LECTURE NOTES

STRUCTURAL THEORY 1 LEC/LAB

CEPC 3

Charizza D. Montarin, CE, MSCE

Maria Carissa M. Landoy, CE
INSTRUCTOR 1
 COURSE OUTLINE

Course Title: STRUCTURAL THEORY 1 (LEC/LAB)

Course Code: CEPC 3
Course Description: A professional course common to all civil engineering students designed to
provide fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in the theory of structures and structural
analysis for internal actions in a structure and its deformation under load.
Credit: 3 units/ 1 unit
Academic Year & Semester: 1st semester, AY 2020-2021
Faculty: Engr. Charizza D. Montarin/ Engr. Maria Carissa M. Landoy
Pre-requisite: Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILOs): At the end of the course, the learners can:
1. Identify and Classify various types of planar and spatial; structural systems and manner by
which these are supported for stability;
2. Determine the state of static and kinematic determinacy and stability of structural systems,
externally and internally;
3. Apply the methods of structural analysis for external and internal actions on various types
of structural systems due static and moving loads;
4. Develop intuition on deflected shapes of structures under loading.

No. of
Course Content
Hours
Orientation of the subject matter, grading system, Classroom Policies, GAD,
VMGO, SEng Goals and Objectives.

1. Introduction
 Introduction to Structural Engineering; the analysis and design process;
 Structural forms, nature of loads; buildings
3
 Types of supports; support reactions; degrees of static and kinematic
indeterminacy for planar and spatial structures; degrees of freedom of joint
translation and rotation; conditions for instability, stability, and redundancy
of structures.
 Concepts of axial, shear, torsional, flexural rigidities and stiffness of
structural members
2. Analysis for external reactions and internal stress resultants of statically
determinate structures
 Beams
 Plane and Space Trusses
9
 Cables and arches
 Plane Frames
 Influence Lines for reactions and internal stress resultants due to moving
loads
3. Classical methods of structural analysis for Translations (deflections) and
9
rotations of statically determinate structures
  Double – integration method for beams
 Area – Moment Method for beams and plane frames
 Conjugate Beam Method
4.1 Classical Methods of Structural analysis for statically indeterminate structures
 Double – integration method for beams 6
 Area – moment method
MIDTERM EXAMINATION

4.2 Classical Methods of Structural analysis for statically indeterminate structures

 Moment – distribution method
6
 Three – moment equation for beams

5. Approximate methods of structural analysis for statically indeterminate plane

frames
 Portal Method 18
 Cantilever Method
 Factor Method
6. Influence Lines for external reactions and internal stress resultants of
3
indeterminate structures
FINAL EXAMINATION

Policies and Standards

The following will be expected from the students in this class:
 Students shall follow the guidelines implemented by the LGU in accordance to the
continuing MECQ to prevent possible transmission of COVID-19.
 Students are expected to come to class prepared and on time. Read and review the course
content of the day before coming to class.
Cheating, in any forms, is strictly prohibited. Students caught of cheating will be dealt
accordingly with proper disciplinary action.

Final Grade Evaluation System (Grading System)

