CHE 510: Process Control & Instrumentation

MODULE 2:
Control System Instrumentation

Ayorinde Bamimore, Ph.D.

Department of Chemical Engineering
Obafemi Awolowo University
 Module Objectives
After completing this module, students will be able to:

I. Identify the various instruments needed to implement the

feedback control system,
II. Calibrate process instruments,
III. Identify, classify and size control instruments,
IV. Read, sketch and extract useful information P&ID
V. Explain the interfacing of control instruments with a chemical
process to achieve perfect control.

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 Common Control Hardwares

 Control instruments are referred to as the hardware

needed in order to interface the controller with the
chemical process for the purpose of feedback control.
 The common control hardware includes:
 Sensors-transmitters
 Transducers
 Actuators
 Controllers
 Transmission lines
 Control room

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 Controller/Process Interface for SISO System

A feedback control system

perform these three
functions:
I. Measurement of the
controlled variable,
II. Adjustment of the
manipulated variable,
III. Signal transmission
between components

Fig. 2.1: Schematic diagram for a stirred-tank heating control system

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 Controller/Process Interface for MIMO System

Fig. 2.2: Computer control system with multiple measurements and

multiple actuators

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Controller/Process Interface for Temperature Control Loop

Fig. 2.3: Temperature feedback control loop in a heat exchanger

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 Cascaded-Three Tank/Microcontroller/Host-PC interface

Fig. 2.4: Cascaded-Three Tank System/Micro-Controller/Host-PC interface

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 Instrumentation Signals and Data Networks

Process control system makes extensive use of three types of

control instrument signals:
1) Pneumatic (air) signals
2) Analog (continuous) electronic signals
3) Digital (discrete) signals
Pneumatic control signals
During pre-1960, pneumatic signals are used to transmit
measurement and control information
Pneumatic signals are compressed air in the standard range
3 – 15 psig transmitted by tubing, usually, ¼ or 3/8 in.
diameter.
Pneumatic signals cannot be transmitted over a long distance
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 Instrumentation Signals and Data Networks

Analog signals
- Analog signal transmission is made possible through the
development in solid state electronics
- They have been in use since 1960s
- The standard signal ranges for electronic analog instruments
are 4 – 20mA for current signal and 1 – 5V/1 – 12V for voltage
signals
- Current signal transmission is usually preferred over voltage
because voltage is affected by wire and connector resistances
that change with wire length, temperature and aging.
- Voltage signal transmission is better suited for short distances.
Generally analog signal transmission allow for signal transmission
over a long distance than pneumatic
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 Instrumentation Signals and Data Networks

Digital signals
 Digital instruments and devices became increasingly important starting
in the 1960s. A microprocessor in each instrument or controller is
responsible for communicating periodically over a data highway, either
receiving or requesting information from other devices.
 A major advantage of digital communication is the significant reduction
in wiring and maintenance costs, compared to analog systems.
 Major advances in computing equipment (e.g., microprocessors and
personal computers) and control technology during the 1970s and
1980s led to proprietary computer networks (i.e., distributed control
systems) and smart sensors with digital memory and logic
capabilities.

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 Sensors/Transmitters

Sensors: This is a device for measuring the physical process

variable. After measurement, a sensor produces electrical signal.
Transmitter: This is a device that can convert a very small signal
to a more usable signal.
The transmitters for the sensors used as industrial feedback signals
must typically convert very small electrical signals such as
microvolts (µV), millivolts (mV), milliamps (mA) or frequency into
larger voltage and current signals such as (0-10) volts or (4-20)
mA.
The transmitter generally uses devices such as “op amps” to
amplify and linearize the output signal. The transmitter may also
provide a zero and span circuit that allows the signal to be
calibrated with other parts of the electrical system such as the
single-point controller.
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 Selection Criteria for Sensors/Transmitters

1. Measurement range (span)

2. Performance
3. Materials of construction
4. Prior use
5. Potential for releasing process materials to the
environment
6. Electrical classification
7. Invasive or non-invasive

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 Sensors/Transmitters
Table 2.1: On-line measurement options for process control

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 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensors/Transmitters
Static Characteristics of Linear Sensors/Transmitters
Table 2.2: The zero=Lower limit=50oC

The span=the range

Fig.2.5. =150-50=100oC

Gain=
0.16mA/oC

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 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensors/Transmitters
Linear sensor/transmitter calibration
For a linear transmitter, the steady state relationship between
the measured variable y and the transmitter output ym is a
linear equation:

(2.1)

For the transmitter whose readings are given in Table 1, the

calibration equation is given as:

(2.2)

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 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensors/Transmitters
Static Characteristics of Nonlinear Sensors/Transmitters
For a nonlinear instrument, the
gain at an operating point is the
tangent to the characteristic
input-output relation at the
operating point.

