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ABSTRACT

Voltage regulators are significant in power industry. Supply from the power
authority need to be regulated from the production section to the utilization point in
order to achieve smooth running of electrical appliances. In power production the
intent is to achieve better efficiency to both producers and the users of electrical
energy. The equipment should be protected from over voltage, under voltage an
surges to avoid frequent tripping of its circuit. Since there is no official definition
of power conditioners, there are some devices marketed as power conditioners that
do not provide automatic voltage regulation. An automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) often called power conditioners or stabilizers.

This project work presents the means for which stabilizer could maintained at the
load point. This project proposes using of simple block to construct a stabilizer in
order to improve the mains voltage, and consequently, decreasing the error in
voltage regulation for the customer mains.

The construction of 5KVA voltage stabiliser is useful for sensitive equipment


which could be easily destroyed by low or high voltages. The voltage stabiliser is
divided into three units namely; transformer unit, control unit protective unit. The
transformer unit uses an auto-transformer which is designed to control the input
voltage by simply stepping up or stepping down of the input voltage to the required
level by changing its tap. The transformer’s rating determines the capacity rating of
the stabiliser in KVA; the stabiliser is designed to operate to give an output of
220Volts with allowable fluctuation/variation. In this project integrated circuits
(ICs) are used so as to make it compact and provide a less cumbersome circuitry
and for better accuracy and reliability.
CHAPTER 1

I.0 INTRODUCTION
Most of the important international standards define power quality as the physical
characteristics of the electrical supply provided under normal operating conditions
that do not disrupt or disturb the customer’s processes. Therefore, a power quality
problem exists if any voltage, current or frequency deviation results in a failure or
in a bad operation of customer’s equipment.
However, it is important to notice that the quality of power supply implies
basically voltage quality and supply reliability. A voltage quality problem relates
to any failure of equipment due to deviations of the line voltage from its nominal
characteristics, and the supply reliability is characterized by its adequacy (ability to
supply the load), security (ability to withstand sudden disturbances such as system
faults) and availability (focusing especially on long interruptions).
Power quality problems are common in most of commercial, industrial and utility
networks. Natural phenomena, such as lightning are the most frequent cause of
power quality problems.[1]

Switching phenomena resulting in oscillatory transients in the electrical supply, for


example when capacitors are switched, also contribute substantially to power
quality disturbances. Also, the connection of high power non-linear loads
contributes to the generation of current and voltage harmonic components.
Between the different voltage disturbances that can be produced, the most
significant and critical power quality problems are voltage sags due to the high
economic losses that can be generated. Short-term voltage drops can trip electrical
drives or more sensitive equipment, leading to costly interruptions of production
[2].

The consumption of electric power by everyday loads depends substantially on the


value of the line voltage.
When it exceeds the nominal voltage by 5%, the consumption of the active and
reactive power of refrigerator (for example) increases by 6 and 28%, respectively.
Generally, for all loads containing induction motors, a significant reduction in
voltage might lead to a burning of motors’ windings. Office equipment, like
computer, suffers from the poor quality power supply.
Many computer producers guarantee the normal operation of their production with
the stability of the supply voltage, the steady-state regime in the range ±10% and
short-term (up to 30 ms) deviations of +15% or - 20%.

Voltage in low-voltage distribution network, from which the majority of the


electrical equipment are fed, is not constant. Depending on distance from the
transformer substation and the degree of the line overloading, the specific
permissible limit of voltage deviations in each country is regulated by the
appropriate standards.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM


In urban cities it is difficult to supply uninterrupted power supply, even when this
is achieved, the voltage level at which electric power is supplied is very important.
This project focuses on the design and construction of 5KVA voltage stabiliser that
could stabilise the output voltage to our electronic appliances. Hence this project is
centred on constructing an electric appliance capable of protecting our powered
equipment from damage as a result of voltage fluctuation.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY


The design and construction of a single phase 5KVA voltage stabiliser is aimed at
supplying a constant output voltage within the specific limits thereby protecting the
connected gadget. Also one of the objectives of this project is to achieve stepping
up of A.C voltage of as low as 120V to the required value of about 220-230Vac,
this is a further improvement on the existing limit range. The available voltage
stabilisers in the market operate with the input voltage range of 160-260Vac which
therefore will not give perfect protection for the connected gadget/equipment when
the supplied voltage is less than 160V.