LECTURE LABORATORY
 CLASS PARTICIPATION = 30%  CLASS PARTICIPATION = 30%
Recitation -15% Portfolio – 5%
Assignment/ Research Works – 15% Seat Work – 10%
 QUIZZES = 30% Activity Paper – 15%
 MAJOR EXAM = 40%  QUIZZES = 30%
 MAJOR EXAM = 40%
References:
 Connor J.J. and Faraji, Susan (2012). Fundamentals of Structural Engineering (2nd ed.)
Springer Science + Business Media, LLC
 Besavilla, D. (2011). Structural Engineering & Construction (Vol 3
 Hibbeler R.C. (2012). Structural Analysis (8th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
 Kassimali, Aslam (2011). Structural Analysis (4th ed.). Christopher M. Short
 National Structural Code of the Philippines, Volume 1: Buildings, Towers and Other
Vertical Structures (2015) (7th ed.) Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines,
Inc.
 Mohammad, A. (2017, May 4) Structural Analysis 1|| Influence Line| Truss [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/h1DJ_Ugjyyw
 Mohammad, A. (2017, May 3) Structural Analysis 1|| Influence Line [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/BntgQHnilTs
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 12) Deflection| Conjugate Method Part 1 [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/CP5pqGSKosw
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 12) Structural Analysis 1|| Deflection| Conjugate Method
Part 2 [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bSFYkzaaDfI
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 12) Structural Analysis 1|| Deflection| Conjugate Method
Part 3 [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/mfklyuH8TPI
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 12) Structural Analysis 1|| Moment Area Theorem Part 1
[Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/4cc33DDS3h8
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 12) Structural Analysis 1|| Moment Area Theorem Part 2
Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/736HytU2XsI
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 12) Structural Analysis 1|| Moment Area Theorem Part 3
[Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/5rEDM3WEEfM
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 11) Structural Analysis 1|| Deflection| Double Integration
Method Part 2 [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/JR_COHUuhDg
 Mohammad, A. (2017, April 11) Structural Analysis 1|| Deflection| Double Integration
Method Part 1 [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/07sDUg459e8
 Mohammad, A. (2017, March 28) Structural Analysis 1|| Beams: Shear and Moment
Diagrams Part 2 [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/0mSaxZe9C8E
 Mohammad, A. (2017, March 24) Structural Analysis 1|| Beams: Shear and Moment
Diagrams Part 1 [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/2Hzy-7sN_3s
 Mohammad, A. (2017, March 4) Structural Analysis 1|| Trusses Part 5 [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/x2XCuDLRlSE
 Mohammad, A. (2017, March 1) Structural Analysis 1|| Trusses Part 4 [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/d4RkdX0r6WY
 Mohammad, A. (2017, February 25) Structural Analysis 1|| Trusses Part 3 [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/plho9pzJRyc
 Mohammad, A. (2017, February 18) Structural Analysis 1|| Trusses Part 2 [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bZe8AWGzTSs
 Mohammad, A. (2017, February 16) Structural Analysis 1|| Trusses Part 1 [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/GmSIRnodV5k
  Mohammad, A. (2017, February 11) Structural Analysis 1|| Introduction [Video File].
YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/ODjr6z2KxAM
 Mohammad, A. (2017, February 9) Structural Analysis 1|| Classification of Structures and
Loading [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/LMO6H00Wtxc
 Mohammad, A. (2016, December 23) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 20|| Moment
Distribution [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/nMScUBSKxLw
 Mohammad, A. (2016, December 23) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 21|| Moment
Distribution [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/XsiQGJ9Wz_g
 Mohammad, A. (2016, December 21) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 19| Moment
Distribution [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/ydpDBUe5bIQ
 Mohammad, A. (2017, December 20) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 18| Moment
Distribution [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/o1gMob46geM
 Mohammad, A. (2016, December 20) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 17| Moment
Distribution [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/WfQIOYC9zvQ
 Mohammad, A. (2016, December 4) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 10|| Influence Line
Example [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/yfwEQkLKsL4
 Mohammad, A. (2016, October 22) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 9|| Influence Line
Example [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/C3-YZzBskV0
 Mohammad, A. (2016, October 13) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 1|| Introduction [Video
File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/EIj7KFxcmlA
 Mohammad, A. (2016, October 13) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 2|| 1st degree
indeterminate [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/xnpgEXm8vA0
 Mohammad, A. (2016, October 13) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 3|| Indeterminate Beam
Example [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/oq7wjocjwAc
 Mohammad, A. (2016, October 13) Structural Analysis 2|| Lecture 4|| 2nd degree
indeterminate [Video File]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/4GRWgNdpZKA

Prepared by:

CHARIZZA D. MONTARIN, CE, MSCE

Instructor 1

MARIA CARISSA M. LANDOY, CE

Instructor 1

Reviewed by:

VALERIE N. LINGA, CE, MSCE

Head, Civil Engineering Program

Approved by:

DAISY T. MALAPAD, RCE, MCM

Dean, School of Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING; THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
PROCESS; STRUCTURAL FORMS, NATURE OF LOADS; BUILDINGS

