and so thermal efficiency increases. With increase in maximum
pressure average temperature of heat addition increases and so, thermal efficiency increases. But,
increase in maximum pressure increases the wetness of the vapour after expansion which decreases the
adiabatic efficiency of the prime mover and causes erosion of blades.

By using superheated steam at the entrance to the turbine, the cycle efficiency increases. Also,
superheating reduces specific steam consumption as work done per unit mass of steam is greater. For same
condenser pressure, with superheated steam, dryness fraction at exhaust increases, or for same value of
dryness fraction, work done increases. To avoid erosion of blades by water droplets, minimum dryness
fraction at turbine exhaust should be 0.88.

The thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle can be greatly improved by reducing condenser pressure. By
reducing condenser pressure, a large amount of heat drop is available
as work done. But, by reducing back pressure, wetness of steam increases. So, it can be concluded that
the cycle efficiency increases with increase in maximum pressure (upto a certain limit in case of un-
superheated cycle), with increase in initial temperature and with decrease in back pressure.

METHODS OF INCREASING THERMAL EFFICIENCY

The thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle may be increased by :

1. Increasing the average temperature at which heat is added.

2. Decreasing the average temperature at which heat is rejected.

Based on these principles, methods of increasing thermal efficiency are :

(a) Increasing inlet pressure of steam to turbine.

(b) Using superheated steam to turbine.

(c) Reducing the condenser pressure.

(d) By reheating the steam.

(e) By regenerative feed heating. REHEATING OF STEAM

It is mentioned that efficiency of ordinary Rankine cycle can be improved by increasing the pressure
of steam at inlet to the turbine. With increased pressure, the steam will expand to a greater extent and
becomes quite wet at the end of expansion. The wet steam contains suspended water particles. These
water particles are heavier than steam particles cause erosion of the blades and increase internal losses.
Ultimately, it will lead to reduction in blade efficiency of the turbine.

In order to increase the life of the turbine blades, it is necessary to keep steam dry during
expansion. This is done by taking out steam from the turbine at a section where it becomes just dry
saturated and is reheated at constant pressure by flue gases until it is again superheated to about the
same temperature as on entry to the turbine. It is then taken to next stage of turbine where further
expansion takes place. This process is known as - Reheating. Generally, the expansion is carried out
in several' stages and steam is reheated between stages at suitable points. The final dryness fraction
should not be less than 0.88 in a steam turbine.

To certain extent, the process of reheating causes increase in work done. But, this increase in work
done is at the cost of additional heat supplied in reheating the steam and so, there will be no appreciable
change inefficiency.
 figure 2.7: reheating of steam

The main purpose of reheating is to avoid wet condition in the turbine thereby avoiding erosion of blades
and frictional losses both of which reduce nozzle and blade efficiency. Reheating is generally employed
when pressures are high (Above 100 bar), at one point. For still higher pressures, reheating may be
carried out twice. Reheating has become essential for supercritical boilers.

The improvement in thermal efficiency due to reheating of steam is dependent to a large extent upon the
reheat pressure with respect to original pressure of steam.

The reheater may be incorporated in the walls of the boiler or it may be a separately fired super heater or
heated by high-pressure superheated steam.

Reheating should be done at proper pressure for economy. If steam is reheated early in its
expansion, additional quantity of heat supplied will be less and so, gain in thermal efficiency will be less.
If it is carried out late, though large amount of additional heat is supplied, much of it will be discarded in
thecondenser.

Advantages of Reheating Steam:

Reheating of steam in a turbine has the following advantages:

1. It increases output of the turbine.

2. Erosion and corrosion problems are avoided.

3. The thermal efficiency increases.

4. Nozzle and blade efficiencies increase.

Disadvantages:

1. Maintenance is more.

2. Relative to cost of reheating, increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable. Efficiency of reheat cycle= work

done/heat supplied

REGENERATIVE CYCLE

In this, dry saturated steam from boiler enters the turbine at a higher temperature Tl and then expands to
temperature T2- Now, the condensate from condenser is pumped back and circulated around turbine casing in a
direction opposite to that of expanding steam in the turbine.

The fig. 2.9 shows the ideal regenerative cycle.

Thus, the steam is heated before entering into the boiler, such a system of heating is known as -
regenerative heating as steam is used to heat the steam itself. At all points, the temperature difference is
infinitesimal between water and steam and so the process is reversible. Due to loss of heat the expansion in
the turbine is not isentropic but follows the path 1-2. The heat gained by feed water during 3-4 (Area
34ba) is equal to heat gives by
steam during 1-2 (Area ldc2). The heat supplied from external source is equal to 4\db and heat rejected
to external sink is equal to 2ca3 (= 2' db3’). Areas of heat supplied and heat rejected have the same value
as that of Carnot cycle. So, the efficiency of this cycle is equal to that of Carnot cycle for same temperature
limits.
Compared to Rankine cycle, the advantage in regenerative cycle is rejection of less amount of heat in the
condenser.

The ideal regenerative cycle can't be obtained because:

1. It is not practicable to design a turbine which acts as a heat exchanger as well as expansion device.
So, necessary heat transfer is notpossible.

2. The dryness fraction of expanding steam will be very low. So, in actual practice, advantage of
principle of regeneration is taken by bleeding a part of steam at certain stages of expansion so that the
dryness fraction of remaining part is not greatly reduced. The resulting cycle is known as - regenerative
or bleeding cycle. The process of draining steam from turbine at certain locations during its expansion
and using this steam for heating feed water (in feed water heaters) supplied to the boiler is called
Bleeding and the process of heating is called - regenerative feed heating. The corresponding steam is said
to be bled.

The result of this process is to supply hot feed water to the boiler. This increases the efficiency of the
plant but there is a loss of small amount of work done by the turbine. This cycle is not an ideal cycle as
mixing in feed water heater is irreversible. By employing more number of heaters, mixing becomes
reversible and efficiency can be increased but correspondingly, cost also increases.

Regenerative Cycle with Single Feed Water Heater

Consider 1kg of steam (at pressure P1) enters the turbine at point A. During its expansion, at some
suitable location B (at pressure p2), m kg of steam is bled off from the turbine and taken to a feed water
heater. The remaining steam (1 - m) kg is expanded further in the turbine to condenser pressure and
leaves the turbine at C. The exhaust steam from turbine goes to a condenser and after condensation
to D; (1 - m) kg of water (condensate) is compressed in the feed pump to the bleeding pressure p2.
It is then mixed with m kg of bled steam in the feed water
heater and 1 kg of mixture leaves at E. This water is compressed by second feed pump to boiler pressure
p1.

Let H1 = enthalpy of steam entering the turbine. H2 = enthalpy of bled steam.

H3 = enthalpy of steam leaving the turbine.

h2 = sensible heat of head water leaving the heater. h3 = sensible heat of steam leaving the condenser. m

= amount of steam bled / kg of steam supplied. We know that,

Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water :: m(H2-h2) = (1 -m) (h 2 -h 3 )

For 1 kg of steam at entrance to turbine

Work done in turbine during A - B = (H1 - H2) Mass of steam between B - C = (1 - m) kg

Work done in turbine during B - C = (1 - m) (H2 - H3) Total work done = (H1- H2) + (1 - m) (H2 - H3)

Total heat supplied per kg of feed water = (H1 - h2) Efficiency of regenerative cycle=
If there is no regenerative feed heating, then efficiency of the cycle will be same as that of Rankine
cycle. The efficiency of regenerative cycle is greater than that of Rankine cycle and the cycle efficiency
is a maximum when the temperature of bled steam is approximately equal to mean of boiler and
condenser temperatures.

Advantages:

The main advantages of bleeding are:

1. It increases efficiency as heat of bled steam is not lost in the condenser but utilized in feed water
heating which increases the average temperature at which heat is added.

2. Due to bleeding, volume flow rate is reduced and due to this, dimensions of turbine blades can be
reduced. Also, the size of condenser can bereduced.

3. Due to higher temperature of feed water, thermal stresses in the boiler are minimized.

Disadvantages:

1. For given output higher capacity boiler is required.

2. With more heaters, maintenance is more and cost is also more.

dy College of Engineering & Technology Page 76

STEAM NOZZLES
In steam turbines, the overall transformation of heat energy of steam into mechanical work takes place in
two stages. The available energy of steam is first converted into kinetic energy and then this kinetic energy is
transformed into mechanical work. The first step is accomplished with devices called steam nozzles.

A steam nozzle is a duct or passage of smoothly varying cross sectional area which converts heat energy of
steam into kinetic energy. The shape of nozzle is designed such that it will perform this conversion of energy
with minimum loss.

When steam flows through a nozzle, expansion of steam takes place. During this expansion, the pressure of
steam decreases and also the heat content (Enthalpy). With the expenditure of enthalpy, the velocity and
specific volume increase. Also, with the expansion of steam, there will be condensation of steam with
varying dryness fraction.

The mass of steam passing through any section of nozzle remains constant. So, the variation of pressure and
the cross section of nozzle depend upon the velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction of steam. The
velocity increases continuously from entrance to exit of the nozzle.

The cross section of the nozzles may be circular, rectangular, elliptical or square. The smallest section in the
nozzle is known as throat. The nozzles are used in steam and gas turbines, jet engines, for propulsion of
rocket motors, flow measurements, in injectors for pumping water, in ejectors for removing air from
condensers etc. The major function ofnozzles is to produce a jet of steam or gas with high velocity to drive
steam or gas turbines. So, the nozzles are located just before the steam or gas turbines. When the nozzles
velocity gas is produced and there will be no question of condensation and hence dryness fraction.

When the nozzles are used with steam turbines, they perform the following functions.

1. They convert part of heat energy of steam (obtained from boiler) into kinetic energy.

2. In case of impulse turbines (details of steam turbines are given in the chapter - steam turbines), the
nozzles direct the jet of high velocity steam against the blades of rotor which then convert the kinetic energy
of steam into mechanical (shaft) work.
In case of reaction turbines, the nozzles discharge high velocity steam on to the rotor blades. The reactive
force of steam against the nozzle produces motion ofrotor and work is obtained. When a fluid is decelerated
in a duct or passage (velocity decreases) causing a rise in pressure during the travel along the stream, then
the duct or passage is known as - Diffuser. Diffusers
are extensively used in centrifugal, axial flow compressors, ramjets and combustion chambers etc.

TYPES OF STEAM NOZZLES

There are three important types of steam nozzles:

1. Convergent nozzle.

2. Divergent nozzle.

3. Convergent - divergent nozzle.

Types of Steam Nozzles

If the cross section of the nozzle decreases continuously from entrance to exit; then it is called convergent
nozzle.

If the cross section of a nozzle increases continuously from entrance to exit then it is called Divergent
nozzle.

If the cross section of a nozzle decreases first up to certain length and then increases up to exit; then it is
called - Convergent - Divergent nozzle. This is used mostly in various types of steam turbines.

The three types of the nozzle are shown in above figure.

The flow of steam through nozzles may be regarded as adiabatic expansion because in nozzles, the
velocity of steam is so high that there will be no time available for heat exchange with surroundings
and so heat is neither supplied nor rejected. However, work is performed by increasing the kinetic
energy of steam. Also, in a nozzle, the change of potential energy is negligible and no work is done
on or by the fluid.
The expansion of steam in a nozzle is not a free expansion and the steam is not throttled because it has a
very high velocity at the end of expansion and the pressure as well as enthalpy decrease as expansion
takes place. The pressure at which steam leaves the nozzle is known as Back pressure.

In actual practice, always some friction is produced between steam and the walls of the nozzle; this
friction causes resistance for the flow of steam, which is converted into heat. This heat tends to dry the
steam. So, for the design of a nozzle, the effect of friction has to be considered. There is a phenomenon
known as - super saturation that occurs in the flow of steam through nozzles. This is due to time lag in
the condensation of steam during expansion. This super saturated flow affects mass and condition of
the steam discharged. So, the flow of steam through a nozzle may be regarded as either:

1. Reversible adiabatic or isentropic flow.

2. Adiabatic flow modified by friction.

3. Super saturated flow. Expansion of Steam

The point in the nozzle where area is minimum is called throat and the pressure at the throat is called -
critical pressure. At this section; the mass flow per unit area is maximum.

