THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE

Volume 3, Supplement 1, 1997, pp. S-5-S-10

Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

A Brief History of Acupuncture's Journey to the West

GARY KAPLAN, D.O., DABFP, DABPM

ABSTRACT

Acupuncture stands on the threshold of acceptance by the medical establishment in the United
States. This medical philosophy and practice is challenging the basis of our understanding
of health and illness. The history of acupuncture's journey to the West is chronicled in a re-
view of milestones of medical history. The historical journey out of the orient began with Je-
suit missionaries who entered China in the 16th century. By the end of the 19th century, many
of France's most prominent physicians were using acupuncture. Probably the most influen-
tial French acupuncturist was George Soulie DeMorant, whose text, VAcupuncture Chinoise
(Chinese Acupuncture) was published in 1939. In the United States, acupuncture was first
mentioned in the medical literature in 1822, and was endorsed by Sir William Osier for the
management of lumbago in his text. The Principles and Practice of Medicine, published in
1892. The news report by New York Times reporter James Reston in 1971 relating his experi-
ence with acupuncture for postoperative pain, sparked massive interest on the part of the
American medical community. This interest continues to this day, and more and more physi-
cians and nonphysician health practitioners are involved in the use of acupuncture. With in-
creasing interest in complementary and alternative medicine, acupuncture will likely be used
more commonly, and will also serve to broaden the traditional concepts of health and illness.

cupuncture stands on the threshold of be- velopment rooted in scientific methodology,

A ing accepted by the medical establishment
in this country. This article chronicles the jour-
Acupuncture's origins are to be found in Chi-
nese mythology, its practice an extension of
ney of a medical philosophy and practice that Taoist philosophy that evolved through em-
is challenging the basis of our understanding piricism. While Western medicine struggles to
of health and illness in the West. Acupuncture's reconcile a paradigm rooted in Cartesian phi-
journey to the West is as much a study about losophy, which created a duality of mind and
beliefs and pohtics as it is about science and body, body mind unity was never questioned
medicine. Whereas Western medicine focuses in the body mind East.
on physiology, acupuncture's focus is on the Acupuncture's proponents in America have
vital force they refer to as Qi. Western medi- met with consistent opposition and rejection by
cine traces its origins to the Greeks, Hip- the conventional medical establishment. The
pocrates and Asclepiades, its evolution and de- practice of acupuncture in this country has

Kaplan Clinic, Arlington, Virginia.

Medical Acupuncture Research Foundation, 5820 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 500, Los Angeles, CA 90036.

S-5
S-6 KAPLAN

grown through public demand and legislative this text in the latter half of the 17th century
mandate. Acupuncture is informed by a para- provided Western physicians with their first in-
digm that is not compatible with Western med- depth insight into the practice of acupuncture
ical understanding of human physiology. (Hehns, 1995; Lu and Needham, 1980).
However, because of pubhc demand, the con-
ventional medical establishment in the United
States is beginning seriously to reconsider its WESTERN EXPOSURE
position on acupuncture. This article looks
briefly at the past to help us more fully appre- The first Western accounts of acupuncture
date the monumental changes that are occur- were reported not by physicians, but by Jesuit
ring in Western medicine as it struggles to rec- missionaries who had entered China in the 16th
oncile itself with its Oriental counterpart. century. One of the earliest and most compre-
hensive of these reports was provided in 1671
by P.P. Harviell, S.J., in his paper "Les Secrets
ANCIENT ORIGINS De La Medicine Des Chinois, Consitant En La
Porfaite Connoissance Du Pauls" (Carubba and
Chinese medicine is a comprehensive system Bowers, 1971). The fact that a missionary work-
of health care of which acupuncture is one dis- ing among the people would come into contact
cipline. The origins of Chinese medicine are as- with acupuncture indicates how widespread
cribed to Huang Ti, the Yellow Emperor, this practice was in China. Furthermore, it is
Huang Ti, the third of China's five legendary ironic that a man dedicated to saving the hu-
emperors is reported to have ruled between man soul first introduced the concept of Qi to
2696 and 2598 B.C. The Huang Ti Nei Ching or the traditions of Western medicine.
Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine is The first physician to write about acupunc-
the oldest medical text known, and established ture was Dr. Willen Ten Rhijne. Dr. Rhijne was
the foundation for the theory and practice of exposed to the technique while working for the
all Chinese medicine. The Nei Ching is divided Dutch East Indies Company in Nagasaki,
into two sections. The first entitled Su Wen Japan. He described the practice of both
(simple questions) focuses on the etiology, acupuncture and moxibustion in his paper, "A
pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prevention of Dissertation on Arthritis," written in 1683. Dr.
disease. The second entitled Ling Shu (the mys- Rhijne was clearly impressed with the proce-
terious pivot) addresses the clinical applica- dure and is quoted as saying, "Burning and
tions of acupuncture and moxibustion. The text acupuncture are the two primary operations
is probably a compilation of written and oral among the Chinese and Japanese who employ
traditions handed down through the centuries, them to be free from every pain. If these two
and was first published during the Han Dy- peoples were deprived of the two techniques,
nasty: 206 to 220 A.D. (LU and Needham, 1980; their sick would be in a pitiful state without
Unschuld, 1985; Veith, 1973). hope of care or alleviation" (Carubba and Bow-
Over the centuries the Nei Ching has under- ers, 1971). Dr. Rhijne not only described
gone numerous revisions and clarifications, acupuncture in the treatment of arthritis, but
One of the most significant occurred during the also for headaches, vertigo, cataracts, apoplexy.
Western Jin Dynasty (265-316 A.D.) with the stiff necks, nervous convulsions, epilepsy, di-
pubhcation of the first comprehensive text de- arrhea, and cattarh. Dr. Rhijne was succeeded
voted exclusively to acupuncture and moxi- in Japan by Dr. Englebert Kaempfer. It would
bustion for the treatment of disease and main- be Dr. Kaempfer and not Rhijne whose work
tenance of health. The work underwent further would have the greatest influence on intro-
revision during the Ming Dynasty between ducing acupuncture to the West. Published in
1368 and 1644. This book. The Great Com- the original Latin in 1712, his detailed and sym-
pendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, is the pathetic accounts of acupuncture were well re-
basis for all modern day Chinese texts on ceived in Europe and underwent translations
acupuncture. Interpretation and translation of into German, Dutch, English, and French
A BRIEF HISTORY OF ACUPUNCTURE S-7