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

a. Structural Engineer - A registered Civil Engineer with special qualification in the practice of
Structural Engineering as recognized by the following:

b. Structural Engineering - A discipline of civil engineering dealing

with the analysis and design of structures that support or resists
loads insuring the safety of the structures against natural forces.

c. Structural Failure - is the reduction of capability of a structural

system or component to such a degree that it cannot safely serve its
intended purpose

d. Structural Inspection - is the visual observation by a structural inspector of a particular type of

construction work or cooperation for the purpose of ensuring its general compliance to the
approved plans and specifications and the applicable workmanship provisions of this code as well
as overall construction safety at various stages of construction. Detailed Examination of all the
construction work in progress relative to the design concept shown on the contract documents. The
inspection usually includes a written report, or another form of communication, that is used by the
contractor to correct defects.
Reinforcing Steel Placement (verification of the size, spacing, and placement of all bars)
Common Inspection items:
i. Welding

ii. Applying Shotcrete

iii. High-strength bolting

iv. Prestressing Steel Tendons

e. Structural Observation - is the visual observation of the structural system by the structural
observer as provided for in Section 107.9.2, for its general conformance to the approved plans and
specifications, at significant construction stages and at completion of the structural system.
Structural observation does not include or waive the responsibility for the structural inspections
required by section 107.1 or other sections of this code.

Design Drawings VS. As built Construction

A general review of the project at appropriate intervals during construction. The

objective is to become generally familiar with progress and quality of the contractor’s work and
to determine if the work is proceeding in general accordance with the contract documents.
f. Structures -refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

f.1 Classification of Structures

i. Tension Structures
- Structures which are subjected to pure tension under the action of external loads.
- Composed of flexible cables which are frequently employed to support bridges and long span
roofs.
- Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and can develop only
tension.

ii. Compression Structures

- develop mainly compressive stress under the action of external loads
- Examples: Columns and arches
- Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads.
-Beam-column – when a straight member is subjected to lateral loads or
moments in addition to axial loads.
- Arch, a curved structures, with
a shape similar to that of inverted
cable.

iii. Trusses
-composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connection to form stable
configuration.
-when the loads are applied to the truss only at joints, its member either elongate or shorten.
- Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension or in uniform
compression.
iv. Shear Structures
- e.g. reinforced concrete shear wall which are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral
movement due to wind load and earthquake excitations.
-structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action
of external loads.

v. Bending Structures
- structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external
loads.
- In some structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in
bending moments may also be significant and should be considered in their
designs.
-Some of the most commonly used structures: beams, rigid frames, slabs
and plates
g. Loads are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all the building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movements, and restrained
dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over time are rar of
small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.
g. 1 Kinds of Loadings
g.2 Types of Loads

i. Dead Loads
- are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on the structure.
- e.g. weights of the structures itself and other material and equipment permanently attached to the
structural system.
- weights of frames, framing, and bracing system floors, roofs, walls, stairway heating and air
conditioning system, plumbing, and electrical system
ii. Live Loads
- are loads varying magnitudes and or positions caused by the used of the structure.
-refer to all the loads except dead loads, such as snow or wind loads.
iii. Impact
- When live loads are applied rapidly to a
structure, they cause larger stress than those that
would be produced if the same loads would have
been applied gradually.
-The dynamic effect of the load that causes this
increase in stress in the structure.

iv. Wind Loads

- produced by the flow of wind around the structure.
- The magnitudes of wind load that may act on the structure depend on the geographical location
of the structure, obstruction in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and geometry and
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

v. Snow Loads
-considered in designing structures in many parts of United States and the world.
 vi. Earthquake Loads
- horizontal components of ground motion that causes structural damage and that must be
considered in designs structures located in earthquake prone areas.
vii. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
- structure used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures partially of
fully submerged in water
-Hydrostatic pressure- acts normal to submerged surface of the structures, with its magnitude
varying linearly with height.
-Lateral soil pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually considerably smaller than vertical
pressure.
-For the portions of structure below the ground table, the combined effect of hydrostatic pressure
and soil pressure should be considered.
viii. Thermal and other effects
-Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due to temperature
changes, shrinkage of materials, fabrication errors, and differential settlements of supports