The velocity of fluid at the throat of a nozzle operating at its designed pressure ratio (when the flow rate
is maximum) is equal to velocity of sound, and it is called - Sonic velocity. The flow up to throat is sub
sonic and the flow after throat is supersonic (greater than velocity of sound).As we know, the velocity
increases continuously in a nozzle from inlet to exit. After throat, the fluid velocity becomes greater
than sonic velocity and to accelerate flow; the area must increase or the nozzle must diverge resulting in
diverging portion of nozzle. The ratio of fluid velocity to local sound velocity is known as -
Machnumber.
Convergent - Divergent Nozzle
A convergent nozzle is used if exit pressure is equal to or more than the critical pressure and
convergent - divergent nozzle is used if exit pressure is less than the critical pressure.

As already mentioned, the velocity of steam at inlet to a nozzle is very small compared to exit velocity.
Low velocity implies large inlet area and most nozzles are shaped in such as way that the inlet area is large
and converges rapidly tothroat area.

Note: A ventruimeter which is used for flow measurement of fluids is also convergent divergent in shape.
But, in it, there is no continuous rise or fall of pressure. So, it is neither a complete nozzle nor a diffuser.
In its convergent portion, the pressure is decreasing, velocity is rising and this portion acts as a sub sonic
nozzle. In the divergent portion, pressure is rising, velocity is falling and this portion acts as subsonic
diffuser. The pressure at throat may not necessarily imply sonic velocity.

The ratio of critical pressure to initial pressure is called - critical pressure ratio (p2/p1)- At the throat, the
pressure is critical (velocity of fluid equals to sound velocity), area is minimum and mass flow per unit
area is maximum.
With liquids, convergent - divergent shape is never used because the sonic velocity in liquids is very high
(About 1500 m/sec compare to about 330 m/sec in air) which is out of the limit of practical velocities
used.

STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

Consider steady flow of 1kg of steam through a nozzle. Let

P1 and p2= Pressures at inlet and exit - bar.

V1 and V2 = Velocities at inlet and exit - m/sec

Vs1 and Vs2 = Specific volumes at inlet and exit - m3/kg u1 and u2 = Internal energy at inlet and exit - KJ/kg

Z1 and Z2 = Elevation at inlet and exit - m h1 and h2 = Enthalpy at inlet and exit - KJ/kg q = Heat supplied if

any - KJ/kg

w = Work done if any - KJ/kg

For a steady flow process (without any accumulation of the fluid between inlet and exit), by the principle of

conservation of energy;

Energy at entrance or inlet = Energy at exit.

Work done in forcing 1kg of steam into nozzle+ initial internal energy + initial kinetic energy

+ initial potential energy + heat supplied if any from the surroundings= work done in sending out 1 kg of
steam from nozzle+ final internal energy + final kinetic energy + final potential energy + work done if
any to the surroundings.

P1V1+u1+V12/2+gz1+q=P2V2+u2+V22/2+gz2+w P1 V1 + u1 = h1 = Enthalpy of stem at inlet P2 V2 + u2 = h2

= Enthalpy of stem at exit

Generally, changes in potential energy are negligible.

z1 = z2

If no heat is supplied from surroundings; then q = 0. If no work is done to the surroundings, then w = 0.

This is the steady flow energy equation of a nozzle. In this equation; the effect of friction
is not considered.

Flow of Steam Through a Convergent - Divergent Nozzle

In the converging portion 1-2 (From inlet to throat), there is a drop in steam pressure with a rise in its
velocity. Also, there is a drop in the enthalpy of the steam. This drop of enthalpy is not utilized in doing
external work but converted into kinetic energy. In the divergent portion2-3.
(From throat to exit), there is further drop of steam pressure with a further rise in its velocity.
Again, there is a drop in the enthalpy which is converted into kinetic energy. Now, at the outlet, steam
leaves the nozzles with high velocity and low pressure.

EFFECT OF FRICTION IN A NOZZLE; NOZZLE EFFICIENCY

When steam flows through a nozzle, for a given pressure drop, the final velocity of steam gets reduced
because of the following losses :
1. The friction between steam and walls of nozzle.
2. Internal friction of steam itself.
3. Shock losses.
Most of the friction in a convergent divergent nozzle occurs in the divergent portion - between throat and
exit. Due to the effect of friction, the actual flow through a nozzle is not isentropic but still approximately
adiabatic. The effects of friction are :

1. The enthalpy drop is reduced and hence thefinal velocity.

2. The kinetic energy gets converted into heat due to friction and is absorbed by the steam. Due to this,
the final dryness fraction ofsteam increases.
3. Steam becomes more dry due to increased dryness fraction and hence specific volume of steam
increases and mass flow rate decreases.
The effect of friction is shown on the h-s diagram or Mother chart in fig.3.8.

FIGURE 2.8: EFFECT Of FRICTION IN A NOZZLE

Point A represents the initial condition of steam which enters the nozzle in a dry saturated state. If the
effect of friction is neglected, the expansion of steam from entrance to throat is represented by A-B and
that from throat to exit by B-C. The whole expansion from A to C is isentropic. The heat drop (hA - hc) is
known as - Isentropic heat drop or Rankine heat drop. In actual practice, the expansion process is modified
by friction. Let point B' represent the final condition of steam. Now, AB' represents the actual expansion -
Adiabatic
expansion. Dryness fraction at B' is more than at C. So, the effect of friction is to improve the quality of
the steam.

The heat drop (hA - hB ') is the actual enthalpy drop during the expansion of steam when effect of
friction is considered and is known as - useful heat drop. The useful heat drop is less than the isentropic
heat drop.
If the steam enters the nozzle in a super heated condition, then during expansion, the friction tends to
super heat the steam.
The ratio of actual or useful heat drop to isentropic heat drop is known as - Coefficient of nozzle or
nozzle efficiency. K. efficiency
The efficiency of a nozzle generally varies from 0.85 to 0.95.

VELOCITY COEFFICIENT
In the problems of nozzles, sometimes, the term velocity coefficient is used for accounting the effects of
friction.

Velocity coefficient is defined as the ratio of actual exit velocity to exit velocity when the flow is isentropic
for the same pressure drop.

The velocity coefficient depends upon the dimensions of the nozzle, roughness of the nozzle walls,
velocity of flow, friction etc.

VELOCITY OF STEAM
Steam enters the nozzle with high pressure and low velocity and leaves the nozzle with high velocity and
low pressure. The initial velocity compared to exit velocity is so small and is generally neglected. Let
V1 = Velocity of steam at entrance of nozzle - m/sec. V2 = Velocity of steam at any section - m/sec
h1 = Enthalpy of entering steam - J/kg
h2 = Enthalpy of steam at the section considered - J/kg
For unit mass flow of steam, we have the steady flow energy equation:
The gain in kinetic energy between any two sections is equal to loss of enthalpy. Enthalpy drop hd =
(hl - h2)

Neglecting the velocity of entering steam or velocity of approach;

V22= 2 hd =2000 hdJ/kg

In actual practice, always certain amount of friction exits between steam and the surfaces of the
nozzle. This reduces the enthalpy drop by 10-15 percent and hence the exit velocity of steam is also
reduced correspondingly.

K = Nozzle efficiency or coefficient of nozzle.

MASS OF STEAM DISCHARGED THROUGH A NOZZLE

The steam flowing through a nozzle approximately follows the equation pVn = constant. Where n = 1.135
for saturated steam= 1.300 for superheatedsteam.
Let p1 = Initial pressure of steam - N/m2 v1 = Initial volume of 1 kg of steam - m3 p2 = Pressure of
steam at throat - N/m2
v2 - Volume of steam at pressure p2 - m3/kg A = Cross sectional area of nozzle - m2
V2 = Velocity of leaving steam - m/sec.
Work done during Rankine cycle (Rankine area)
= Drop in enthalpy
CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO :From equation (4); the rate of mass flow of steam per unit are is given by :
The ratio (p2/p1) is known as - Critical pressure ratio and its value depends upon the value of index n. The pressure
at throat is known as - Critical pressure and the ratio of pressure at minimum cross section i.e., throat (p2) to initial
pressure - pressure at entrance (p1) is known as —critical pressure ratio. The area of throat of all steam nozzles should
be designed on this ratio.

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE AND MAXIMUM DISCHARGE

Normally, a nozzle is designed for maximum discharge by designing a certain throat pressure (p2) which produces this
condition. For only one value of pressure ratio (p2/p1) the discharge will be maximum. That ratio is Critical pressure
ratio - Ratio of throat pressure to inlet pressure (p2/p1) For maximum discharge

This condition should be met to obtain maximum discharge from a nozzle. This equation gives pressure ratio for a
maximum discharge per unit area through the nozzle. When this condition is met and the discharge is maximum,
then the flow through the nozzle is called choking flow. Nozzles are always designed for choked flow. We know
that mass of steam discharged through a nozzle.

So, in a nozzle, the maximum mass flow depends only on initial conditions of steam (p1, v1) and the throat area and
is independent of the exit conditions of steam. The mass flow being constant at all sections of the nozzle, maximum
discharge per unit area occurs at throat which has minimum area. In a convergent - divergent nozzle, the
discharge remains constant after throat. The divergent portion doesn't affect the discharge of steam, passing through
the nozzle but it only accelerates the steam leaving the nozzle. When the initial pressure p1 is constant, the
discharge through the nozzle increases as the pressure p2 at throat decreases during the expansion process. Once
the throat pressure p2 reaches the value given by equation (6); the discharge reaches a maximum value
and it remains constant after throat.

SUPER SATURATED OR META STABLE FLOW

When a super heated vapour expands adiabatically or isentropically, the vapour begins to condense when saturated
vapour line is reached. As expansion continues below this line into wet region, condensation proceeds gradually and
steam becomes more and more wet. There is always a stable mixture of steam and condensate (liquid) at any point
during expansion. This type of expansion is in thermal equilibrium and is shown in Fig. 3.13 on T-S and H-S
diagrams.

The point S in expansion lies on saturation line and represents the point at which condensation within the vapour
just begins. The condensation of steam occurs when steam passes through certain distance in the nozzleand after
certain short interval of time.

When steam flows through the nozzle, the discharge of steam through the nozzle will be slightly less than the
theoretical discharge due to the effect of friction. But, during the flow of wet steam through the nozzle, the
measured discharge is slightly greater than the theoretical discharge even though we consider the effect of friction.

Normally, condensation starts around tiny dust particles which are always present in commercial steam plants in
sufficient quantity. When steam is free of foreign particles, condensation process is delayed and the temperature of
the steam continues to fall. This is known as - super saturation. When certain degree of super saturation is reached,
the presence of dust particles has no effect on condensation and equilibrium between vapour and liquid phases is
attained completely and also instantaneously.

In normal condensation, the random kinetic energy of the molecules fall to a level which is
insufficient to overcome the attractive forces of the molecules and some of the slower moving molecules
join together to form tiny droplets of water. A certain time interval is essential for the collection of these
molecules toform droplets.

In actual practice, the velocity of steam in sonic or even super sonic and the convergent portion of the nozzle is so
short the molecules of steam find no sufficient time to collect and form droplets and steam doesn't condense at the
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure but continues to expand with fall in temperature but without
condensation. As a result, equilibrium between liquid and vapour phases is delayed. The expansion takes place very
rapidly and condensation can't keep pace with expansion and lags behind. Due to this, the steam remains in an
unnatural dry or super heated state. The steam in such conditions is said to be 'super - saturated' or ' meta - stable'. It is
also called -Super cooled steam and its temperature at any pressure is less than the
saturation temperature; corresponding to that pressure. The flow of super saturated steam through the
nozzle is called -super saturated or meta stable or non - equilibrium flow. Super saturation means that
steam doesn't condense at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure as it occurs in case of
equilibrium pressure as it occurs in case of equilibrium flow.

In the state of 'super saturation', the steam is under cooled to a temperature less than that
corresponding to its pressure; hence, the density of steam increases and hence the measured discharge
increases than the calculated theoretical discharge. Experiments showed that in the absence of dust;
dry saturated steam when suddenly expanded, doesn't condense until its density is about 8 times that
of saturated vapour of the same pressure.