(Dolan, 1973). Acupuncture's potential as a phrenology, and hydropathy, American physi-

medical technique was further championed by cians were cautious about using acupuncture.
the great German surgeon Lorenz R. Heister In 1822 an editorial in Medical Repertory spoke
(1683-1758) in his text Chirurgie, 1758, which of these concerns. "We should, e'er this, have
was translated into six languages and under- given some account of acupuncturation and its
went 20 printings (Bowers, 1978). surprising powers; but we reckon it, erro-
neously it would seem, akin to the famous trac-
tors and remembering how many were gold by
that simple bauble, we felt backwards in trou-
THE FRENCH EXPERIENCE bling its Eastern relative, lest we might lend
ourselves to swell the list, already too numer-
By the end of the 19th century, many of ous of the prejudice and enthusiastic. But, we
France's most prominent physicians were using have probably been mistaken. Acupunctura-
acupuncture. Because Paris was considered one tion is likely to become, employed with dis-
of the great centers of Western medicine attract- crimination and directed with skill, a valuable
ing students from throughout the Western resource" (Cassedy, 1974).
world, knowledge of acupuncture spread
In 1825 Dr. Franklin Bache, great-grandson
throughout Europe and the Americas. The
of Benjamin Franklin and a physician practic-
French interest in acupuncture was further in-
ing in Philadelphia, became the first Ameri-
fluenced by their military adventures into In-
can physician to translate and publish a sig-
dochina in the mid- to late 1800s. By the early
nificant work on acupuncture. Translating
1900s the teachings and practice of acupuncture
from the original French, Bache published an
by the French scholar-diplomat George Soulie
American edition of Morand's, Memoir on
DeMorant provided one of the most significant
Acupuncture (Morand, 1825). A year later,
influences on European acupuncture in the 20th
Bache published his own experiments with
century. Soulie DeMorant studied acupuncture
acupuncture entitled, "Cases Illustrative of
for 20 years while French Consul in Shanghai.
the Remedial Effects of Acupuncture" in the
His text V Acupuncture Chinoise (Chinese
North American Medical Surgery Journal (Bache,
Acupuncture) published in three volumes in
1825). Dr. Bache had conducted his experi-
1939,1941, and 1955, not only expounded on the
ments on prisoners at the state penitentiary in
technique, but made accessible the theory of the
Philadelphia where he was an assistant physi-
classic texts and presented acupuncture as a
cian. He treated a wide range of problems in-
comprehensive medical system. Today, as part
cluding muscular rheumatism, chronic pains,
of the legacy of DeMorant, acupuncture is offi-
and neuralgia. He concluded that acupunc-
cially recognized by the Academia De Medicine
ture could be "a proper remedy in almost all
as part of the formal practice of medicine in
diseases whose prominent symptom is pain"
France (Bowers, 1978; Hehns, 1995).
(Bache, 1825). The initial flurry of excitement
about acupuncture was confined to physicians
around the Philadelphia area with a few scat-
AMERICAN HISTORY tered publications from u p and down the East
coast. While it was still practiced by some
Acupuncture was probably first introduced physicians, no major publications appeared
to the United States by Chinese immigrants, until the very end of the 19th century. In 1892,
but mainstream American medicine was not in- no less a physician than Sir William Osier en-
fluenced by these early practitioners. It wasn't dorsed the use of acupuncture for the treat-
until the early 1820s, when the French were ment of lumbago in his text. The Principals and
both practicing and teaching acupuncture, that Practices of Medicine (Osier, 1916). Despite
American medical journals began to report on Osier's enthusiastic endorsement, acupunc-
European experiences. Given their earlier en- ture remained a medical oddity in the United
counters with the importation of European States isolated to Oriental enclaves and ig-
medical "advances" such as mesmerism. nored by mainstream medicine.
S-8 KAPLAN