ix. Load Combinations

- all loads that might act simultaneously on a structure at a given time.
- It is important to realize that the structure must be designed to have adequate strength to
resist the most unfavorable of all the load combinations.
 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) - is a method of proportioning and designing structural
memebers such that elastically computed stresses produced in the members by nominal
loads do not exceed specified allowable stresses (also called working stress design).
 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method - is a method of proportioning and
designing structural elements using load and resistance factors such that no applicable limit
state is reached when the structure is subjected to all appropriate load combinations. The
term “LRFD” is used in the design of steel structures.
1.2 TYPES OF SUPPORTS; SUPPORT REACTIONS; DEGREES OF STATIC AND
KINEMATIC INDETERMINACY FOR PLANAR AND SPATIAL STRUCTURES; DEGREES
OF FREEDOM OF JOINT TRANSLATION AND ROTATION; CONDITIONS FOR
INSTABILITY, STABILITY, AND REDUNDANCY OF STRUCTURES.
1.2.1 TYPES OF SUPPORTS; SUPPORT REACTIONS
1.2.1.1 Types of Connections

i. Rigid Connections - prevents relative transitions and rotations of the member each connected
to it; that is, all member ends connected to a rigid joint have the same translation and rotation.

ii. Flexible or Hinged Connections - prevents only relative translations of member ends
connected to it, that is all member ends connected to a hinged joint have the same translation but
may have different rotations. Such joint are thus capable of transmitting forces but not moments
between the connected members.
1.2.2 CONDITIONS FOR INSTABILITY, STABILITY, AND REDUNDANCY OF STRUCTURES.
DEGREES OF STATIC AND KINEMATIC INDETERMINACY FOR PLANAR AND SPATIAL
STRUCTURES; DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF JOINT TRANSLATION AND ROTATION
1.2.2.1 BEAMS
Internally Stable or rigid
- remains its shape and remains a rigid body when detached from the supports.

r<3 - statically unstable externally

r=3 - statically determinate externally
r>3 - statically indeterminate externally
ie = r - 3
Where: r= number of reactions
ie = degree of indeterminacy

Internally Unstable or non – rigid

- cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large displacements under small disturbances when
not supported externally

r < (3+ec) - statically unstable externally

r = (3+ec) - statically determinate externally
r > (3+ec) - statically indeterminate externally

ie = r – (3+ ec)
Where r= number of reactions
ec = 1 (Hinge)
ec = 2 (Roller)
ie = degree of indeterminacy

ALTERNATIVE APPROACH

(r + f1) < (3 nf ) - Statically Unstable Externally

(r + f1) = (3 nf ) - Statically Determinate Externally
(r + f1) > (3 nf ) - Statically stable Externally

ie = (r + f1) - (3 nf )
Where:
r =no. of reactions
f1 = no. of internal forces
nf = no. of rigid members
ie = degree of indeterminacy
1.2.2.1 Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structures
i. Statically determinate externally (SDE)
-an internally stable structures
- all its support reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium.
-it must be supported by at least three reactions that satisfy the three equations of equilibrium
ii. Statically Indeterminate Externally (SIE)
- If the Structure is supported by more than three reactions, then all the reactions cannot be
determine from the equations of equilibrium.

Degree of kinematic Indeterminacy (DKI) is the minimum number of movements (degree of freedom,
DOF) with which is the kinematic configuration of the overall structure can be defined, that is, the number
of unknown movements of the structure.

iii. Statically Unstable Externally (SUE)

- if a structure is supported by fewer than three (3) reactions, the reactions are not sufficient to
prevent all possible movements of the structure in its plane.
- -such structure cannot remain in equilibrium under a general system of a loads.
Answers: (1)Internally Stable / SDE; (2) Internally Stable/ SIE of 2 nd degree; (3) Internally Unstable / SDE; (4) Internally Unstable / SDE; (5) Internally Unstable / SIE of 1 st degree; (6) Internally Stable/ SIE of 1st degree; (7)
Internally Stable (SUE); (8( Internally Stable/SUE
(5)
(8) (4)
(7)
(3)
(2)
(6)
(1)
indeterminate, statically unstable, specify the degree of indeterminacy.
Classify each of the structures as internally stable or internally unstable, statically determinate, statically
Situation No. 1:
1.2.2.2 FRAMES
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either pin or fixed
connected.