The reasons for super saturated flow are :

1. The flow of steam is so rapid that it doesn't allow time for transfer of heat. It may take about
0.001 second only for steam to travel from inlet to exit of nozzle.
2. There may not be any dust particles which generally form nucleus for condensation. At
certain instant, the supersaturated steam condenses suddenly to its natural state.
Thus, flow of steam through a nozzle may be regarded as either ideal adiabatic or adiabatic
flow modified by friction and super saturation.

Super Saturated Flow

Point A' represents the position of initial super heated steam at entrance pressure p1. The line A' - A
represents isentropic expansion of steam in thermal equilibrium upto saturation line. Line AC represents
isentropic expansion of steam in super saturated region. Upto the point at which condensation occurs, the
state of steam is not of stable equilibrium not unstable equilibrium either, since a small disturbance will
cause condensation to commence. So, steam in this condition is said to be in meta stable state. Point C
represents the meta stable state. It is obtained by drawing a vertical line from points to Wilson line. At C;
the steam condenses suddenly. Line CD represents condensation of steam at constant enthalpy. Point D is
obtained by drawing a horizontal line through C to meet throat pressure p2 of the nozzle. Line DF
represents isentropic expansion of steam in the divergent portion in thermalequilibrium.

During the partial condensation of steam DF, sufficient amount of heat is released which raises the
temperature back to saturation temperature.

EFFECTS OF SUPER SATURATION

The following are the important effects that occur during super saturated flow of steam in a nozzle.

1. As the condensation doesn't take place during super saturated expansion, the temperature at which super
saturation occurs will be less than the super saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. So, the
density of super saturated steam will be more than that for equilibrium conditions. (Generally 8 times that of
ordinary saturated vapour at the corresponding pressure). Which gives increase in the mass of
steamdischarged.

2. Due to super saturation, the entropy and specific volumeincrease.

3. Super saturation increases slightly the dryness fraction.

4. For some pressure limits, super saturation reduces enthalpy drop slightly. As
velocity is proportional to square root of enthalpy drop; exit velocity is also
reduced slightly.

When meta stable conditions exist in the nozzle; Mollier chart (H-S chart) should not be used and the
expansion must be considered to follow the law pv1.3 = C i.e., with index of expansion for
super heated steam. The problems on super saturated flow can't be solved by Mollier chart unless Wilson line
is drawn onit.
WILSON LINE
Generally, there is a limit upto which super saturated flow is possible. This limit of super saturation is
represented by a curve known as - Wilson line, on the Mollier diagram. Above this curve, steam is super
saturated and super heated. Beyond Wilson line, there is no super saturation. At Wilson line condensation
occurs suddenly and irreversibly at constant enthalpy and then remains in stable condition. The result is to
reduce heat drop slightly during expansion causing corresponding reduction in exit velocity and final dryness
fraction increasesslightly.

The limiting condition of under cooling at which condensation begins and restores the conditions of thermal
equilibrium is called Wilson line. Generally, Wilson line closely follows 0.96 dryness fraction
line. In nozzles, this limit may be within the nozzle or after the vapour leaves the

nozzle. DEGREE OF UNDER COOLING

It is the difference between super saturated steam temperature and saturation temperature at that pressure.
The temperature T2 ' is less than the normal temperature of steam at pressure p2. The state C is known as -
Under cooled as the temperature of steam is lesser than the saturation temperature at pressure p2'. The
amount of under cooling (Difference in temperatures) is known as - Degree of under cooling. Degree of under
cooling = T2 - T2 '

There is a limit to the degree of under cooling possible and the limit to which the super saturated flow is
possible is given by - Wilson line. The region between the Wilson line and the dry saturated line is called -
Super saturatedzone.

When Wilson line is reached, condensation begins at constant enthalpy and pressure
remains unaltered.
DEGREE OF SUPER SATURATION
The ratio of pressures corresponding to temperature of super saturated steam and saturation
temperature is known as - Degree of super saturation
Numerical Problems – Steam Nozzles
Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 96
 UNIT-IV

STEAM TURBINES

A steam turbine is a key unit in a steam power plant from which we get power. A steam turbine is a
turbo-machine and a prime mover in which potential energy of steam is transformed into kinetic
energy and this kinetic energy is then transformed into mechanical energy of rotation of shaft of
turbine. In reciprocating steam engines, the pressure energy of steam is utilised and dynamic action of
Steam is negligible. In steam engines, steam acts on piston as a load or weight and so, the action of
steam is - static. Steam engines may be operated without any expansion or drop of pressure in the
cylinder. The expansive property of steam is not utilised to fullest extent even in the best types of multi
expansion steam engines.

Steam turbines can't be operated as that of steam engines. The turbine depends wholly upon the
dynamic action of steam. The turbine utilises the kinetic or velocity energy of steam instead of
pressure energy only. The expansive property of steam is almost utilised in the turbine either in
admission nozzles or in the turbine blading.

The steam is caused to fall in pressure in a nozzle during admission to the turbine, due to this fall in
pressure; certain amount of heat energy is converted into kinetic energy. A steam turbine consists of a
number of curved blades fixed uniformly on the rim of a wheel which is fastened to a shaft and we
obtain power from this shaft.

The high velocity steam from nozzles impinges on the blades of turbine, suffers a change in the
direction of motion and thus gives rise to change in momentum and so a force. This constitutes the
driving force of the turbine. The blades obtain no motive force from the static pressure of steam or
from any impact of steam jet because blades are designed and curved in such a ways that steam enters
the blades without any shock and will glide ON and OFF the blades.

According to Newton's second law of motion, the force is proportional to rate of change of
momentum (Mass x velocity). If the rate of change of momentum is caused by allowing a high
velocity steam jet to pass over a curved blade, then, steam will impart a force to the blade. If the blade
is free, then it will move (rotate) in the direction offorce.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

1. A nozzle in which heat energy of high pressure steam is converted into kinetic energy so that
steam issues from the nozzle with very highvelocity.

2. Blades which change the direction of steam issuing from the nozzle so that a force acts on blades
due to change of momentum and rotatesthem.

So, the basic principle of operation a steam turbine is generation of high velocity steam jet by
expansion of high pressure steam in a nozzle and motive power in the turbine is obtained by change
in momentum of the high velocity steam jet by allowing it to impinge on curved blades. Steam
turbines are steady flow machines, have large exhaust outlets (for discharging used steam) and the
speed of flow is very high. So, they can handle large volume of steam and produce higher power
and the processes are assumed to be adiabatic. Steam turbines are capable of expanding steam to
the lowest exhaust pressure obtainable in the condenser. The turbine is a constant high speed
machine and really must be operated condensing in order to take full advantage of greater
range of steam expansion.

Steam turbines are mainly used for electric power generation and for large marine propulsion.
These are also used for direct drives of fans, compressors, pumps etc.
 When properly designed and constructed, a steam turbine is the most durable prime-mover.
TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines may be classified in many ways. Considering the action of steam which is most
important factor, steam turbines are mainly classified as :
1. Impulse turbines.
2. Impulse reaction turbines (In practice known as - reactionturbines).
If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades of a turbine takes place in such a way that
steam is expanded and entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles only and pressure at the outside of
blades is equal to inside of blades, then such a turbine is known as - impulse turbine.
In these turbines, the pressure drop takes place in nozzles only and not in moving blades. This is
obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross sectional area.
In impulse reaction turbines, the pressure drop takes place in nozzles as well as moving blades. The
drop of pressure of steam while flowing through the moving blades results in the generation of kinetic
energy within the moving blades giving rise to reaction and adds to the driving force which is then
transmitted through the rotor to the turbine shaft. This turbine works on the principles of both
impulse and reaction. This is achieved by making the blade passage of varying cross sectionalarea.

IMPULSE TURBINE
The turbines in which complete process of expansion of steam takes place in stationary nozzles and
the kinetic energy is converted into mechanical work on the turbine blades are known as -Impulse
turbines. In impulse turbines, the entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles only. The pressure drops
from steam chest pressure to condenser or exhaust pressure. The pressure in the blade passages
remains approximately constant and is equal to condenser pressure.
An impulse turbine for its operation, depends wholly on the impulsive force of high velocity steam
jets, which are obtained by expansion of steam in nozzles. The action of steam jet impinging on
the blades is said to be impulse and the rotation of rotor is due to impulsive forces of steam jets.
Generally, converging - diverging nozzles are used. Due to relatively large expansion ratio, steam
leaves the nozzles at a very high velocity (Even supersonic). The steam at high velocity impinges
over blades, both pressure and enthalpy remain constant, work transfer takes place, velocity reduces
gradually and steam comes out with appreciable velocity . The nozzle angle is inclined at a fixed angle
to tangent of rotorwheel.

Mostly, impulse turbines are axial flow turbines and they have zero degree of reaction (discussed later).
The entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles resulting in enthalpy drop. The energy transfer is
derived from a change of absolute velocity.
Impulse turbines are generally employed where relatively small amounts of power are required and
where rotor diameter is fairly small.
Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology Page 119
ARRANGEMENT OF A SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE.

DE-LAVEL TURBINE

A De-lavel turbine named after Swedish Engineer De-lavel is the simplest impulse turbine and is
commonly used.

RUNNER AND BUCKET OF DE-LAVEL TURBINE

The essential parts of an impulse turbine are - nozzles, blades and casing.
In nozzles, the expansive property of steam is utilised to produce jets of steam with very high velocity.
The nozzle guides the steam to flow in the designed direction. It also
regulates the flow of steam. It is kept very close to turbine blades to minimise wind age losses.
The runner or rotor consists of a circular disc mounted on a shaft. On the periphery of the runner, a
number of buckets or curved blades are fixed uniformly.
The surface of the blades is made very smooth to minimise losses due to friction. Mostly, the blades
are bolted to the disc. Sometimes, the blades and disc are cast as a single unit. The function of blades is
to change the direction of steam jet and hence momentum of the jet and so to produce a force which will
rotate the blades.

The casing is air tight metallic case which houses the rotor and blades. It controls the flow of steam
from blades to condenser and to safeguard the runner against any accident.
A De-lavel turbine consists of a single impulse wheel on which steam jets impinge from several nozzles
arranged around the circumference. The blades are made symmetrical with angles of about 30° at inlet
and exit. It has spherical bearings. It uses helical gears to reduce high rotational speed to apractical value.

PRESSURE AND VELOCITY VARIATION IN IMPULSE TURBINE

The fig. shows the variation of pressure and velocity of steam in a simple impulse turbine while it flows
through nozzles and blades.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE AND VELOCITY IN A SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

The entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles and the pressure remains constant while passing through
the blades. As enthalpy drop takes place in nozzles the heat energy is
converted into kinetic energy and so velocity of steam increases in the nozzle and is reduced gradually
while flowing through the blades.

For economy and for maximum work; the speed of the blade should be one half of the velocity of steam.
The small rotor employed in simple impulse turbine gives very high rotational speed about 30,000 RPM
as most of the kinetic energy is absorbed by one set of moving blades only. Such high speeds can be
used to drive the machines or generators
with large reduction gearing arrangement.

From the velocity graph; it is clear that the velocity of steam leaving the blades consists of a large
portion of velocity of steam leaving the nozzle. This results in loss of energy and this loss of energy due
to higher exit velocity is called - carry over loss or leaving energy loss.

VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE

We should be able to estimate the propelling force that would be applied to a turbine rotor under any
given set of conditions. With this, we can estimate the work done and hence the power. Since force is
due to change of momentum mainly caused by change in the direction of flow of steam, it is essential to
draw velocity diagram that shows how velocity of steam varies during its passage through the blades.

Velocity is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. So, we can represent velocity
by a straight line and the length of the straight line indicates its magnitude and its direction is
indicated by the direction of the line with reference to some fixed direction.

VELOCITY DIAGRAMS FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE

The steam jet after leaving the nozzle, impinges on one end the blade, glides over the inside surface of
the blade and finally leaves from the other edge.
Let Vb = Linear velocity of moving blade.