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK.

The project work is aimed at the developing a circuit diagram that can regulate
voltage between 160Vac and 240Vac with an output deviation of ±10%, and hence
the construction and implementation of the circuit.
The voltage stabiliser is divided into four sections namely;

i. Transformer Stage
ii. Power Stage
iii. Control Stage
iv. Switching Stage.
CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVEIW

Voltage stabilisers came to existence over 200 years of discovery an invention


from Francis W. Davis. From the development of the 1st electric battery by
Alessandro Volta (Italy) in 1800 to the latest solid state computerised systems of
the present day. The current development of 3rd Generation Voltage Regulator was
only possible following the inventions of transformers; programmable digital
computers and Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR). 3rd Generation Systems uses
transformers to change the voltage from one value to another. The computers carry
out complex and lightning fast calculations; and the SCR’s switch on and off
smaller transformers to change the voltage as and when needed.

The earliest discovery that paved the way for the development of the transformer
was the development of electromagnetic induction - the relationship between
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" and magnetic flux. This was independently
discovered by Michael Faraday (English) and Joseph Henry (American) in 1831.
Faraday was the first to publish the results of his experiments and thus receive
credit for the discovery. This discovery provided the basis of Faraday Law – still in
used today as a basic law of electromagnetism relating to the operating principles
of transformers, inductors, and many types of electric motors and generators.

The second important development toward the design of a transformer occurred in


1836; and is credited to the Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland.
Callan designed the first induction coil and was one of the first researchers to
realize that the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary
winding - the larger is the increase in EMF (Volts). At this time the only power
being generated was Direct Current (DC). Induction coils were needed to get
higher voltages from batteries. Before the development of transformers, the first
electric power generators used DC at low voltages to power a small customer base
using electric lights and small motors. As use of electricity grew and transmission
distances increased, DC became unreliable and costly. A change from DC to
Alternating Current (AC) was required. AC could be generated at higher voltages
and at lower amperages. The lower current meant that thinner and cheaper wires
could be used in transmission and the higher voltage overcame the losses of
transmission to the end user. However, this much higher AC voltage then had to be
reduced at the end of the transmission line so that it could be used by the consumer
– hence the need for efficient and cost effective Transformers. [4]

The development of any country has been found to be largely hinged on the
availability of the distributed and regulated power supply. But since power goes
through the generation, transmission and distribution stages, during the course of
these, variation occurs in the supplied power supply especially in developing
countries like Nigeria.

In Nigeria, electric power is generated from the generating stations at 16KV


voltage level located at different parts of the country and transmitted in bulk at
330KV and 132KV voltage level by overhead transmission lines over a
considerable long distance in a grid system. It is then distributed at 415V to various
consumers locally through transformer substations where the voltage is stepped
down from 33KV or 11KV (depending on the area network) to a standard low
voltage level of 415V for different categories of consumers.

However, the power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN), finds it difficult to


actually maintain a steady voltage level between the distribution point and the
consumer’s premises due to the variation of the voltage drop as the connected
loads varies. Therefore, the supply voltage from PHCN is allowed to fluctuate
between +6% of the declared nominal voltage (i.e. if the supply voltage is 220V,
the variation should be between 207 and 223). Therefore any voltage below or
above this voltage is referred to as undervoltage or overvoltage respectively. These
can be caused by some of the following;
i. Use of underrated cables
ii. Load imbalance
iii. Capacity and age of transformer
iv. Line to ground fault
v. Effect of lightning etc.

All consumer appliances are designed to function within the specified tolerance
range but during under-voltage condition, the equipment malfunctions or refuse
work while in over-voltage condition, the equipment is liable to damage. Usually
under voltage condition is prevalent to that of overvoltage in Nigeria. This is where
the need for a voltage stabiliser is required so as to improve the situation.