MODERN AMERICAN HISTORY public interest, acupuncture continued to face

major hurdles in the United States. In the early
In 1971, New York Times reporter James Res- 1970s organized medicine was expressing its
ton was in China reporting on the opening of collective doubt in a number of ways. In 1973
diplomatic relations between the United States the Food and Drug Administration rated
and China. He developed acute appendicitis acupuncture equipment as class III medical de-
and was rushed to the Anti-Imperiahst Hospi- vices, making them experimental and thus ac-
tal in Beijing. He underwent an appendectomy cessible only under appropriate research pro-
with conventional anesthesia. The next day he tocol (Federal Register, 1973). In 1974 the
developed postoperative pain and the house American Medical Association (AMA) de-
acupuncturist, Li Chang Yuan, provided near clared acupuncture an experimental medical
immediate relief (Reston, 1971). Reports soon modality (Schwartz, 1981). Wolpe theorized
followed of miraculous surgeries performed that it was, in part, an attempt to keep the prac-
with acupuncture in place of general anesthet- tice of acupuncture out of the hands of non-
ics. Delegations of American physicians went physicians practitioners and to limit its use by
to China to report on what seemed to be mir- physicians (Wolpe, 1985). It was becoming
acles performed with slender needles. The first more and more difficult for Americans to prac-
group of physicians led by Dr. E. Gray Dimond tice acupuncture. Despite the difficult situation
went to China and reported on the successful at home, a number of physicians and non-
use of acupuncture for anesthesia in the Jour- physicians left the country in an attempt to
nal of the American Medical Association (Dimond, learn more about acupuncture.
1971). While the article raised medical curios- They returned from places like England,
ity, the report came under almost immediate France, and China believing in acupuncture's
criticism because none of the physicians in- efficacy and were anxious to begin the practice
volved were anesthesiologists. Furthermore, of acupuncture at home. These practitioners
attempts by American physicians to replicate were not wanting for patients when they re-
the Chinese experience with acupuncture turned to the United States. In time they began
proved, for the most part, unsuccessful. to teach others and organize schools and train-
To further compound the establishment's ing programs in acupuncture for both physi-
skepticism, this unique approach to human cians and nonmedical practitioners. In 1973 the
health and illness did not fit the current bio- first physician acupuncture organization. The
medical model and made little sense to many New York Society of Acupuncture, for physi-
Western physicians. While the medical com- cians and dentists formed (Liao et al., 1994).
munity had its doubts, the American public They began to organize some of the first for-
bad become thoroughly infatuated with mal physician training programs in this coun-
acupuncture. Many articles were published in try. Nonphysician acupuncture training began
the lay literature extolling the virtues of this to proliferate and by the early 1980s there be-
Oriental medicine. Prominent American soci- came a need to standardize the educational
ologist Paul Wolpe summed up the situation programs in these schools and create an ac-
saying, "The overwhelming media and lay in- creditation process. In 1982, the Counsel of Col-
terest in acupuncture quickly became anath- leges of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine
ema to most of organized medicine. Physicians was created for the purposes of advancing the
had no experience in acupuncture and no status of acupuncture and oriental medicine in
knowledge of physiologic mechanisms that the United States. Also, the National Accredi-
could account for it. Indeed it seemed to vio- tation Commission of Schools and Colleges of
late the laws of anatomy and neurophysiology. Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine was cre-
Acupuncture was an aUen philosophical basis ated, as well as the National Commission for
and reported as a package from the East: it was the Certification of Acupuncturists (Flaws,
not an alternative modality that reacted to (and 1991). In just 10 short years an entire system for
was thus informed by) the biomedical model" acupuncture training and accreditation were
(Wolpe, 1985). Despite growing intrigue and established in the United States.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF ACUPUNCTURE S-9