V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet to moving blade i.e., exit velocity of nozzle. Vw1 =
Tangential component of entering steam. Vw1 Also known as velocity of whirl at
entrance.

Vr1 = Relative velocity of steam with respect to tip of blade at inlet. It is the vectorial difference
between Vb and V1

Vf1=Velocity of flow = Axial velocity at entrance to moving blades. It is the vertical component of V1

α1= Angle of nozzle = Angle which the entering steam makes with the moving blade at entrance - with
the tangent of the wheel at entrance.

β1 = Angle which the relative velocity makes with the tangent of the wheel - direction of motion of
blade. It is also known as blade angle at inlet.

The above notations stand for inlet triangle.

V2, Vw2, Vf2, Vr2, α2, β2 are the corresponding values at the exit of the moving blades. They stand
for outlet triangle.

The steam jet with absolute velocity V1 impinges on the blade at an angle of a1 to the tangent of the
blade. The absolute velocity V2 can be considered as having two components. The tangential
component called whirl component Vw1 = V1cosα1 is parallel to direction of rotation of blades and
axial or flow component Vf1 = V sin α1 is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of blades.

The tangential component of the steam jet does work on the blade because it is in the same direction
as the motion of the blade. The axial component doesn't work on the blades because it is
perpendicular to the direction of motion of blade. It is responsible for the flow of steam through the
turbine. Change of velocity in this component causes an axial thrust on the rotor. As the blade moves
with a tangential velocity in peripheral direction, the entering steam jet will have relative velocity to
the blades. If there is no friction loss at the blade, relative velocity at inlet is equal to relative velocity at
outlet i.e.,
Vr1= Vr2.

As the steam glides over the blades without shock, the surface of the blade at inlet must be parallel
to relative velocity Vr1. So, the moving blade at inlet must be inclined to the tangent of the blade at
an angle β1. In other words, to avoid shock at
entrance, vector Vr1 must be tangential to the blade tip at entry i.e, β1 must be equal to angle of blade at
entrance. The blade is designed on this principle.

From the above analysis, following points are to be noted.

1. No expansion of steam takes place in the moving blades. The blades only deflect steam. This causes
change in momentum and consequently force.

2. If the steam has to enter and leave the blades without shock, angle β1, should be angle of blade
at inlet and angle β2 should be angle of blade at outlet. This is an essential condition.

3. Since there is no pressure drop in the moving blades, the pressure on the two sides of the blades
is equal.

4. α 1is the outlet angle of nozzle. If steam has to enter the next nozzle ring without shock, its inlet
angle must be equal to α2.

5. In a simple impulse turbine, the loss at exit is the whirl component at outlet - V2 cos α2. For minimum
loss, this quantity should be minimum, i.e., α2 should be equal to 90°. In that case the turbine discharges
axially and it is called axialturbine.

COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM

To solve problems on turbines conveniently, it is common practice to combine both the inlet and outlet
velocity diagrams on a common base which represents the blade velocity

COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE

Construction of combined velocity diagram :

1. First, draw a horizontal line and cut off AB equal to velocity of blade to some suitable scale

2. From 5, draw a line BC at an angle a1, with AB. Cut off BC equal to V1 to scale.

3. Join AC. It represents Vrl.

4. From A; draw a line AD at an angle β2 with AB. With A as centre and radius equal to AC, draw an arc
that meets the line through A at D such that AC = AD. Or Vr1 = Vr2.

5. Join BD. It represents absolute velocity at exit toscale.

6. From C and D draw perpendiculars to meet the line AB produced at E and F.

7. Now; to scale,

EB = velocity of whirl at entrance. BF = velocity of whirl at exit.

CE = velocity of flow at inlet. DF = velocity of flow at outlet.

When friction is neglected, there will be no fall in steam pressure as it flows over the blades and Vr1 =
Vr2.

Also, when friction is absent, β1 = β2 and Vf1 = Vf2

FORCES ON BLADE AND WORK DONE BY BLADE

The work done may be found out from the change of momentum of steam jet during its flow
over the blades. As mentioned earlier, velocity of whirl is responsible for work on the blade.
1. Force on Rotor:

According to Newton's second law of motion,

Tangential force on rotor = mass x tangential acceleration

m = Mass rate of steam flow - kgs/sec.

Actually, Vw2 is negative as the steam is discharged in opposite direction to blade motion. So, Vw1 ,and

Vw2 are added together. Generally,

Positive sign is to be used when Vw2 and Vb are in opposite direction as shown above and negative sign
is to be used when Vw2 and Vb are in same direction.

2. Work done as Blade:

Work done = force x distance

= Tangential force x distance moved in unit time in the direction of force.

3. Power Developed by the Turbine:

Power = Rate of doing work (1 Watt= 1 N-m/sec)

This power is known as Rim power or diagram power to distinguish it from shaft power.

4. Axial Thrust on Rotor:

Axial force Fa= Mass x Axial acceleration

= Mass x change in velocity of flow

This axial force must be balanced or must be taken by a thrust bearing. EFFICIENCIES The following

efficiencies are common to both impulse and reaction turbines :

1. Blading or diagramefficiency.
2. Gross or stage efficiency.
3. Nozzle efficiency

1. Blading or Diagram Efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of work done on blades to energy supplied to blades.

Let V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet —m/sec m = Mass of steam supplied —

kg/sec.

Energy of steam supplied to blade = 1/2*m*V12

Work done on blade = m . (Vw1 ± Vw2) . Vb J/sec Diagram or blading efficiency

This is called diagram efficiency because the quantities involved in it are obtained from velocity
diagram

2. Gross or Stage Efficiency:

A stage consists of a set of nozzles and a row of moving blades and so, stage efficiency includes the
performance of nozzles also.

Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done on blades per kg of steam to total energy
supplied per stage per kg of steam. If h1 and h2 represent before and after expansion of steam through
the nozzles, then the enthalpy drop (h1- h2) is the enthalpy drop through a stage, i.e., the heat energy
(h1 - h2) is the energy supplied per stage per kg of steam.

3. Nozzle Efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of energy supplied to blades per kg of steam to total energy supplied per stage
per kg of steam.Energy supplied to blades per kg of steam = ½*m*V12 Total energy supplied per stage per
kg of steam = (h1-h2)
Stage efficiency = blade efficiency x nozzle efficiency.

Energy converted to heat by blade friction= Loss of kinetic energy during flow over the blades

EFFECT OF BLADE FRICTION

In an impulse turbine, the relative velocity remains same as steam passes over the blades if friction is
neglected. In actual practice, the flow of steam the blades is resisted by friction. The effect of this
friction is to reduce the relative velocity of steam while passing over the blades. Generally, there is a loss
of 10-15% in relative velocity. Owing to friction in blades. Vr2 is less than Vr1 and we maywrite

The ratio of Vr2 to Vr1 is called blade velocity coefficient or coefficient of velocity friction factor K.
The effect of blade friction is to reduce relative velocity at outlet and consequently Vw2 This in turn will
cause reduction in work done and blade efficiency. Depending upon the shape of the blades, value of K
varies from 0.75 to 0.85

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF AN IMPULSE TURBINE

Efficiency of an impulse turbine is

The blading efficiency will be maximum when V1 is minimum. From combined velocity diagram, we
can observe that, value of V1, will be minimum when α2=90°. So, for maximum efficiency, the steam
should leave the turbine blades at right angles to their motion.

Also, for maximum efficiency, Vw2=0

COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
Neglecting blade friction, Vr1= Vr2

When we consider friction;

Here, we introduce another term — blade speed ratio or blade velocity ratio ρ which is defined as the
ratio of speed of blade to absolute velocity at inlet.

This is a very important factor in the design of turbines and efficiency of a turbine depends largely
on the value of ρ

Optimum Value of Blade Speed Ratio:

For maximum blade efficiency.

For maximum blade efficiency,

2(1 + KCT) (cos α1 -2ρ) =0

cos α1 -2 ρ=0
Maximum work done : Wmax = 2 . Vb2

For maximum work developed per kg of steam or for maximum efficiency, the blade velocity should be
approximately half of absolute velocity of steam jet coming out from nozzle.

COMPOUNDING OF IMPULSE TURBINES

We already know that, in impulse turbines, the entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles only. If the
entire pressure drop from boiler pressure to condenser pressure (say 125 bar to 1 bar) is carried out "in
one stage (one set of nozzles) only, then, the velocity of the steam will be extremely high. It will
make the turbine rotor to run at very high speeds (upto 30.000 RPM). In practice, such a high speed of
a turbine is of no use and will have number of disadvantages. The leaving loss also becomes high. It is
usually necessary to reduce the speed by gearing which will be of undueproportions.

So, it is essential to make improvement in the impulse turbine to make it more efficient, practical - to
reduce the high speed of the rotor to practical limits. This is achieved by making use of more than one
set of nozzles, blades and rotors in series keyed to a common shaft so that either pressure of steam
or its velocity is absorbed in stages and in doing so, the speed gets reduced. This also reduces leaving
loss. This process of absorbing pressure or velocity of steam in stages to reduce the speed of the turbine
rotor is called - compounding.

There are three important methods of compounding:

1. Pressure compounding.

2. Velocity compounding.

3. Pressure - velocity compounding.

1. Pressure Compounding:

In this, the whole expansion of steam is carried out in a number of steps by employing a number of
simple impulse turbines in series on same shaft as shown in fig

We can arrange a number of simple impulse turbines in series on same shaft allowing exhaust steam
from one turbine to enter the nozzles of next turbine. Then, each of the simple impulse turbine is
termed as - stage of the turbine, each stage containing a set of nozzles and blades.
This is equivalent to splitting the whole pressure drop into a series of smaller pressure drops and so it is
called - pressure compounding. The total pressure drop of steam doesn't take place in the first set of
nozzles but divided equally among all nozzle sets and the pressure remains constant while flowing over
the moving blades

The nozzles are usually fitted into partitions termed as diaphragms which separate one wheel chamber
from the next.

The steam from boiler pressure is passed through the first set of nozzles ( A number of nozzles are
arranged around the circumference of the wheel. All nozzles for one wheel constitute one set of
nozzles); where only a small pressure drop occurs with an increase in velocity of steam. While flowing
over the first set of moving blades, pressure remains constant but velocity decreases. This constitutes
one stage. A stage consists of a set of fixed nozzles and a set of moving blades. A stage itself is a simple
impulse turbine.

The steam from first set of moving blades enters the second stage - into second set of nozzles where its
pressure is further reduced. Consequently, the velocity increase again. Now, the steam enters the second
set of moving blades in which pressure remains
constant but velocity decreases.
This process is repeated in the remaining stages also until condenser pressure is reached.

As pressure drop per stage is reduced, the velocity of steam is reduced which in turn reduces the blade or
rotor velocity. The speed of the turbine can be reduced further by increasing number of stages. The
leaving velocity of the last stage of the turbine is much less compared to simple impulse or De-lavel
turbine.

This is the most efficient type of impulse turbine because the ratio of blade velocity, to steam velocity
remains constant. But to obtain very low speed, number of stages required are more and it becomes
more expensive. Now-a-days, pressure compounded impulse turbines are not being used. Rateau and
Zoelly turbines belong to this group.

2. Velocity Compounding:

In this, the entire pressure drop takes place in one set of nozzles thereafter, the pressure remains constant
while the steam flows over the blades. Due to the entire pressure drop, the velocity of steam becomes
high, and this velocity is absorbed in steps while steam flows over different sets of moving blades.

Here, the turbine consists of a set of nozzles and a wheel fitted with two or more rows of moving blades.
There are fixed or guide blades arranged between moving blades and set in reverse manner.

The expansion of steam takes place in the set of nozzles from boiler pressure to condenser pressure.
The resulting high velocity of steam is utilized by as many sets of rotor blades as necessary.

A portion of initial high velocity of steam is absorbed by the first set of moving blades. The steam from
first set of moving blades comes out with a fairly high velocity. It then enters the fixed or stationary or
guide blades which change the direction of steam and direct the steam into second set of moving blades;
without affecting the velocity appreciably. There is slight drop in velocity in guide blades due to friction.
While passing through the second set of moving blades, steam suffers a change of momentum and gives
up another portion of its velocity -kinetic energy to the rotor.