Voltage stabiliser came into use not by normal design or plan but as a means of
address electrical crisis situations such as high voltage, spike, surge etc as mention
in the previous chapter. This crisis rarely occurs in develop countries like Britain,
U.S.A, Germany etc because their generation, transmission and distribution of
electricity is such that it devoid variation in voltage.

An AC voltage stabiliser is an electronic device designed to regulate a constant


voltage within an acceptable range. Like other electronic devices, it consists of
electronic components like resistors, capacitors, relays etc with the aim of getting
the overall assembly to perform a specified task.
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The operation and construction of a single phase 5KVA voltage stabiliser is as


stated below;

A transformer is incorporated at the beginning of the regulation stage to transform


the sinusoidal 240V of the input to specified sinusoidal 24V. This sinusoidal
voltage is rectified by full-wave rectifier and also filtered off by shunt capacitor to
remove the pulsation (ripples) at the output of the rectifier to give a steady DC
voltage of 24V. This DC voltage is then applied across the zener diode which
regulates the incoming voltage. The steady DC voltage serves as input voltage to
the comparators. The output of the filtered DC is connected to the regulator (7815)
whose output is used to energize the relays.

3.2 DESIGN OF AUTOTRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static device by means of which electrical power in one circuit is


transferred to another without any change in frequency of both circuit. It can step
up or step down the voltage with a corresponding decrease or increase in current
respectively. Transformers are of two types namely;

1. Shell type and


2. Core type

An autotransformer is a transformer with a single winding which is tapped at some


point along the winding. AC is applied across a portion of the winding and a higher
or lower voltage is produced across another portion of the same winding. The
higher voltage will be connected to the ends of the winding, and the lower voltage
from one end to a tap. For example, a transformer with a tap at the centre of the
winding can be used with 230V across the entire winding, and 115V between one
end and the tap. It can be connected to a 230V supply to drive 115V equipment, or
reversed to drive 230V equipment from 115V. Since the current in the windings is
lower, the transformer is smaller, lighter, cheaper and more efficient. For voltage
ratios not exceeding about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller and
more efficient than an isolating (two winding) transformer of the same rating.
Large three phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems,
for example, to interconnect 33kV and 66kV sub-transmission networks.

The autotransformer used in this project is designed to regulate between 120-260V.


The determination of voltage supplied is achieved by calibrating the transformer
using a variac. The transformer is calibrated as shown below;

TABLE 3.1

INPUT VOLTAGE SWITCHED TAP OUTPUT VOLTAGE

210-260 A 220-230

190-209 B 210-225

135-159 C 203-215

120-134 D 200-212

The table above shows the maximum and minimum voltage interval in each tap of
the transformer and corresponding output voltage.

Fig.3.1 Autotransformer

3.2.1 Calculation of voltage at each tap

To calculate the voltage at each tap of the transformer, some conditions were taken
into considerations which are;

1. The maximum allowable voltage at each tap


2. The maximum allowable voltage at each output

3. The expected voltage at the output which is 220V

Let the maximum allowable voltage at each tap give out the maximum allowable
output which is 220V, the following ratio can be obtained for each tap.

For Tap A

220 =1.0000
220

For Tap B

180 =0.8182
220

For Tap C

135 =0.6136
220

For Tap D

120 =0.5455
220

Thus to determine the voltage at each tap, the turn ratio at every tap is multiplied
by the required voltage which is 220V.

For Tap A

1.0000 × 220 = 220V

Therefore the voltage at tap A will be 220V

For Tap B

0.8182 × 220 = 180V

For Tap C
0.6136 × 220 = 135V

For Tap D

0.5455 × 220 = 120V

Fig3.2 Autotransformer indicating voltage at each tap

3.2.2 DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF TURNS FOR THE COIL

Using the transformer equation, this is given by

E = 4.44 F ɸ N

Where E= emf
F= frequency
ɸ= flux = β x A
A= area of core = Length (L) x Breadth (B)
β= flux density

To get the area, we have the length and breadth to be 6.3cm and 4.4cm
respectively.