(3m +r) < (3+ec) - statically unstable externally

(3m +r = (3+ec) - statically determinate externally
(3m +r > (3+ec) - statically indeterminate externally

ie = (3m +r) - (3+ec)

Where r= number of reactions
m = no. of members
r = no. of reactions
ec = equations of Conditions
ie = degree of indeterminacy

Note: ec = 1 (Hinge)
ec = 2 (Roller)
Situation No. 2
Classify each of the frames as statically determinate or indeterminate. If indeterminate, specify the degree
of indeterminacy. All internal joints are fixed connected.

(1) (3)

(2) (4)

Answers: (1) Internally Stable,/SIE of 5th degree; (2) Internally Stable/ SIE of 22nd degree; (3) Internally Unstable/ SUE; (4) Internally Unstable/ SIE of 2 nd degree
1.2.2.3 TRUSSES

Truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points. The members
commonly used in construction consist of wooden struts, metal bars, angles, or channels. The joint
connections are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a common plate, called a
gusset plate.

(m +r) < (2j) - statically unstable externally

(m +r = (2j) - statically determinate externally
(m +r > 2j) - statically indeterminate externally

ie = (m +r) – 2j
Where r= number of reactions
m = no. of members
j = no. of joints
r = no. of reactions
ie = degree of indeterminacy
Common Types of Roof Trusses
Common Types of Bridge Trusses

Assumptions of Design

1. The members are joined together by smooth pins.

2. All loadings are applied at the joints.

*If the force tends to elongate the member, it is a tensile force (T),
*if the force tends to shortenthe member, it is a compressive force (C),
Classification of Coplanar Trusses

a. Simple Truss
-To prevent collapse, the framework of a truss must be rigid.

This figure will collapse unless a diagonal,

such as AC, is added for support.

Stable
For this method of construction,
however, it is important to realize
that simple trusses do not have to
consist entirely of triangles. An
example as shown where starting
with triangle ABC, bars CD and
AD are added to form joint D.
Finally, bars BE and DE are added
to form joint E.
 b. Compound truss
-is formed by connecting two or more simple trusses together.

c. Complex Truss.
-is one that cannot be classified as being either simple or compound.
Situation No. 3
Classify each of the trusses in the Figure below as stable, unstable, statically. Determinate, or statically
indeterminate. The trusses are subjected to arbitrary external loadings that are assumed to be known and
can act anywhere on the trusses.

(6)
(1)

(7)

(2)

(8)

(3)

(9)
(4)

(5) (10)

Answers: (1) SUE, Concurrent Reaction; (2) SDE; (3) SDE; (4) SUE, Parallel Reactions; (5) SDE; (6) SIE of 1st degree; (7) SDE; (8) SUE; (9) SUE; (10) SIE of 1st degree
1.3 CONCEPTS OF AXIAL, SHEAR, TORSIONAL, FLEXURAL RIGIDITIES AND STIFFNESS
OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

A. DESIGN OF MEMBERS IN DIRECT TENSION AND COMPRESSION)

Tensile systems
Tensile systems allow maximum use of the material because every fibre of the cross-section can be
extended to resist the applied loads up to any allowable stress.

Short Columns
A column which is short (i.e. the height is small compared with the cross-section area) is likely to
fail because of crushing of the material.
Note, however, that slender columns, which are tall compared with the cross-section area, are more
likely to fail from buckling under a load much smaller than that needed to cause failure from crushing.
Buckling is dealt with later.