To determine a single relation

between the input and output of
the transmitter, a nonlinear
regression can be used.
Fig. 2.4: Gain of a nonlinear transmitter as
a function of operating point

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 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensors/Transmitters
Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors/Transmitters
Many sensor-transmitters have overdamped dynamics and
exhibit monotonic responses to a step change in the
measured variable. Thus, it is reasonable to model this type of
measurement dynamics as a fist-order
transfer function between the actual value y and the
measured value ym:

(2.3)
where is the steady-state gain
is the measurement time constant
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 More Control Elements

Transducer: This is a device that can receive one type of energy and
convert it to another type of energy. E.g., Current to pressure transducer
(I/P).

Transmission Lines: Traditionally, transmission lines were pneumatic.

Nowadays, more and more often they are electrical lines. In general, their
dynamic influence on the process is neglected except in the case of very
fast phenomena, which is not very common in chemical engineering.

Actuator/Final control element: This is a device or machine that

helps it to achieve physical movements by converting energy, often
electrical, air, or hydraulic, into mechanical force. Simply put, it is the
component in any machine that enables movement. Common final control
elements include: Control valves, Variable speed pump, Electrical heater

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 Classification of Control Valves

1. Table 2.2: Classification based on motion of the

controlling element
Linear valves Rotary valves
Opens and closes by linear motion Opens and closes by rotary motion
of the stem
Globe Plug
Angle Ball
Wedge type gate Disk

2. Classification based on control valve action/safety:

Air-to-open (failed-closed)-requires air to open them and
will therefore “fail close” upon failure of air supply.
Air-to-close (failed-open)-requires air to close them and
will therefore “fail open” upon failure of air supply.
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 Classification of Control Valves

3. Classification based on control valve characteristics

 Quick opening-Larger flows are obtained at the lower valve opening
positions and increasing the valve opening produces smaller flow
increments.
 Linear opening-Flow is directly proportional to the % valve opening
 Equal percentage opening- It allows a very small flowrate through
at very small percent valve openings which increases rapidly as the
valve opening approaches the full open position.
4. Classification based on actuating medium
 Manual valve - actuated by hand wheel
 Pneumatic valve - actuated by compressible medium like air
 Hydraulic valve - actuated by non-compressible medium like water or
oil.
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 Classification of Control Valves

 Electric valve - actuated by an electric motor

5. Classification based on functionality
 Control valve
 Shut-off or on-off valve

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 Automatic Control Valve

An automatic control valve consists of three main parts in which

each part exist in several types and designs:
Valve actuator - which moves the valve's modulating element,
such as ball or butterfly.
Valve positioner - Which ensures the valve is in the correct
position by increasing or decreasing the air load pressure on the
actuator.
Valve body - in which the modulating element, a plug, globe, ball
or butterfly, is contained

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 Automatic Control Valve

Fig. 2.5a: Basic Parts of an automatic control valve

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 Automatic Control Valve

Fig. 2.5b: A control valve with a pneumatic actuator (air-to-open)

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 Automatic Control Valve

Fig. 2.5c: Basic Parts of an automatic control valve

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 Control Valve Positioner and Its Working

Valve Positioners are devices used to put the valve in the correct
position by increasing or decreasing the air load pressure on the
actuator.
Valve positioners are used for controlling valve where accurate and
rapid control is required without error or hysteresis.
Usually, an I/P converter sends the opening-closing request to the
valve but cannot confirm the position of the valve actuator. The
process controller tells the required position to the positioner, and
the positioner senses the current position of the actuator and
compares with the required setpoint. Then give the control action
through the flapper-nozzle amplification system.