Therefore; A = 6.3 x 5.4 = 27.72cm

Then convert the area in centimetre (cm) to metre (m)

Multiply the area by 10-4

A = 27.72 x 10-4 m

Magnetic flux (ɸ) = Flux density (β) x Area (A)

From the B-H curve of cast steel, saturation is attained at 1.1, so β = 1.1
Therefore; ɸ = 1.1 x 27.72 x 10-4 = 3.049 x 10-3

Frequency (F) = 50Hz.

With all the parameters, the number of turns for the transformer can be calculated
using the transformer equation given;

E = 4.44 x F x N x ɸ

Number of turns for 220V

N= 220 = 325Turns
4.44 x 50 x 3.049 x 10-3

Voltage per turn can be obtained by;

E = 220 = 0.677V per turn.


N 325

Number of turns for 210V

220V – 210V = 10V

If 0.677V = 1 Turn

Therefore; for 10V, 10 = 15 Turns


0.677

At 210V input, the number of turns that will produce 220V will be;

325 + 15 = 340 turns

Number of turns for 190V

220V – 190V = 30V

If 0.677V = 1 Turn

Therefore; for 30V, 30 = 44 Turns


0.677

At 190V input, the number of turns that will produce 220V will be;

325 + 44 = 369 turns

Number of turns for 160V

220V – 160V = 60V


If 0.677V = 1 Turn

Therefore; for 60V, 60 = 89 Turns


0.677

At 160V input, the number of turns that will produce 220V will be;

325 + 89 = 414 turns

Number of turns for 135V

220V – 135V = 85V

If 0.677V = 1 Turn

Therefore; for 85V, 85 = 126 Turns


0.677
At 135V input, the number of turns that will produce 220V will be;
325 + 126 = 451 turns

Number of turns for 120V

220V – 120V = 100V

If 0.677V = 1 Turn

Therefore; for 100V, 100 = 148 Turns


0.677
At 120V input, the number of turns that will produce 220V will be;
325 + 148 = 473 turns
Fig3.3 Switching System
3.2.3 DETERMINATION OF COIL GUAGE

The power rating of the voltage stabiliser is 5000VA

And P = IV

Where P = Power rating


I = Current rating
V = Voltage rating

Therefore I = P = 5000 = 22.73A


V 220

3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THE SWITCHING SYSTEM

When the input voltage is between 120V and 134V, relay 1 will activate and
normally close (NO) contact will be connected to point E where the number of
turns is 473, that will produce an output of 220V. By the time the input voltage
goes up and falls in between the range of 135V and 159V, relay 2 will be energized
and connect to point D where the number of turns is 451, and the output will also
be 220V. The same thing happens when the input voltage falls in between the
range of other tapping of the transformer.
3.4 DESIGN OF THE CONTROL CIRCUIT

A separate turns of coil was incorporated into the main transformer to power the
control circuit and as well as to isolate the control circuit from the ac mains.
3.5 BILL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND EVALUATION

S/N COMPONENTS UNITS QUANTITY AMOUNT(₦)


PRICE(₦)
1 Diode (IN4007) 10 9 90
2 Zener Diode 20 7 140
3 Capacitor 10 5 50
4 Resistor 10 20 200
5 Potentiometer 30 4 120
6 Transistor 50 5 250
7 Comparator (LM234) 500 1 500
with socket
8 Transformer 12,350 12,350 12,350
9 Relay 200 4 800
10 Circuit Breaker 1000 1 1000
11 Connector 50 2 100
12 2.5mm Flex Wire 300 1 yard 300
13 Spraying 1000 2 2,000
14 Casing 2000 1 2000
15 Transportation 3000
16 Miscellaneous 5000
TOTAL ₦
COST
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 TESTING, PROTECTION AND MAINTAINANCE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Success in any engineering design is determined mostly by how capable the


product can adapt to environmental forces and perform effectively. Thus, the
project have been tested and performed effectively as detailed below;

4.2 TESTS CARRIED OUT

Finally, the voltage stabiliser was tested by varied input voltage from 100V to
260V and the results gotten are as shown in table below;
TABLE 4.0

S/N Input Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V)