B. DESIGN OF SIMPLE BEAMS

Bending stresses
When a sponge is put across two supports and gently pressed downwards between the supports,
the pores at the top will close, indicating compression, and the pores at the bottom will open wider,
indicating tension. Similarly, a beam of any elastic material, such as wood or steel, will produce a change
in shape when external loads are acting on it.
 The stresses will vary from maximum compression at the top to maximum tension at the bottom.
Where the stress changes from compressive to tensile, there will be one layer that remains unstressed and
this is called the neutral layer or the neutral axis (NA).

Bending Effects on Beam

Horizontal shear
The horizontal shear force (Q) at a given cross-section in a beam induces a shearing stress that
acts tangentially to the horizontal cross-sectional plane.
The existence of such a horizontal stress can be illustrated by bending a paper pad. The papers will slide
relative to each other, but in a beam this is prevented by the developed shear stress.

Shearing Effects on Beam

C. FLEXURAL RIGIDITY AND STIFFNESS OF STRUCTURAL MEMBER

Flexural rigidity
It is define as the force couple required to bend a non – rigid structure in one unit of curvature or
it can be defined as the resistance offered by a structure while undergoing bending.

Flexural Stiffness
It is the resistance of a member against bending deformation. It is a function of elastic modulus,
the area moment of inertia of the beam cross section about the axis of interest, length of the beam and
beam boundary condition. Bending stiffness in beam is also known as Flexural Rigidity.
 ACTIVITY NO. 1
Determinacy of structures

I. Determine the structures whether it is internally stable or unstable. Classify if it is

statically Determinate, statically indeterminate, or unstable. If indeterminate, specify
the degree of indeterminacy.

(c)

(a) (b)

(e) (f)
(d)

(i)
(g) (h)

(j) (l)
(k)

(m)

(n)
 (p)

(o)

(q)
(r)

II. Classify each of the following trusses as statically. Determinate, statically

indeterminate, or unstable. If indeterminate, state its degree.

(a) (b)

(c)
(d)

(e)
(f)

(g) (h)
(i)
(j)

(k) (l)
2. ANALYSIS FOR EXTERNAL REACTIONS AND INTERNAL STRESS RESULTANTS
OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES
2.1 BEAMS

Three (3) Equations of Equilibrium

Illustrative Example. 4

The beam shown is subjected to a uniform load of 8 kN/m and an inclined load 40 kN acting at
30 ⁰ C with the Vertical. The support at B is assumed to be a roller.
1. Compute the Reaction at B.
2. Compute the Vertical Component of the Reaction at A.
3. Compute the Horizontal Component of the Reaction at A.

30⁰
8 kN/m
40 kN

A 4m B
4m

Answers: (1) 42.6410 kN; (2) 24kN; (3) 20 kN

Illustrative Example 5
From the beam shown, it carries a trapezoidal load which varies from 2 kN/m at A to a maximum
of 3 kN/m at C, then decreases to 2 kN/m at the right support B. A clockwise moment of 600 kN
– m is applied at point C.

1. Determine the Reaction at B.

2. Determine the vertical Component of the Reaction at A.
3. Determine the Horizontal Component of the Reaction at A.

3 kN/m

2 kN/m 2 kN/m

B
A 12m 12m
600 kN – m 60⁰

Answers: (1) 110 kN; (2) 5 kN; (3) 95.2628 kN

 Illustrative Example 6.
From the compound beam shown, point C is a pin and A is a roller.

2 KN/m

A
6m 4m B
C

a. Compute the reaction at A.

b. Compute the reaction at B.
c. Compute the moment at C.
Answers: (1) 2 kN; (2) 12 kN; (3) 32 kN – m

Illustrative Examples 7.
Determine the reaction at supports A, B, D, and F.
2 K/ft 8K

C E
A F
8ft B 4ft 4ft D 2ft 4ft 4ft
Answers: RA = 7 k; RB = 15 k; RC =2k; RD=6k; RE =4k

Illustrative Examples 8.
The compound beam is pin supported at C and supported by a roller at A and B. There is a hinge
(pin) at D. Determine the reactions at the supports. Neglect the thickness of the beam.