The process is repeated and the steam finally enters the condenser from the last set of moving blades.

The entire pressure drop takes place in the nozzles only and no pressure drop occurs in fixed (guide)
blades or moving blades. This method of velocity compounding is known as - Curtis principle and
Curtis turbine is an example of velocity compounded impulse turbine.
3. Pressure - Velocity Compounding:

In this, both the principles of pressure compounding and velocity compounding are used. Total pressure
drop of steam is divided into stages and velocity in each stage is also compounded.

This type allows bigger pressure drop in each stage and hence less number of stages are required. So,
for a given pressure drop, this is more compact than a pressure compounded turbine.

In this turbine, each stage has a set of nozzles, two or more rows of moving blades and one or more
rows of guide blades both placed alternately. Each stage is separated from adjacent stage by a
diaphragm containing a nozzle.
In this turbine, the whole pressure drop takes place in different sets of nozzles, i.e., whole pressure drop
doesn't take place on set of nozzles but divided into small drops. So, it is pressure compounded.

While flowing over different sets of moving blades in different stages, the velocity is reduced. So, it is
velocity compounded.
The diameter of this turbine is increased at each stage to allow increasing volume of steam at lower
pressures. This type of compounding is used in Curtis turbine.
VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

In a single stage turbine, steam after leaving the nozzle impinges on one end of the blades, glides
over the inner surface of the blades and leaves the blades at the other end. A velocity
compounded impulse turbine consists of one set of nozzles, two or more sets of moving blades and
guide blades. If we consider two rows or two sets of moving blades only, then, steam after expansion
in the nozzles, enters the first set of moving blades and after leaving the first set of moving blades,
enters first set or first row of fixed or guide blades
There is no enthalpy drop in the guide blades. Their function is to change the direction only.

But, there may be slight reduction in velocity due to friction. The guide blades are also called as
fixed blades as they do not rotate but arc attached to the casing. The moving blade rows are attached
to the rotor.

y College of Engineering & Technology Page 136

The blade velocity is constant for both the stages as there are mounted on same shaft. The
absolute velocity at exit from the first moving blade is the entry velocity to the fixed blade.
Similarly, the exit velocity from the fixed blade is the entry velocity to the second moving blade.
We can draw combined velocity diagrams for the first and second row of moving blades
individually with a similar procedure as given for a single stage impulse turbine. We can combine
these individual velocity diagrams to obtain final combined velocity diagram for the whole turbine

Combined Velocity Diagram for Two Stage Impulse Turbine

Calculations:

I. Total work done per kg of steam passing through both stages:

Wt = work done in first moving blade set + work done in second moving blade set.
Blading or diagram efficiency for a two stage turbine:

Maximum efficiency implies minimum rejection of energy which is obtained when discharge is axial
i.e., α4 = 90°.

For any given blade speed, a two row wheel (two sets of moving blades) can utilize four times the
enthalpy drop of a simple impulse turbine

3. Maximum work done: We know that work done

REACTION TURBINE

In a reaction turbine, steam enters the rotor under pressure and flows over the blades. While gliding,
steam propels the blades and makes them to move. The rotor is rotated by reactive forces of steam jets.
The motion of blades is similar to recoil of a gun. Pure reaction turbine is not possible in actual
practice and all turbines employ both impulse and reaction principles. The driving force is partly
impulsive and partly reactive.

In this turbine there are number of rows of moving blades fixed to shaft with equal number of fixed
blades attached to the casing. The fixed blades are fixed in reverse manner compared to moving
blades and corresponds to nozzles referred to in impulse turbine.

The impulse turbines are partial admission turbines as nozzles do not occupy the complete
circumference leading into blade annulus. In impulse - reaction turbines, instead of a set of
nozzles, steam is admitted for the whole circumference and so there is full, complete admission.
A set of fixed blades are positioned at the entrance in placeof nozzles.

In passing through the first row of fixed blades, steam suffers a small drop in pressure and
hence its velocity increases. It then enters the first row of moving blades and as in
impulse turbine, suffers a change in direction and so results in momentum. This results in an impulse
on blades.

But, here the passage of moving blades is so designed that there is a small pressure drop in moving
blades giving rise to increase in velocity - kinetic energy. This kinetic energy gives rise to a reaction in
the direction opposite to that of added velocity. Thus, the driving force is vector sum of impulse and
reaction forces. Normally this type of turbine is known as - Reaction turbine. It is also called as - Parson's
reactionturbine.
In this turbine, the pressure drop takes place in both fixed and moving blades and blade passages in
both are of convergent nozzles shape. The steam velocities in this turbine are comparatively low and
the maximum value is about equal to blade velocity. In this turbine, as pressure falls, specific volume
increase and so, height of blades is increased progressively. This type of turbine is very successful in
practice and popular in power plants.

PARSON'S REACTION TURBINE

A Parson's reaction turbine is the simplest type of reaction turbine and is commonly used. The main

components of it are:

1. Casing.

2. Guide mechanism.

3. Runner.

4. Draft tube.

The casing is an air tight metallic case in which steam from boiler under high pressure is
distributed around the fixed blades which are positioned at the entrance. The casing is so designed
that steam enters the fixed blades with uniform velocity.

The guide mechanism consists of fixed or guide blades. They allow the steam to enter the rotor without shock
and they allow required quantity of steam to enter the turbine. The guide blades may be opened or closed by a
regulating shaft which allows steam to flow according to the need.

The runner consists of moving blades. These blades are designed properly to allow steam to enter and leave the
blades without shock. The steam after passing through the rotor flows to condenser through a draft tube. It
minimises losses due toeddies.

In impulse turbines, steam pressure on both sides of moving blades is same and axial thrust is
negligible. But, in a reaction turbine, this thrust is considerable due to fall of pressure within the blades and
difference between blade sizes in various steps. (To accommodate increased volume, height of blades in increased
progressively). Thrust bearings are used to balance this thrust.

In a reaction turbine, the pressure is reduced in both fixed and moving blades. The velocity increases in
fixed blades and reduces while passing through moving blades.

VELOCITY DIAGRAM OF A REACTION TURBINE

The fig shows the inlet and outlet velocity diagrams for moving blade of a reaction turbine.

The steam jet enters the blades along CA with absolute velocity V1 at an angle a1 in the direction of motion of blade.
DA represents relative velocity of steam at entrance Vr1 with respect to blade. CE represents velocity of whirl at
entrance Vw1 which causes the work done. EA represents axial component of absolute velocity V1 known as
velocity of flow at entrance Vf1. It causes steam to flow through the blades and also exerts an axial thrust on the
rotor. It does not work on the blade. Mean velocity of blade is represented by Vb.

The steam jet glides over and leaves the blades at the other end. V2Vr2, Vf2, Vw2, α 1, β2 represents
corresponding values at outlet of the moving blade.

In Parson's reaction turbine, both the fixed and moving blades are made identical. SO, αl = β2 and β1=
α2. So, the velocity diagram for Parson's reaction turbine will be
symmetrical about vertical centre line and Vf1 = Vf2; V1 = Vr2; V2 =Vr1.

Blading or Diagram Efficiency of Parson's Turbine:

In reaction turbines, both fixed and moving blades act as nozzles as pressure drop takes place in both

HEIGHT OF BLADES FOR A REACTION TURBINE:

In designing blades, the height of blade plays an important role. In a reaction turbine, the steam enters the
moving blades over the whole circumference. So, the area through which steam flows is always full of
steam
Neglecting blade thickness

Similarly for moving blades inlet;

For a Parson's reaction turbine, α1 = β2, V1 = Vr2 and v - specific volume of steam is assumed to be
constant, the blade height for fixed as well as moving blades is same in a stage.

DEGREE OF REACTION

The energy transfer is by change of dynamic pressure and by change of dynamic pressure in rotor
passage. The ratio of energy transfer by means of change of static pressure in the rotor to total energy
static pressure in the rotor to total energy transfer in the rotor is called the degree of reaction.

In case of turbines, a stage consists of a set of nozzles (or fixed blades) and rotor having moving blades.
The fig shows the H-S diagram for isentropic flow of steam through stationary (fixed) and moving
blade.

The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in moving blades to total enthalpy drop in
a stage.
FLOW OF STEAM IN A TURBINE

In an impulse turbine, the total enthalpy drop takes place in nozzles only and no enthalpy drop takes
place in the rotor. (Both enthalpy and static pressure remain constant in rotor passage). So for impulse
turbines, deree of reaction is zero.
In case of reaction turbines, enthalpy drop is divided in fixed blades and moving blades. (Pressure
changes in both fixed and moving blades). So, for a reaction turbine,

For a Parson's reaction turbine;

Degree of reaction = 0.5 = 50%.

So, a Parson's reaction turbine is also known as 50% reaction turbine. In it, half of the total enthalpy
drop takes place in fixed blades and the remaining half of the enthalpy drop takes place in moving
blades.
COMPARISON OF IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES
The following are the important differences between impulse and reaction turbines.

1 Steam flows through nozzles and impinges on moving blades. Steam (lows through fixed
blades and then flows over moving blades

2 pressure drop takes place in nozzles and pressure remains constant in moving blades.

Pressure drop takes place both infixed and moving blades.

3 Blade passage is of constant cross sectional area as there is no expansion. Due to

expansion, the blade passage is of variable cross sectional area. 4 Blade shape is profile type

and easy to manufacture. Blade shape is aerofoil type and difficult tomanufacture.

5 Nozzles are located in diaphragms and rotor is disc or wheel type.

Fixed blades attached to casing serve as nozzles and rotor construction is drum type.

6 Admission of steam is partial over the circumference Admission of steam is full over the

whole circumference.

7 Because of large pressure drop, number of stages is less. Because of small pressure drop,

for same pressure drop, larger numbers of stages are required. Reaction turbines are multi

stage turbines only.

8 Because of large pressure drop, velocity of steam and velocity of blade are higher.

Because of small pressure drop, the velocity of steam and velocity of blade are lower.

9 The diagram efficiency decreases rapidly with change in designed blade speed ratio.

Greater working range is possible.

10 Suitable for small power requirements. Suitable for medium and higher power
requirements
11 Occupies less space per unit power. Occupies more space per unit power.
12 Degree of reaction is zero Degree of reaction is greater than zero
The choice of stages in a steam turbine depends upon relative importance of capital cost
and turbine efficiency. Higher turbine efficiency results in lower steam consumption and
smaller size of boiler and condenser which in turn reduces the capital cost of total steam
power plant.

Numerical Problems – Steam Turbines

 UNIT-V

Brayton Cycle

Brayton cycle, popularly used for gas turbine power plants comprises of adiabatic compression
process, constant pressure heat addition, adiabatic expansion process and constant pressure
heat release process. A schematic diagram for air-standard Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. 4.1.
Simple gas turbine power plant working on Brayton cycle is also shown here.

Thermodynamic cycle shows following processes:

1-2: Adiabatic compression, involving (–ve) work, WC in compressor.

2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition, involving heat Qadd in combustion chamber or heat
exchanger.

3-4: Adiabatic expansion, involving (+ve) work, WT in turbine.

4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection, involving heat, Qrejected in atmosphere or heat exchanger.

In the gas turbine plant layout shown process 1–2 (adiabatic compression) is seen to occur
 in compressor, heat addition process 2–3 occurs in combustion chamber having open type
arrangement and in heat exchanger in closed type arrangement. Process 3–4 of adiabatic
expansion occurs in turbine.

In open type arrangement exhaust from turbine is discharged to atmosphere while in closed
type, heat rejection occurs in heat exchanger. In gas turbine plant of open type, air entering
compressor gets compressed and subsequently brought up to elevated temperature in
combustion chamber where fuel is added to high pressure air and combustion occurs. High
pressure and high temperature combustion products are sent for expansion in turbine where its’
expansion yields positive work. Expanded combustion products are subsequently discharged to
atmosphere. Negative work required for compression is drawn from the positive work available
from turbine and residual positive work is available as shaft work for driving generator.