1 120 200
2 140 210
3 180 215
4 220 220
5 260 220

4.5 Recommendations

Below are some of the recommendation for this project (5KVA voltage stabiliser)
(i) Maintenance
Maintenance is a means of preventing the breakdown of equipment or effective
repair after failure. The maintenance of the project (Voltage Stabiliser) is viewed
from two perspectives viz;
i User’s preventive maintenance
ii Technical/Engineering maintenance

Some of the preventive maintenance are;


i Do not put the stabiliser on a table with small surface area
ii Always keep it in a place that is well ventilated
iii Do not connect the stabiliser to a loaded socket
(ii) Trouble Shooting

This involves the location of faulty components in a control unit. It has to be


carried out on the control unit in order to locate the faulty point which might be
caused due to;
i misconnection due to wrong wiring
ii faulty design
iii excess current

During the course of the project, after construction, we then power the project then
it sparks and there was no output. We then unscrew the project and start to test
each stage and found out that the control circuit is bad, the comparators have
blown so the control circuit cannot compare voltages so as to select the appropriate
tapping on the transformer. We then replaced the blown comparator and then
remove the shorted part before connecting it to mains again.

The table below shows some common faults, possible cause and recommended
solution;

TABLE 4.1

S/N Common Fault Possible Cause Recommended


Solution
1 Input supply ON but Blown fuse Change the fuse
no indication on main Burnt lamp Replace the lamp
switch
2 No input supply Partial contact in the Check the plug main
supply plug lead
3 If the stabiliser shut Overload Check if it is
down after a period of Very low voltage overloaded and reduce
normal operation the load when
necessary
4 Stabiliser shuts down Wrong supply cable Check the supply
immediately after cable rating and
switching ON change if it is not of
sufficient capacity

5 No output supply Circuit breaker is OFF Check circuit breaker


if in ON position if
not switch it ON
Note: Any fault outside the ones stated above should be referred to qualified service personnel.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 RECOMMENDATION FOR USAGE

The equipment is reliable and it is recommended to stabilise voltage fluctuation in


the area where undervoltage and overvoltage supplies are rampant. Appropriate
engineering bodies should be encouraged in mass production of the voltage
stabiliser in order to reduce the unit cost of production. If it is to be used for higher
industrial applications, it is recommended that it should be required that the rating
of the autotransformer as well as the relay contacts need to be increased with
adequate room ventilation.

5.2 CONCLUSION

The 5KVA voltage stabiliser designed and constructed to eliminate the problems
created by interruption in the supply voltage. The practical performance of the
system followed designed expectation. The operation of this project will appeal to
the users due to the fact that they will always know the mains voltage levels. Thus,
the unit automatically switches OFF a connected appliance whenever any fault of
undervoltage or overvoltage occurs. The current capacity of the relay enables the
project to be suitable with any appliance provided the current rating of the relay is
greater than the load current. Hence, the usefulness of this project is inevitable.
REFERENCES

1. Allan, D.J. , Jan. 1991, "Power Transformers – The Second Century". Power
Engineering Journal http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?
arnumber=61984. 978-3-8007-3115-2. http://d-nb.info/990964361.

2. Callan, N.J. (December 1836) "On a new Galvanic battery," Philosophical


Magazine, series 3, vol. 9, pages 472-478; see especially page 477.

3. "Hungarian Inventors and Their Inventions" (Mar. 3, 2012). Institute for


Developing Alternative Energy in Latin America.
http://www.institutoideal.org/conteudo_eng.php?
&sys=biblioteca_eng&arquivo=1&artigo=94&ano=2008.

4. Joseph H., Nov. 30, 2006, Distinguished Members Gallery, National


Academy of Sciences. http://www.nas.edu/history/members/henry.html.,.

5. Opadiran J.K. (2005), Design and construction of Automatic Voltage


Regulator (A PGD Project, Federal University of Technology, Akure –
Ondo State)

6. Stanley Transformer, (Jan. 9, 2009), Los Alamos National Laboratory;


University of Florida.http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/
museum/stanleytransformer.html.

7. Theraja, B.L, 2006, Electrical Technology, SChand publication

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