Despite growing public acceptance and a sig- vidual doctors, but also by the medical estab-
nificant move toward regulating training and ac- lishment. The demand is clear. The survey pub-
creditation, the AMA continued its attempt to lished in 1993 by Harvard Medical School
enforce barriers to the practice of acupuncture, showed that one in three Americans use non-
Arguing that there is a lack of scientific evidence traditional treatments, spending a total of 14
as to the efficacy of acupuncture or an explana- billion dollars per year compared with just un-
tion as to its mechanisms of action, in 1981 the der 1 trillion dollars spent on conventional
AMA again reaffirmed its position that acupunc- treatments (Eisenberg et al., 1993). In 1993 a
ture was an experimental medical modality. Federal Drug Administration report estimated
In 1974, however, the American Osteopathic that at least half a billion dollars per year was
Association became the first major medical in- being spent on acupuncture treatments alone
stitution to endorse the practice of acupuncture (Lytle, 1993). In 1994 the National Institute of
as part of the practice of medicine (Helms, Health and the Federal Drug Administration
1974). In 1982, through its extension program, convened a technology assessment meeting to
the University of California Los Angeles Med- evaluate the status of acupuncture needles. As
ical School became the second major medical a result of the evidence presented in that meet-
school in the United States after New York Uni- ing, in 1996 the Food and Drug Administration
versity to endorse an acupuncture training pro- reclassified acupuncture needles to class II
gram for physicians. In 1987 the American medical devices, making them available to all
Academy of Medical Acupuncture was qualified practitioners (Eskinazi, 1996).
founded as a means of representing licensed Presently 34 jurisdictions provide for the reg-
physicians who had integrated acupuncture istration, certification, or licensure for the prac-
into their medical practices. The Academy was tice of acupuncture by nonphysicians. Thirty-
also the first national physicians organization nine states regard the practice of acupuncture
to establish minimal training requirements to as being within the scope of a physician's med-
obtain membership. In 1994 the Academy es- ical license, while 11 states and the District of
tablished the first national proficiency exam for Columbia have imposed additional training re-
physicians practicing acupuncture. quirements (Mitchell, 1997). Health mainte-
By 1991 it was estimated that there were ap- nance organizations (HMOs), which for better
proximately 9000 physician and nonphysicians or for worse have become the barometer of
practicing acupuncture in the United States. At what is considered acceptable medical treat-
that time, 23 states and the District of Colum- ments, are beginning to cover alternative ther-
bia had established licensing requirements for apy. While most HMOs already cover chiro-
nonphysician acupuncturists (Kaplan, 1991). practic, some are adding acupuncture to the list
Amazingly, the number of acupuncture practi- of admissible treatments. In 1997 Oxford
tioners continued to grow and states legislat- Health Plans, a profitable HMO, offered the
ing licensure of acupuncture continued to in- most extensive program to date,
crease despite consistent opposition by state
medical boards and a lack of good scientific ev-
idence demonstrating either the efficacy or THE FUTURE OF AMERICAN
mechanism of action of acupuncture. Patients ACUPUNCTURE
and practitioners of a Chinese medicine based
on Taoist philosophy and Eastern empiricism In November 1997, the National Institute of
were successfully challenging Western medical Health will convene a consensus conference on
science's cultural authority as the sole arbiter acupuncture. The Office of Alternative Medi-
in defining health and illness. cine has taken the lead in making significant
funding available to evaluate the clinical effi-
ACUPUNCTURE TODAY ^^^y ^^ acupuncture and to study its mecha-
nisms of actions. As we seek to incorporate this
It appears as if acupuncture is on the verge Oriental perspective on health and illness into
of acceptance, not only by patients and indi- our health-care system it is important that we
S-10 KAPLAN

embrace the opportunity that Oriental medi- Federal Register. March 9, 1973;36(44).
Flaws B. Viewpoint. American Acupuncture education:
cine offers us. Acupuncture is not simply an-
Has a wrong turn been taken? Am J Acupuncture
other technique, but an opportunity to broaden 1991;19(1):63-71.
our concepts of health and illness. It is hoped Helms JM 1995 Acupuncture Energistics: A Clinical Ap-
by accepting the challenge to expand our per- proach for Physicians. Medical Acupuncture Publish-
spective we, as American physicians, can ers, Berkeley, CA.
greatly improve the health care system and the Kaplan G. The status of acupuncture legislation in the
lives of our patients. United States: A comprehensive review. The AAMA
Rev Vol. 3.1 1991.
Liao SJ, Lee MHM, Ng LKY 1994 Principles and practice
of contemporary acupuncture. Marcel Dekker, New
ACKNOWLEDGMENT York.
Lu GD, Needham J. Celestial Lancets. 1980 A History and
My thanks to Patti Spiegel for her help in Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa. Cambridge Uni-
preparing the text of this manuscript, CoUette versity Press, Cambridge.
McNamara for her transcription, and Dr. Lytle CD. An overview of acupuncture. Center For De-
vices and Radiological Health, FDA, PHS, DHHS, May
Robert Umlauf for editorial assistance.
1993.
Mitchell BB. Acupuncture and Oriental medicine laws.
1997. National Acupuncture Foundation, Washington,
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