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 Control Valve Positioner and Its Working

There are other types of valve positioners:

Electro-pneumatic positioner: Perform the same function
as the pneumatic type, but uses an electrical current of 4-
20mA instead of air as the input signal which uses I/P
converter.
Electronic positioner: This positioner replaces the I/P
converter with a microprocessor inside the positioner itself to
perform the same function as the above positioner.
Digital positioner: This type of positioner to position the
valve actuator and monitor and record data. They are very
accurate, use less air than analogue positioner.
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 Example 2.1

Pneumatic control valves are to be specified for the

applications listed below. State whether an A–O or A–C
valve should be specified for the following manipulated
variables and give reason(s):
(a) Steam pressure in a reactor heating coil.
(b) Flow rate of reactants into a polymerization reactor.
(c) Flow of effluent from a wastewater treatment
holding tank into a river.
(d) Flow of cooling water to a distillation condenser.

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 Example 2.1 (Solution)

Fig.2.6a Fig.2.6b

(a) A–O (fail-close) to make sure (b) A–O (fail-close) to prevent the
that a transmitter failure will not reactor from being flooded with
cause the reactor to overheat, which excessive reactants.
is usually more serious than having it
operate at too low a temperature.

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 Example 2.1 (Solution)

Fig.2.6d

Fig.2.6c

(c) A–O (fail-close) to prevent (d) A–C (fail-open) to ensure that

excessive and perhaps untreated overhead vapor is completely
waste from entering the stream. condensed before it reaches the
receiver. Otherwise, an excessively
high pressure could develop
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 Control Valve Dynamics

 Control valve dynamics tend to be relatively fast compared to the

dynamics of the process itself. But the overall behavior of pneumatic
control valves can be complicated due to nonlinear phenomena such as
hysteresis, deadband, and stick-slip (stiction) that are illustrated
in Fig.2.7
 The behavior of control valves also tends to be nonlinear due to the
asymmetric responses to positive and negative changes in the signal to
the control valve. But for purposes of control system analysis using
transfer function models, the dynamic behavior of the control
 valve (and valve positioner) can be approximated by a first-order-plus-
time-delay transfer function Gv(s) between the signal to the control
valve p and the manipulated flow rate u

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 Control Valve Dynamics

(2.4)

 The valve time constant is typically much smaller than the

largest process time constant , that is,
 Emerson Process Management (2005, pg. 32) has reported
experimental and values, for 4-inch size control valves with
different valve assemblies. The values varied from 0.3 to 7.8 s,
while the ratios
 varied from 0.3 to 0.8. The model parameters also depended on
the size and direction of the step signal applied to the valve.
Larger size control valves can have much slower dynamics.

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 Nonideal Control Valve Behavior

Fig. 2.7: Nonideal control valve behavior: (a) hysteresis; (b) deadband; (c) stick-slip

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 Control Valve Dynamics

Actuator

Positioner

Body

Fig. 2.8: Modern control valves with a digital valve positioner

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 Specifying and Sizing Control Valves
The valve sizing equation for a turbulent, non-flashing liquid passing through a
control valve has the general form:
(2.5)
Where:
= Volumetric flow rate
= Pressure drop across the valve
= Specific gravity of the liquid
The symbol stands for valve stem position and indicates
the extent to which the valve is fully open ( )
The term is called the valve characteristics
There are two constants in Eq.2.5, and .
The valve sizing coefficient (or valve coefficient) is a dimensionless constant
that determines the size and capacity of the control valve. Manufacturers
tabulate values for specific types and sizes of control valves.
Constant is a units conversion factor that depends on the units for q and ΔPv.
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 Specifying and Sizing Control Valves

By definition, N = 1 gpm/(psi)1/2 when q has units of gpm and ΔPv

has units of
psi. Based on this definition of N, when the valve is completely
open (f=1), a ΔPv of 1 psi results in a flow rate of q = Cv gpm.
Thus, larger control valves have larger Cv valves.

For metric units, N = 0.0865 m3/h (kPa)1/2 when q has units of

m3/h and ΔPv has units of kPa.

From Eq.2.5 the expression for Cv is given as

(2.6)

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 Example 2.2
As a design example, consider the heat exchanger system in Fig. 2.9. The block
labeled “equipment” represents all items (except the control valve) that reduce
pressure in the pipeline (e.g., piping fittings and other obstructions). Denote the
pressure drop for the “equipment” as the system pressure drop ΔPs and its value
at the design conditions as ΔPsd. Similarly, the pressure drop across the control
valve is denoted by ΔPv and its design value as ΔPvd. Suppose that the
nonflashing liquid has a specific gravity of gs = 1 and the design flow rate is qd =
200 gpm. At this design flow rate, the equipment pressure drop is ΔPsd =40 psi.
The pump discharge pressure P2 is assumed to be constant and the discharge
pressure at the pipe exit is atmospheric, P1 = 0 psig. Since P1 and P2 are
constant, the total pressure drop ΔP is also constant. It can be expressed as