In gas turbine plant of closed type the working fluid is recycled and performs different
processes without getting contaminated. Working fluid is compressed in compressor and
subsequently heated up in heat exchanger through indirect heating. High pressure and high
temperature working fluid is sent for getting positive work from turbine and the expanded
working fluid leaving turbine is passed through heat exchanger where heat is picked up from
working fluid. Thus, the arrangement shows that even costly working fluids can also be used in
closed type as it remains uncontaminated and is being recycled.

Air standard analysis of Brayton cycle gives work for compression and expansion as;

WC = m1 · (h2 – h1) WT = m3 · (h3 – h4)

for air standard analysis, m1 = m3, where as in actual cycle

m3 = m1 + mf , in open type gas turbine

m3 = m1, in closed type gas turbine

For the fuel having calorific value CV the heat added in air standard cycle;

Qadd = m1(h3 – h2), whereas Qadd = mf × CV for actual cycle. Net work = WT – WC

Wnet = {m3 (h3 – h4) – m1(h2 – h1)}

Thus, it is obvious from the expression of efficiency that it depends only on pressure ratio
(r) and nature of gas (γ). For pressure ratio of unity, efficiency shall be zero. For a particular
gas the cycle efficiency increases with increasing pressure ratio. Here the variation of
efficiency with pressure ratio is shown for air (γ= 1.4) and monatomic gas as
Regenerative gas turbine cycle

Regenerative air standard gas turbine cycle shown ahead in Fig. 4.3 has a regenerator (counter
flow heat exchanger) through which the hot turbine exhaust gas and comparatively cooler air
coming from compressor flow in opposite directions. Under ideal conditions, no frictional
pressure drop occurs in either fluid stream while turbine exhaust gas gets cooled from 4 to 4'
while compressed air is heated from 2 to 2'. Assuming regenerator effectiveness as 100% the
temperature rise from 2–2' and drop from 4 to 4' is shown on T-S diagram.

Thus, thermodynamically the amount of heat now added shall be Qadd, regen = m (h3 – h2 ')

Where as without regenerator the heat added; Qadd = m (h3 – h2) Here it is obvious that, Qadd,

regen < Qadd

This shows an obvious improvement in cycle thermal efficiency as every thing else remains
same. Net work produced per unit mass flow is not altered by the use of regenerator.
Reheat gas turbine cycle

Reheat gas turbine cycle arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.4. In order to maximize the work
available from the simple gas turbine cycle one of the option is to increase enthalpy of fluid
entering gas turbine and extend its expansion upto the lowest possible enthalpy value.

C: Compressor HPT: High pressure turbine

CC: Combustion chamber LPT: Low pressure turbine

G: Generator RCC: Reheat combustion chamber f:

Fuel

This can also be said in terms of pressure and temperature values i.e. inject fluid at high
pressure and temperature into gas turbine and expand upto lowest possible pressure value.
Upper limit at inlet to turbine is limited by metallurgical limits while lower pressure is limited
to near atmospheric pressure in case of open cycle. Here in the arrangement shown ambient air
enters compressor and compressed air at high pressure leaves at 2. Compressed air is injected
into combustion chamber for increasing its temperature up to desired turbine inlet temperature
at state 3. High pressure and high temperature fluid enters high pressure turbine (HPT) for first
phase of expansion and expanded gases leaving at 4 are sent to reheat combustion chamber
(reheater) for being further heated. Thus, reheating is a kind of energizing the working fluid.

Assuming perfect reheating (in which temperature after reheat is same as temperature attained
in first combustion chamber), the fluid leaves at state 5 and enters low pressure turbine (LPT)
for remaining expansion upto desired pressure value. Generally,
temperature after reheating at state 5 is less than temperature at state 3. In the absence of
reheating the expansion process within similar pressure limits goes upto state 4'. Thus,
reheating offers an obvious advantage of work output increase since constant pressure

lines on T-S diagram diverge slightly with increasing entropy, the total work of the two stage
turbine is greater than that of single expansion from state 3 to state 4'. i.e.,

(T3 – T4) + (T5 –T6) > (T3 – T4′).

Here it may be noted that the heat addition also increases because of additional heat supplied
for reheating. Therefore, despite the increase in net work due to reheating the cycle thermal
efficiency would not necessarily increase.
 reducing compression work. It is based on the fact that for a fixed compression ratio higher is the inlet
temperature higher shall be compression work requirement and vice-a-versa. Schematic for intercooled
gas turbine cycle is given in Fig. 4.7.
Thermodynamic processes involved in multistage intercooled compression are shown in Figs. 4.8, 4.9.
First stage compression occurs in low pressure compressor (LPC) and compressed air leaving LPC at ‘2’
is sent to intercooler where temperature of compressed air is lowered down to state 3 at constant pressure. In
case of perfect intercooling the temperatures at 3 and 1 are same. Intercooler is a kind of heat exchanger
where heat is picked up from high temperature compressed air. The amount of compression work saved
due to intercooling is obvious from p-V diagram and shown by area 2342'. Area 2342' gives the amount
of work saved due to intercooling between compression.

for gas turbine cycle with intercooling shows that in the absence of intercooling within same pressure
limits the state at the end of compression would be 2' while with perfect intercooling this state is at 4
i.e., T2' > T4. The reduced temperature at compressor
Isentropic efficiency of turbine and compressor can be mathematically given as
Isentropic efficiency of compressor

Other factors causing the real cycle to be different from ideal cycle are as given below:

(i) Fluid velocities in turbomachines are very high and there exists substantial change
in kinetic energy between inlet and outlet of each component. In the analysis carried
out earlier the changes in kinetic energy have been neglected whereas for exact
analysis it cannot be.
(ii) In case of regenerator the compressed air cannot be heated to the temperature of gas
leaving turbine as the terminal temperature difference shall always exist.
(iii) Compression process shall involve work more than theoretically estimated value in
order to overcome bearing and windage friction losses.
Different factors described above can be accounted for by stagnation properties, compressor
and turbine isentropic efficiency and polytropic efficiency.
Worked Out Examples: Example 1:

Solution:
Example 2:

Solution:
Example 3:

Solution:
A heat Exchanger is not used because it would result in an exhaust temperature that would be too low
for use with a high efficiency steam cycle.
The Assumptions are as follows
Problems for practice
In an air standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 7 and the compression begins at 35oC and 0.1 MPa. The
maximum temperature of the cycle is 1100oC. Find (a) the temperature and the pressure at various points in the
cycle, (b) the heat supplied per kg of air, (c) work done per kg of air, (d) the cycle efficiency and (e) the MEP of
the cycle.
Problem 2
In a Diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 15. Compression begins at 0.1 Mpa, 40oC. The heat added
is 1.675 MJ/kg. Find (a) the maximum temperature in the cycle, (b) work done per kg of air (c) the
cycle efficiency (d) the temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion (e) the cut- off ratio and (f)
the MEP of the cycle.
Problem 3
An air-standard Ericsson cycle has an ideal regenerator. Heat is supplied at 1000°Cand heat is rejected
at 20°C. If the heat added is 600 kJ/kg,find the compressor work, the turbine work, and the cycle
efficiency.

Since the regenerator is given as ideal, -Q2-3= Q1-4

Also in an Ericsson cycle, the heat is input during the isothermal expansion process, which is the
turbine part of the cycle. Hence the turbine work is 600 kJ/kg.

Problem 4
In a Braytoncycle based power plant, the air at the inlet is at 27oC, 0.1 MPa. The pressure ratio is
6.25and the maximum temperature is 800oC.
Find (a) the compressor work per kg of air (b) the turbine work per kg or air
(c) the heat supplied per kg of air, and (d) the cycle efficiency.
Principle of Jet Propulsion

Jet propulsion refers to the imparting of forward motion to the object as a reaction to exit of
high velocity gas/liquid stream from the rear end of object. Jet propulsion devices are
popularly used in high speed, high altitude aircraft/missile/spacecrafts etc. Simple example of
jet propulsion is forward motion of an inflated balloon when air is suddenly released from it.

Jet propulsion is based on the principle of Newton’s second law and third law of motion. In a
jet propulsion engine the objective is to get the propelling thrust for the engine and for getting
it the momentum change occurs in fluid stream such that the reaction to the impulse created by
momentum change gives propelling thrust. Thus, the change of momentum of the fluid stream
flowing across engine and the reaction to the impulse due to momentum change are
responsible for jet propulsion. For realizing momentum change the high temperature and
pressure gas stream is expanded through a nozzle so that the gas stream comes out in
atmosphere with significantly high velocity, thus giving change of momentum. This
momentum change yields impulse force whose reaction produces propelling thrust. Figure. 5.1
gives block diagram for jet propulsion engine.
Let us consider jet propulsion device as shown in Fig. 5.1. Let the inlet and exit of device be
indicated by subscript ‘i’ and ‘e’. Cross-sectional area, velocity of gas, pressure of gas at inlet
and exit are given by Ai , Ci , pi and Ae, Ce, pe respectively. Let us analyze for air entering
device and flowing through device such that velocity changes from inlet ‘Ci’ to exit ‘Ce’.

Atmospheric air enters device at atmospheric pressure pa, velocity Ci. Consider mass of air
entering into engine be at the rate of ma kg/s. Mass of gas leaving engine will be at the rate of
(ma + mf ) kg/s where mf is mass flow rate of fuel required for running. Expansion occurring in
engine shall be complete when the pressure at exit pe equals to atmospheric pressure, pa. In
actual case this expansion may not be complete.

For simplicity the mass flowing through device may be assumed constant i.e., fuel added is
negligible, then the thrust T may be estimated by the rate of change of momentum. This is
called as momentum thrust.

Tm = ma (Ce – Ci)

Total thrust, T = Momentum thrust, Tm + Pressure thrust, Tp

T = ma (Ce – Ci) + Ae (pe – pi)

Classification of Jet propulsion Engines

Jet propulsion engines can be broadly classified based on type of suction. In case of jet engine
sucking atmospheric air it is called air-breathing jet engines or atmospheric jet engines. Jet
engines may be fed with oxygen carried separately in engine and such engines do not induct
atmospheric air. These engines which carry their own oxidizer for combustion of fuel are
called non-air breathing jet engines or rocket engines.
Performance of Jet propulsion engines

(i) Thrust power (TP): Thrust power indicates the actual power available for
propulsion. It refers to the work done per unit time by the engine. This thrust power
can be expressed by the product of thrust and velocity with which engine moves
(flight velocity).

(ii) Propulsive power (PP): Propulsive power indicates the total energy available for
propulsion. It can be estimated by the difference between the rate of kinetic energy
entering with air and leaving with jet of exit gases. Mathematically;

(iii) Propulsive efficiency ( Prop): Propulsive efficiency is measure of effectiveness by

which propulsive power is transformed into thrust power i.e.,
how efficiently propelling duct can propel th engine. Mathematically, it can be given by ratio
of thrust power (TP) to propulsive power (PP). Propulsive efficiency is also called Froude
efficiency.

Turbo Jet Engine

Fig. 5.2 shows the schematic of turbojet engine. It has a diffuser section at inlet for realizing
some compression of air passing through this section. Due to this air reaching compressor
section has pressure more than ambient pressure. This action of partly compressing air by
passing it through diffuser section is called “ramming action” or “ram effect”. Subsequently
compressor section compresses air which is fed to combustion chamber and fuel is added to it
for causing, Combustion products available at high pressure and temperature are then passed
through turbine and expanded there. Thus, turbine yields positive work which is used for
driving compressor.

Expanding gases leaving turbine are passed through exit nozzle where it is further expanded
and results in high velocity jet at exit. This high velocity jet leaving nozzle is responsible for
getting desired thrust for propulsion. Pressure variation along the length of turbojet is shown in
Fig. 5.2. Velocity and temperature variations are also shown there in. Different salient states
shown are plotted on temperature- entropy (T–s) diagram as given in Fig. 5.2. Ambient air at
state ‘a’ enters the diffuser section and ram effect is seen from ‘a’ to ‘1’ resulting into small
pressure rise. Desired compression occurs between ‘1’ to ‘2’. Subsequent combustion occurs in
combustor section resulting into combustion products at state ‘3’. Expansion occurs in turbine
from ‘3’ to ‘4’ and subsequently expanded from ‘4’ to ‘5’.