8K 12K
15K-ft
4
3 C
6ft A 4ft 2ft 8ft 8ft 8ft
30⁰ B
4K Answers: RA = 9.5949k; RB = 8.5413 k; RCx=9.2 k ; RCy=2.9279 k
 ACTIVITY NO. 2.1
BEAM REACTIONS

Determine the reactions at the support for the beams shown.

2.1.1 INTERNAL LOADINGS DEVELOPED IN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a means for applying the method of sections to determine the
internal normal force, shear force, and bending moment at a specific location in a structural
member.
Support Reactions
• Before the member is “cut” or sectioned, it may be necessary to determine the member’s support
reactions so that the equilibrium equations are used only to solve for the internal loadings when
the member is sectioned.
Free-Body Diagram
• Keep all distributed loadings, couple moments, and forces acting on the member in their exact
location, then pass an imaginary section through the member, perpendicular to its axis at the point
where the internal loading is to be determined.
• After the section is made, draw a free-body diagram of the segment that has the least number of
loads on it. At the section indicate the unknown resultants N, V, and M acting in their positive
directions.
Equations of Equilibrium
• Moments should be summed at the section about axes that pass through the centroid of the
member’s cross-sectional area, in order to eliminate the unknowns N and V and thereby obtain a
direct solution for M.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a quantity having a negative magnitude, the
assumed directional sense of the quantity is opposite to that shown on the free-body diagram.
Relationship between Loads, Shear and Moment

Thus, the rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x is equal to the shearing force or
the slope of the moment diagram at the given point is the shear at that point.
Thus, the rate of change of the shearing force with respect to x is equal to the load or the slope of
the shearing diagram at the given point equals the load at that point.
If W(x) is a curve of degree n, then V(x) will be a curve of degree n+1 , and then M(x) will be a
curve of n+2.
The Change of Shear or Moment between two segments is equal to the area of the load or shear at
that segment.

Illustrative Example 9.
Draw the Shear and Moment Diagram
5 KN/m

4 KN/m
C D E F
A B
1m 4m 1m 4m 2m
Illustrative Example 10.
Determine the internal normal force, shear force and bending moment at point C. Assume the
reactions at the supports A and B are vertical.
400 lb/ft
300 lb/ft

A
12 ft C 8ft 9ft

Illustrative Example 11.

Draw the Shear and Moment Diagram

100 KN/m

A B
6m

Illustrative Example 12.

Draw the Shear and Moment Diagram
80 KN/m

20 KN/m
1m

A B
4m 1m
 ACTIVITY NO. 2.2
INTERNAL LOADINGS DEVELOPED IN STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beams specified in the following problems. Give
numerical values at all changes of loading positions and at all points of zero shear.
2.2 PLANE AND SPACE TRUSSES

METHODS OF JOINTS
If a truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints must also be in equilibrium. Hence, the method
of joints consists of satisfying the equilibrium conditions ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0for the forces
exerted on the pin at each joint of the truss.
When using the method of joints, it is necessary to draw each joint’s free-body diagram before
applying the equilibrium equations. Recall that the line of action of each member force acting on
the joint is specified from the geometry of the truss, since the force in a member passes along the
axis of the member.
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a means for analyzing a truss using the method of joints.
a. Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and at most
two unknown forces. (If this joint is at one of the supports, it may be necessary to
calculate the external reactions at the supports by drawing a free-body diagram of
the entire truss.)
b. Use one of the two methods previously described for establishing the sense of an
unknown force.
c. The x and y axes should be oriented such that the forces on the free-body diagram
can be easily resolved into their x and y components. Apply the two force
equilibrium equations and solve for the two unknown member forces, and verify
their correct directional sense.
d. Continue to analyze each of the other joints, where again it is necessary to choose
a joint having at most two unknowns and at least one known force.
e. Once the force in a member is found from the analysis of a joint at one of its ends,
the result can be used to analyze the forces acting on the joint at its other end.
Remember, a member in compression “pushes” on the joint and a member in
tension “pulls” on the joint.