ΔP = P2 − P1 = ΔPv + ΔPs (2.7)

Assume that ΔPs varies with square of the flow rate:

ΔPs = Kq2 (2.8)

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 Example 2.2

The value of constant K can be determined from Eq. 2.8 and

the design conditions:

(2.9)

(a) For five values of ΔPvd (10, 20, 40, 100, and 200 psi),
determine the
corresponding values of Cv, assuming the valve is half-
open.
(b) Determine the maximum and minimum values of q (qmax
and qmin) for each value of Cv.

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 Example 2.2

Fig. 2.9: A control valve placed in series with a pump and other
equipment. Pump discharge pressure is constant.

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 Example 2.2

Solution
(a) Recall,
(2.6)

With , , , and any value of

(2.10)

Table 2.3: Summary of calculated values of Cv

10 20 40 100 200

126.5 89.4 63.2 36.5 28.3

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 Example 2.2

(b) In order to find qmax:

Recall Eq.2.5 with N = 1, q = qmax and f = 1 (because the maximum flow
rate occurs when the control valve is full open):
(2.5)
(2.11)
As noted earlier, changes with q, thus when .
Rearranging Eq.2.7: ΔP = ΔPv + ΔPs (2.7a)
ΔPv =ΔP - ΔPs (2.7b)
Recall ΔPs = Kq2 =0.001q2 (2.8)
Eq.2.7b then becomes: ΔPv =ΔP - 0.001q2 (2.7c)
Substituting Eq.2.17c into into 2.11 with we have:
(2.12a)

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 Example 2.2

Making subject of the formula in Eq.2.12a, we have:

(2.12b)

In order to find qmin:

Recall Eq.2.5 with N = 1, q = qmax and f =0.1 (because the effective
minimum flow rate occurs when the control valve is almost fully close):
(2.5)
(2.13)
As noted earlier, changes with q, thus when .
Rearranging Eq.2.7: ΔP = ΔPv + ΔPs (2.7a)
ΔPv =ΔP - ΔPs (2.7b)
Recall ΔPs = Kq2 =0.001q2 (2.8)
Eq.2.7b then becomes: ΔPv =ΔP - 0.001q2 (2.7c)

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 Example 2.2

Substituting Eq.2.7c into 2.13 with we have:

(2.14)

Making subject of the formula in Eq.2.14, we have:

(2.15)

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 Example 2.2

Table 2.4: Summary of Results psi

10 20 40 100 200
50 60 80 140 240
126.5 89.4 63.2 36.5 28.3

217 231 253 302 327

83 67 55 49 44

2.61 3.46 4.56 6.23 7.48

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 Example 2.2

Some Important Trends in Table 2.4:

1. For small values of ΔPvd, qmax is not much greater than qd = 200 gpm and
R is small.
2. As ΔPvd increases, qmax increases, qmin decreases, and R increases. Thus
from a control perspective, a large value of ΔPvd, is desirable to provide
effective flow control over a larger range.
3. But as ΔPvd increases, ΔP also increases (see Eq.2.7).
Thus, a larger pump is required and the pump operating cost increases due
to the cost of power for the pump motor. Thus from an economic
perspective, a small value of ΔPvd is desirable. Note that it is also possible
to simultaneously calculate the required pump discharge pressure P2 and the
control valve sizing coefficient Cv that produce the desired values of qmax and
qmin. Thus, Eqs. 2.12b and 2.15 can be solved simultaneously for the two
unknowns, ΔP and Cv (Luyben and Luyben, 1996, pp. 76–81). Then P2 can be
determined from Eq.2.7.

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 Example 2.2

N.B.:
This example demonstrates that the choice of the ratio, (ΔPvd/ΔP),
is a key decision in control valve design. It represents an
engineering tradeoff between lower cost (small Cv) and more
effective control (large Cv).
Reported guidelines suggest values of 1/4 to 1/2 for this ratio at
the design flow rate. However, Example 2.2 demonstrates that the
range of operating conditions and the control objectives are
important and should be considered. Another rule of thumb is that
the control valve Cv should correspond to a size that is one less
than the size of the pipe diameter (Woods, 2007).