Between states ‘a’ and ‘1’ diffusion of air entering occurs isentropically with velocity varying
from Ca to zero for diffuser section having 100% efficiency. Actually diffuser efficiency may
be 0.9–0.95. T–s diagram depicts both theoretical states and actual states. Actual states have
been shown as 1′, 2′, 4′ and 5′, while theoretical states are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Turbo Fan Engine

Turbofan engine is the modified turbojet engine in which additional thrust is realized by putting
fan at the entry of the engine casing. Fan blades propel by pass air around engine core between
inner and outer engine casing. This air does not participate in combustion but provides
additional thrust while leaving through exit nozzle. Figure. 5.3 show the schematic of turbofan
engine. The propeller fan put at inlet to engine sucks air and it passes through by pass passage
as shown up to the exit nozzle end. Thus there are two streams of air flowing, one air stream
gets rammed, compressed, burnt, expanded in turbine and finally passes through exit nozzle
and other air stream passes through passage between outer and inner casings from inlet to
nozzle exit. Total thrust created will be due to two jet streams one due to cold air or fan air and
other due to burnt gases leaving turbine.

Turbo fan engine’s performance primarily depends on the fan pressure ratio, bypass ratio,
overall pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature, cruising speed and altitude. Amongst these
thermodynamic parameters. For optimum performance of turbofan engine the plot of specific
fuel consumption for the varying bypass ratio is shown in Fig. 5.4.
Fig. 5.4

Turboprop Engine

Turboprop (Turbo-propeller) engine, also called turboshaft engine or propjet engine differs
slightly from turbofan engine. It uses thrust to turn a propeller. It consists of a compressor for
compressing the inlet air, combustion chamber and turbine followed by exit nozzle. A part of
turbine output is used to drive the compressor and remaining for driving propeller. Thus some
stages of turbine give shaft work for driving compressor and some stages produce shaft work
for driving propeller as shown in Fig. 5.5. It can also be understood as if the gases expand
through main turbine which drives compressor and also expands through power turbine which
drive propeller through suitable reduction gear box. Turboprop engines are used in small
passenger planes, cargo planes etc.

Ramjet Engine

Ramjet engine is the simplest of jet engines having no moving parts. Ramjet is a typically
shaped duct open at both ends with air being compressed merely due to forward motion of
engine. Fuel is subsequently added for combustion and thus high pressure, high temperature
gases exit from exhaust nozzle. High pressure air is continuously available as engines keeps on
moving forward. These ramjets are extensively used for propulsion in number of high speed
aircrafts.
Ramjet is also called Athodyd Lorin tube based on the name of its inventor Rene Lorin, a
French engineer. First ramjet engine was developed in 1913 and it had steady flow through inlet
diffuser, combustion chamber and outlet nozzle. These can not operate under stationary
condition as sole compression of air occurs due to ram compression. Ram pressure ratio is
relatively small initially as forward speed is slow but increases as the speed increases. Ramjet
is boosted up to substantially high speed using turbojet or rocket engine for getting desired
thrust by ramjet. Ramjet are boosted up to speed of 300 km/hr. The efficiency of ramjet largely
depends upon the design of diffuser section.

Principle of rocket propulsion

Rocket engines are non-air breathing engines and carry their own oxidizer for burning of fuel.
Rocket propulsion is realized by the thrust produced by combustion products leaving exit
nozzle. It has injection system for fuel and oxidizer followed by combustion chamber and exit
nozzle as shown in Fig. 5.8.
 In rocket engines the combustion products get discharged from the exit nozzle with supersonic
velocity and thus have very high kinetic energy. Rocket gets desired thrust by the reaction
available from the nozzle stream. Thrust is available due to change of momentum and pressure
with which jet comes out.

Net thrust available; T = m′p Ce + Ae ( pe – pa)

Where m′p is mass flow rate of propellant, jet exit velocity Ce, area of exit nozzle Ae, pressure
of exit jet pe and atmospheric pressure is pa.

Thrust power in case of rocket engine can be given as;

TP = T· Ca = m′p · Cej ·Ca

Propulsive efficiency: For rocket engine

Rocket Engine

Rocket engines as described earlier can be classified based on type of propellant carried by
them. These could be solid propellant and liquid propellant resulting into,

(i) Solid propellant rocket engine

(ii) Liquid propellant rocket engine.

Since Rocket engines carry propellant fuel and oxidizer along with, therefore, the
characteristics of propellant have to be such as to give best performance with minimum
oxidizer requirement.

Applications of rocket engines have proved boon for our civilization as satellites in space
which are serving air communication and other requirements are rocket engines. Rocket
engines are also extensively used in spacecrafts, missiles, jet assisted air planes, pilotless
aircraft, etc.

Solid propellant rocket engines

These rocket engines use solid propellants which burns using oxidizer present within it. There
are two types of solid propellant rockets depending upon type of burning i.e., restricted
burning and unrestricted burning. Figure 5.9 shows the different arrangements in solid
propellant rocket engines. Solid propellant has composition such that all essential requirements
for combustion are met. Specific requirements of solid propellant are,

(i) Propellant should have sufficient compressive and impact strength at low
temperature.
(ii) Propellant should give uniform burning.
(iii) Propellant should give high specific impulse.
Arrangement shows that it has seamless sturdy steel tube closed at one end. At the open end
exit nozzle is provided and this may be single nozzle type or multi nozzle type exit.
Propellant is filled in tube while in liquid state and gets solidified gradually upon cooling
and fits tube completely. Solid propellant filled inside tube is burnt gradually so as to give
combustion products for producing desired thrust. Restricted burning rocket engines have
the propellant burnt only on its exposed surface towards exit nozzle.

Gradually complete propellant is burnt and combustion products move out through exit
nozzle. Thus restricted burning nozzles are very similar to cigarette whose burning begins at
one end and goes till end. Restricted burning rockets are suited for small thrust applications
for longer duration.

Unrestricted burning in rocket engine occurs such that all exposed surfaces of solid
propellant are burnt simultaneously inside tube. Since burning of whole solid fuel is
initiated so it gets burnt quickly and produces large thrust.

Liquid propellant rocket engines

Figure 5.10 shows the schematic of liquid propellant rocket engines. These contain liquid
propellants stored in containers outside combustion chamber. Liquid propellant fuel is being
fed using either pressure feed or pump feed to transfer fuel from storage tank to combustion
chamber. Pressure feed system has pump driven by small turbine. This feed system is
relatively cheap and simple compared to other feed systems.
There could be mono-propellant or bi-propellant type rocket engines. Mono-propellant systems
are heavier in view of additional quantity of fuel required. Schematic shows two liquid bi-
propellant rocket system with rocket motor and propellant system etc. Rocket motor has
propellant injector for injecting liquid fuel and oxidizer, ignition systems, combustion chamber
and exit nozzle as shown.

Liquid propellant is heated up by circulating it around the combustion chamber and nozzle
walls for cooling it before being injected for combustion. Cooling is done so as to maintain
temperature of walls low, so that excessive thermal stresses are not developed. Liquid
propellants are selected based on specific impulse, availability, cost, ease of handling and
density etc. There are number of oxidizer and liquid propellants available, namely, liquid
oxygen + liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen + ethyl alcohol, liquid oxygen + high quality
gasoline, nitric acid + aniline etc.

Example 1(Turbojet engine)

Solution:
Solution:
 UNIT TEST
QUESTION PAPER

(02BTME416) APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

4TH SEM B. Tech. (ME) 2020-21

Unit Answer Any 5 questions Max. Marks

: 10

1 a. Calculate the volumetric analysis of the flue gases when coal burns Marks
with 20% excess air from the previous calculation the actual air
required 33.89K mol/100kg coal. T
b. Measurements of exhaust gases from a methane-air combustion
system show 3% of oxygen by volume (dry base) in the exhaust.
Assuming complete combustion, determine the excess percentage of
air, equivalence ratio, and fuel/air ratio.
c The composition of dry flue gases obtained by burning a liquid fuel
containing only hydrogen and carbon is CO2 10.7%, O2 5.1%, N2
84.2%. Calculate the composition of fuel by weight and excess air
used
d Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for the complete
combustion of Methane ( CH4) with 250% theoretical air in an
adiabatic control volume.

2 a. Write short notes on: (a) important provisions of Indian Boiler Act.
(b) Fusible plug. (c) Membrane type water wall. (d) Role of three
T's in efficient combustion.
b. What are the main reasons of Boiler tube failure? How it can be
avoided?.
c. What are the sources of air leakages into a condenser? Explain the
effects of air leakage on the performance of a condenser
d. Explain Following:
a. What may be the causes of fall in condenser vacuum
in the surface condenser?
b. Compare safety valve, relief valve and safety relief
valve.
c. List ten energy conservation opportunities available
in a boiler system
3 a. (a) Write down the expression for velocity at exit from steam
nozzle.
(b) What are the various types of nozzles and their function
.
b. Explain Working of steam engine and classify the steam engines

c. Derive the expression for critical pressure ratio in a steam nozzle.

 d. A convergent divergent adiabatic steam nozzle is supplied with
steam at 10 bar and 250°c.the discharge pressure is 1.2 bar.assuming
that the nozzle efficiency is 100% and initial velocity of steam is 50
m/s. find the discharge velocity.

4 a. What are the advantages and disadvantages of regenerative cycles

over simple Rankine cycle?

b. What are the methods to increase thermal efficiency of Rankine

cycle?

c. a. Differentiate impulse and reaction turbine

b. What is meant by compounding of turbines
c. What is meant by compounding of turbines?

d. A stage of an impulse turbine has two rows of moving blades

separated by a row of fixed guide blades. The moving blades have
tip angles of 38° and the blade speed, nozzle and fixed blade angles
are designed on the assumption that the velocity of discharge from
the nozzle is 540 m/s. The relative velocity of stream drops by 10%
during passage through each ring of blades and the final discharge is
axial. Determine the blade speed

e. Define Rankine efficiency, efficiency ratio and specific steam

consumption?
5 a. a. Give the basic concepts of gas turbine unit on block diagram, PV
diagram and TS diagram
b. What are advantages of closed cycle gas turbine over the open
cycle?
b. 2. Explain the method INTER COOLING employed to increase the
specific output and thermal efficiency of Gas Turbine plant?
Draw the T-S diagram for the same

c. a. Define propulsive efficiency

b. Differentiate shaft propulsion and Jet propulsion
c. Explain specific thrust as applied to jet engines?
d. A turbojet engine flying at a speed of 960km/hour consumes air at the
rate of 54.5kg/sec. Calculate i) exit velocity of the jet when the
enthalpy change for the nozzle is 200Kj/kg and velocity co-efficient
is 0.97. ii) Fuel flow rate in kg/sec, when air fuel ratio is 75:1.
 (E) Convergent divergent portion