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 Selection of the Control Valve Trim

Three types of valve characteristic (or valve trim) are widely used. For a
fixed pressure drop across the valve ΔPv, the fractional flow rate,
is related to the fractional stem position by the
following valve trim relations:

Linear trim: (2.16a)

Quick opening trim: (2.16b)
Equal percentage trim: (2.16c)

For equal percentage control valves, R is a design parameter that is

usually in the range 20–50. Fig.2.10 illustrates the valve characteristics
for these three valve trims.
Note that when the control valve is completely shut, and when
it is completely open, .

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 Selection of the Control Valve Trim

Fig. 2.10: Inherent control valves characteristics

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 Example 2.3

Again consider the schematic diagram in Fig.2.11. Assume

that the pump furnishes a constant head of ΔP = 40 psi over the entire
flow rate range of interest. The system pressure drop is ΔPs = 30 psig at
the design flow rate of qd = 200 gal/min. The specific gravity of the liquid
is gs = 1. Assume that ΔPs is proportional to q2. Determine Cv and
plot f versus for the installed control valve and four cases:

(a) A linear valve that is half open at the design flow rate.
(b) An equal percentage valve (R = 50 in Eq.2.16c) that is sized to be
completely open at 110% of the design flow rate.
(c) Same as (b), except with a Cv that is 20% higher than
calculated.
(d) Same as (b), except with a Cv that is 20% lower than
calculated.

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 Example 2.3

Fig. 2.11: A control valve placed in series with a pump and other equipment. Pump
discharge pressure is constant.

Solution
Recall, ΔPs = Kq2 (2.8)
where (2.17)
Thus, ΔPs = q2 (2.18)

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 Example 2.3

Because the pump head is constant at

ΔP=40psi, the pressure drop available for the
control valve is

ΔPv=40 – ΔPs = 40 – q2 (2.19)

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 Example 2.3

Fig. 2.12: Pump characteristics and system pressure drop

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 Example 2.3

(a) Recall, (2.5)

Where , for a linear characteristics valve
(2.20)
(2.21)
Using which is a standard valve size from manufacturer’s
documentation. The valve trim as a function of flow rate is given as:
(2.22)
(b) Recall, ΔPv=40 – ΔPs = 40 – q2 (2.19)
For an equal percentage valve which is completely open at 110% of its
design flow rate, we have:
, q=110% of 200gpm=220gpm,
ΔPv=40 – q2=40 – (220)2=3.7psi

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 Example 2.3

(2.20)
Use , for an equal percentage valve,

(2.23)

Solving for yields

(2.24)

With and R=50

(c)
(d)
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 Example 2.3

Table 2.5: Summary of Results for Example 2.3

Linear, Equal %, Equal %, Equal %,
Cv=125 Cv=115 Cv=138 Cv=92

10 39.93 0.0127 -0.0956 -0.1422 -0.385

20 39.7 0.0254 0.0823 0.0357 0.1394
30 39.33 0.0383 0.1872 0.1406 0.2442
40 38.8 0.0514 0.2625 0.2159 0.3195
50 38.13 0.0648 0.3217 0.2751 0.3788
…
230 0.3250 3.2276 1.3208 1.2742 1.3779

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 Example 2.3

N.B.:
Note that in all four cases, ΔPvd/ΔPs = 10/30 = 33%.
From the installed characteristics in Fig.2.13, we
conclude that an equal percentage valve with Cv =
115 would give a reasonably linear installed
characteristic over a large range of flow rates and
have sufficient capacity to accommodate flow rates as
high as 110% of the design flow rate.

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 Example 2.3

Fig. 2.13a: Installed Valve characteristics for Example 2.3

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 Example 2.3

Fig. 2.13b: Installed Valve characteristics for Example 2.3

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 Example 2.4
In the simple flow problem in Fig.2.14 suppose the flow rate at
design conditions is 100gpm, the pressure in feed tank is
atmospheric, the pressure drop over the heat exchanger ( )
at the designed flow rate is 40psi and the pressure in the feed
tank is 150psig. Assuming that the control valve is half-open,
i.e., f=0.5 at the design flow and specific gravity of the fluid is 1.
(a) Size the control valve so that it takes a pressure drop of
(i) =20psi
(ii) =80psi
(b) Which of the control valve sized in (a) is larger?
(c) If during operation the control valves in (a) are fully open,
what is the maximum flow rate the valves can accommodate. By
how much has this increased wrt the design flow?

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 Example 2.4

(d) If the valves are now 10% open, determine the minimum flow rates
they can accommodate. By how much has this flow decreased wrt the
design flow?
(e) Calculate the turn down ratio for the two valves
(f) Which of the two valves will be preferred for installation and why?

Fig. 2.14: Simple flow process

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 Example 2.4

(a) Recall, (2.5)

Data: gpm, , ,
(i) With psi
(2.25)
(ii) With psi
(2.26)
(b) Valve 1 is larger than 2
(c) Data:
N.B.: The increased flow will bring about increase in pressure drop across
the heat exchanger:

, (2.27)

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 Example 2.4

(2.28)

(2.29)
At the maximum flow rate, Eq.2.5 becomes:
(2.30)
Where (2.31)
Substituting Eq.2.29 into 2.31, we have:
(2.32)
Substituting Eq.2.32 into 2.30, we have:

(2.33)

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 Example 2.4
(i) Data: ,
, , ,
gpm, psi
Substituting for the parameters in Eq.2.33, we have:
(2.35)
From where, gpm
The flow has increased by 15% above the design value.
(ii) Data: , , , ,
gpm, psi
Substituting for the parameters in Eq.2.33, we have:
(2.36)
From where, gpm
The flow has increased by 41% above the design value.

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 Example 2.4
(d) By repeating the same procedure in (c), we have:

(2.37)

(i) Data: , , , ,
gpm, psi
Substituting for the parameters in Eq.2.37, we have:
(2.38)
From where, gpm
The flow has decreased by 66.7% below the design value.
(ii) Data: , , , ,
gpm, psi
Substituting for the parameters in Eq.2.37, we have:

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 Example 2.4

(2.39)
From where, gpm
The flow has decreased by 75.8% below the design value.
(e) Turn down ratio, (2.40)
Case (i): (2.41a)
Case (ii): (2.41b)
(f) Summary of Results
Valve I Valve II
Pressure drop(psi) 20 80
Cv 44.72 22.36
Range of flows (gpm) (33.3 – 115) (24.2 – 141)

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 Example 2.4
 Based on cost of valves, valve II will be recommended because it is
smaller; hence, it will be less costly.
 From a control engineer point of view, Valve II is better because it
gives a wider range of flow (for when the valve is fully open and 10%
open)
 From a process design engineer point of view, Valve I will be
preferable because it gives a lower pressure drop (a process designer
wants a valve to provide less pressure drop to the pressure head
created by the pump. Valve I also gives the most economical
operating conditions because it gives the minimum pumping costs
(electrical power).

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 Transmission Lines

 Traditionally, transmission lines were pneumatic.

 Nowadays, more and more often they are electrical
lines.
 In general, their dynamic influence on the process is
neglected except in the case of very fast phenomena,
which is not very common in chemical engineering.

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 Commercial Controllers
 The decision maker, and hence the "heart" of the control
system, is the Controller.
 It is the hardware element with "built-in" capacity for
performing the only task requiring some form of
"intelligence."
 Commercial controllers fall into two major categories:
 Electronic Controllers
 Digital Controllers
 Continuous-time process operations can be controlled by
either electronic or digital controllers while discrete-time
operations can only be controlled by digital controllers.
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 Automatic/Manual Modes
 Commercial controllers are equipped with the ability to operate either in the
automatic or manual modes.
 Choosing which option the controller operates on is accomplished by means of
a switch.
 When in the automatic mode of operation, the controller itself makes the
control decisions of how to manipulate the process input to maintain the
process output at its desired set-point value.
 When the controller is in the manual mode, the controller output can be
changed only manually by an operator; the controller ceases to be in charge of
making control decisions.
 This feature is advantageous in situations where it is necessary to override the
automatic controller. For the most part, however, if the controller is well
designed, it usually operates in the automatic mode with little or no
intervention necessary from the operator.

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 Direct/Reverse Action

Commercial controllers often must be specified to have direct or reverse

action.

Specify the controller with Specify the controller with reverse

direct action if the process action if the process gain is positive
gain is positive

Fig. 2.15a: Temperature control Fig. 2.15b: Level control in tank

in a stirred heating tank

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 Control Room

A control room serves as a central space where a large

physical facility or physically dispersed service can be
monitored and controlled.

Fig. 2.16: A typical process control room

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