V. The value of critical pressure ratio for superheated steam is.......

Roll
No.:
DR. K.N. MODIUNIVERSITY, NEWAI (A) A.0.5
I -Mid Term Examination March-2021 (B) 0.546
Course : B TECH Year or : IV
(C) 0.454
Sem.
Branch : MECHANIC Subject : 02BTME416 (D) 0.64
AL ENGG. Code
Subject : APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS VI. Theflow of steam is supersonic.........
Name (A) At the entrance to the nozzle
Time : 2 Hours Max. : 40 (B) At the throat of the nozzle
Allowed Marks (C) In the convergent portion of the nozzle
PART – A (D) In the divergent portion of the nozzle
Type of Questions: Fill in the Blanks/Multiple Choice/True/False.
Total (A) 6
PART – B
Q.No.1. Attempt all the questions each question carries 1 marks:
Type of Questions: Statement/Definition/Short Type Questions. Total (B)
10
I. Nozzle efficiency is described as.......
Q.No.2. Attempt any 5 questions each question carries 2 marks:
(A) Isentropic heat drop/useful heat drop
(B) useful heat drop/isentropic heat drop
I. What is difference between Nozzle and diffuser?
(C) saturation temperature/supersaturation temperature
II. Define continuity equation.
(D) supersaturation temperature/saturation temperature
III. Define velocity of sound.
IV. Define Mach number.
II. The critical pressure ratio for initially dry saturated steam
V. Discuss Nozzle Efficiency
is.......
VI. How you Classify nozzles.
(A) 0.528
(B) 0.546
(C) 0.577
PART – C
(D) 0.582
Type of Questions: Derivation based, Descriptive Type Questions.
Total (C) 24
III. The steam leaves the nozzle at a.........
Q.No.3. Attempt any 3 questions each question carries 8 marks
(A) High pressure and low velocity
(B) High-pressure and high velocity I. Derive an Expression Steady flow energy equation for Nozzle.
(C) Low pressure and low velocity II. A Nozzle expands steam from 14 bar and 3000C to 6 bar. if the
(D) Low pressure and high velocity flow rate is 1 kg/s, Find the throat and exit area. What should be
coefficient of velocity if the exit velocity is 550.
IV. The flow of steam in a nozzle is subsonic at...... 𝑛⁄
𝑃2 2 𝑛−1
(A) Throat III. Derive Expression 𝑃1
= 𝑟 = (𝑛+1)
(B) Entrance IV. Derive an equation for mass flow through nozzle
(C) Convergent portion V. Discuss about Rankine cycle and give expression for its
(D) Divergent portion efficiency.
 (H) does not affect thermal efficiency of the cycle
(I) May increase or decrease thermal efficiency of the cycle
depending upon the point of extraction of steam.
Roll
No.: XI. Rankine cycle efficiency of a good steam power plant may be in
DR. K.N. MODIUNIVERSITY, NEWAI the range of
II -Mid Term Examination April 2021
(E) 15 to 20%
Course : B TECH Year or : IV
Sem. (F) 35 to 45%
Branch : MECHANIC Subject : 02BTME416 (G) 70 to 80%
AL ENGG. Code (H) 90 to 95% .
Subject : APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
Name XII. The reheat cycle allows steam power plant
Time : 2 Hours Max. : 40 (E) to use higher pressure ratio
Allowed Marks (F) to maintain required quality of steam at the exit of the
PART – A turbine
Type of Questions: Fill in the Blanks/Multiple Choice/True/False. (G) to increase the turbine work
Total (A) 6 (H) all of the above
Q.No.1. Attempt all the questions each question carries 1 marks:
PART – B
VII. A steam turbine converts the output from a steam generator Type of Questions: Statement/Definition/Short Type Questions. Total (B)
into? 10
(E) Shaft work Q.No.2. Attempt any 5 questions each question carries 2 marks:
(F) Turbine work
(G) Mechanical work VII. What is difference between Nozzle and diffuser?
(H) None of the mentioned VIII. Define continuity equation.
IX. Write about impulse and impulse reaction turbine.
VIII. The energy conversion occurring in a steam turbine is a ______ X. Define Rankine cycle.
step process. XI. Show with figure feed heaters
(E) 1 XII. What do you mean by compounding?
(F) 2
(G) 3
(H) 4 PART – C
Type of Questions: Derivation based, Descriptive Type Questions.
IX. A steam turbine is basically an assemblage of? Total (C) 24
(E) nozzle & condenser Q.No.3. Attempt any 3 questions each question carries 8 marks
(F) blades & condenser
(G) nozzle & blades VI. Classify steam turbine.
(H) nozzle & fans VII. Explain with neat sketch reheat-regenerative feed heating cycle.
Also draw T-s & h-s diagram.
X. Regenerative heating i.e., bleeding steam to reheat feed water to VIII. Explain pressure and velocity compounding.
boiler IX. Explain the Reheating cycle with T - s and h - s Diagram.
(F) decreases thermal efficiency of the cycle X. Explain the Regenerative feed heating cycle with T - s and h - s
(G) increases thermal efficiency of the cycle Diagram.
 b. At the throat of the nozzle
c. In the convergent portion of the nozzle
Roll d. In the divergent portion of the nozzle
No.: PART – B
DR. K.N. MODI UNIVERSITY, NEWAI Type of Questions: Statement/Definition/Short Type Questions.
End Semester Examination May 2021 Total (B) 18
Course : B TECH Year or : IV Q.No.2.Attempt any six questions each question carries 3 marks:
Sem. 1. Discuss in Short Steady flow energy equation for Nozzle..
Branch : MECHANICAL Subject : 02BTME416 2. Derive Maxwell’ equation.
ENGG. Code 3. Differentiate water tube and fire tube boiler.
Subject : APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 4. Discuss Nozzle Efficiency
Name 5. Define Rankine cycle and Show with figure feed heater
Time : 3 Hours Max. : 60 6. Write short note on impulse and impulse reaction turbine.
Allowed Marks 7. Show figure of Velocity and pressure Compounding
PART – A
Type of Questions: Fill in the Blanks/Multiple Choice/True/False. PART – C
Total (A) 6 Type of Questions: Derivation based, Descriptive Type Questions.
Q.No.1.Attempt all the questions each question carries 2 mark: Total (C) 30
XIII. A steam turbine converts the output from a steam generator Q.No.3. Attempt any three questions each question carries 10 marks
into? 1. A Nozzle expands steam from 14 bar and 3000C to 6 bar. if the flow rate is
a. Shaft work b. Turbine work 1 kg/s, Find the throat and exit area. What should be coefficient ofvelocity if
c. Mechanical work d. None of the mentioned the exit velocity is 550.
n⁄
P2 2 n−1
XIV. The energy conversion occurring in a steam turbine is a ______ 2. Derive Expression = r = (n+1)
P1
step process.
a. 1 b. 2 3. Explain with neat sketch reheat-regenerative feed heating cycle. Also
c. 3 d. 4 drawT-s & h-s diagram.
3. A steam turbine is basically an assemblage of? 4. Explain the Regenerative feed heating cycle with T - s and h - s Diagram.
a. nozzle & condenser b. blades & condenser 5. Classify Different types Boiles and Listed boiler mountings & accessories
c. nozzle & blades d.nozzle & fans

4. Regenerative heating i.e., bleeding steam to reheat feed water to

boiler
(J) decreases thermal efficiency of the cycle
(K) increases thermal efficiency of the cycle
(L) does not affect thermal efficiency of the cycle
(M) May increase or decrease thermal efficiency of the cycle
depending upon the point of extraction of steam.

5. Rankine cycle efficiency of a good steam power plant may be in the

range of
a. 15 to 20% b. 35 to 45%
c. 70 to 80% d. 90 to 95% .

6. Theflow of steam is supersonic.........

a. At the entrance to the nozzle
 ASSIGNMENTS

Assignment –I

1. The composition of dry flue gases obtained by burning a liquid fuel containing only hydrogen and carbon is CO2 10.7%, O2 5.1%, N2
84.2%. Calculate the composition of fuel by weight and excess air used
2. Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for the complete combustion of Methane ( CH4) with 250% theoretical air in an adiabatic control
volume.
3. Write short notes on: (a) important provisions of Indian Boiler Act. (b) Fusible plug. (c) Membrane type water wall. (d) Role of three T's in
efficient combustion.
4. What are the sources of air leakages into a condenser? Explain the effects of air leakage on the performance of a condenser
5. Explain Following:
a. What may be the causes of fall in condenser vacuum in the surface condenser?
b. Compare safety valve, relief valve and safety relief valve.
c. List ten energy conservation opportunities available in a boiler system

Assignment –II

1. Derive the expression for critical pressure ratio in a steam nozzle.

2. A convergent divergent adiabatic steam nozzle is supplied with steam at 10 bar and 250°c.the discharge pressure is 1.2 bar. Assuming that
the nozzle efficiency is 100% and initial velocity of steam is 50 m/s. find the discharge velocity.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of regenerative cycles over simple Rankine cycle?
4. a. Differentiate impulse and reaction turbine
b. What is meant by compounding of turbines?
5. Explain the method INTER COOLING employed to increase the specific output and thermal efficiency of Gas Turbine plant? Draw the T-S
diagram for the same
 Dr. K.N. Modi University
Newai, Distt. - Tonk (Rajasthan)
CONSOLIDATED AWARD SHEET FOR INTERNAL MARKS EVEN SEMESTER MAY - 2020-21
Programme : B. TECH Date : 26/05/21
Paper Name : APPLIED
Branch : MECHNICAL ENGINEERING _____________ THERMODYNAMICS
Paper Code :
SEMESTER : IV _______________ 02BTME416
SR. ROLL NO. STUDENT NAME ASSIG.- 1ST MID ASSIG.-II 2ND MID SEM ATTENDANCE (MM- INTERNAL REMARKS
NO. I (MM- SEM (MM- (MM-5) (MM-40) 10) PRACTICAL
5) 40) (MM-50)

2019BTME003
SANTOSH KUMAR
1 4 33 5 34 9
YADAV
SHASHI BHUSHAN
2 2019BTME004 4 28 4 30 8
ADHIKARI
3 2019BTME005 MANJESH RAJAK 5 21 5 32 8
2020LBTME002
LAKSHAY
4 4 19 4 30 9
CHOUDRY
5 2020LBTME003 RAVI SAINI 4 17 4 31 9
6
7

Faculty Name & Sign : RAKESH MAHAWAR

Controller of
Signature (HOD) : __________ Examination
 02BTME416: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
CO ATAINMENT

Assignment-I = Assignment- Mid-term-

5 II=5 Mid-term-I=10 II=10 Unit Tests/Quiz = 10 End sem Exam=60
U- U- U- U- U- U- U- U-
Unit Wise U-I, U- III, III, IV, V, U-I, U- III, III, IV, V, U- U- U- U- U-
MARKS 2 II, 2 1 1 2 2 4 II, 4 2 2 4 4 2+2+2+2+2=10 I=12 II=12 III=12 IV=12 V=12
NAME
1 Santosh
Kumar
Yadav 2 2 0 1 2 2 3 3.5 2 2 3.5 3 2+2+1+2+2 9 9 8 9 9
2 Shashi
Bhushan
Adhikari 2 2 0 0 2 2 3 2 2 2 2.5 3 1+2+1+2+2 7 7 8 6 4
3 Manjesh
Rajak 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 1.5 2 3 3 1+2+1+2+2 9 8 8 8 8
4 Lakshay
Choudry 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 1 2 2.5 3 2+2+1+2+2 8 7 6 6 8
5 Ravi Saini 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 0.5 2 3 3 2+2+1+2+2 9 8 8 8 6
6 CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 3 CO1,CO2,CO3,CO4,CO5 CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

Name %CO1 Atnt %CO2 atnt %CO3 atnt %CO4 atnt %CO5 atnt
1
Santosh Kumar Yadav
75 3 83 3 70 3 80 3 70 3
2 Shashi Bhushan Adhikari 70 3 65 2 75 3 63 2 45 2
3 Manjesh Rajak 75 3 70 3 80 3 75 3 70 3
4 Lakshay Choudry 70 3 65 2 60 2 63 2 70 3
5 Ravi Saini 75 3 70 3 63 2 75 3 60 2
Average Attainment 3 2.6 2.6 3 2.6
Atainment levels.
Percentage CO is 70% & greater than 70%, Atainment level is= 3
Percentage CO is 40% to 69%, Atainment level is= 2
Percentage CO is less than 40%, Atainment level is= 1
 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS [02BTME416 ]
COs mapping with POs
COs\POs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

02BTME416.1 3 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 1
02BTME416.2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
02BTME416.3 3 3 2 3 3 2 1 2
02BTME416.4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 2
02BTME416.5 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 2
Attainment of
2.68 2.65 2.66 2.63 2.66 2.64 2.73 2.73 2.8 2.68 2.7 2.64
POs

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS [02BTME416]

COs mapping with PS(E)Os

COs\POs PS(E)O1 PS(E)O2 PS(E)O3 PS(E)O4
02BTME416.1 3 2 2 2
02BTME416.2 2 3 3 3
02BTME416.3 3 2 2 3
02BTME416.4 2 3 2 3
02BTME416.5 3 3 3 3
Attainment for
2.69 2.66 2.66 2.65
PS(E)O

Average CO attainment = 2.68

Average PO attainment = 2.68

Average PSO attainment = 2.67