METHODS OF SECTIONS
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a means for applying the method of sections to determine the
forces in the members of a truss.
Free-Body Diagram
• Make a decision as to how to “cut” or section the truss through the members where forces are to
be determined.
• Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary to determine the truss’s external
reactions, so that the three equilibrium equations are used only to solve for member forces at the
cut section.
• Draw the free-body diagram of that part of the sectioned truss which has the least number of
forces on it.
• Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of an unknown force.
Equations of Equilibrium
• Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the intersection of the lines of action of
two unknown forces; in this way, the third unknown force is determined directly from the equation.
• If two of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed perpendicular to the direction
of these unknowns to determine directly the third unknown force.

Illustrative Example 13.

Determine the force in each member of the roof truss shown below. State whether the members
are in tension or compression.

(SYMMETRICAL)
Answers: FAG = 8 kN “C”; FAB = 4 3 kN “T”; FGB=3 KN “C”; FGF=5 kN “C”; FBF= 3 KN “T”; FGF=2 3 kN “T”
Illustrative Example 14.
Determine the force in members GF and GD of the truss shown below. State whether the
members are in tension or compression. The reactions at the supports have been calculated.

FGC=8 kN “T”; FCD=8 KN “T”; FGD=1.8026 kN “C”; FGD=7.8266 kN“C”;

Answers: FAH = 12.7279 kN “C”; FAB = 9 kN “T”; FHG=10.0623 KN “C”; FHB=4.5 kN “T”; FBG=1.8028 KN “T”; FBC=8 kN “T” ”;
 ACTIVITY NO. 3
TRUSS REACTIONS

Classify each of the trusses as statically determinate, indeterminate, or unstable externally. Determine its
reactions and force in each member.
1.
B D F
B
D

A G
C E A
C E F

B D F

A C E G H

B
E
B D F H J
A C F

A
C E G I K L
2.3 CABLES AND ARCHES

Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit loads from one member
to another. When used to support suspension roofs, bridges, and trolley wheels, cables form the
main load-carrying element in the structure. In the force analysis of such systems, the weight of
the cable itself may be neglected; however, when cables are used as guys for radio antennas,
electrical transmission lines, and derricks, the cable weight may become important and must be
included in the structural analysis.
Two cases will be considered in the sections that follow: a cable subjected to concentrated loads
and a cable subjected to a distributed load. Provided these loadings are coplanar with the cable,
the requirements for equilibrium are formulated in an identical manner.
Cable Subjected to Concentrated Loads

Cable Subjected to a Uniform Distributed Load

Illustrative Example 15.
Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown in the figure. Also, what is the
dimension h?

Answers: TCD = 6.7857 kN; TBC = 4.8154 kN; TAB = 6.9005 kN; h=2.7368 m

Illustrative Example 16.

Determine the tension in each cable segment and the distance yD.

Answers: yD = 2.1m; TAB = 2.9860 kN; TBC = 1.5956kN; TCD = 3.7155kN

Illustrative Example 17.
Determine the maximum and minimum tension in the cable.

Answers: Tmax = 430.8132 kN; Tmin = 400kN

Illustrative Example 18.

The cable in the figure below supports a girder which weighs 850 lb/ft. Determine the tension in
the cable at points A, B, and C.

Answers: TA = 61.7174 kN; TB = 36.4663 kN; TC = 50.684 kN

Illustrative Example 19.
The suspension bridge in the figure is constructed using the two stiffening trusses that are pin
connected at their ends C and supported by a pin at A and a rocker at B. Determine the maximum
tension in the cable IH. The cable has a parabolic shape and the bridge is subjected to the single
load of 50 kN.

Answers: Tmax = 46.88 kN

Illustrative Example 20

The trusses are pin connected and suspended from the parabolic cable.
(1) Find the Tension of the Cable at D.
(2) Determine the equivalent horizontal uniform distributed load that the cable can support.
(3) Determine the maximum force in the cable when the structure is subjected to the loading
shown.

Answers: (1) 8.9259 kN; (2) H= 7.71 kN; (3) 93.6979 N/m
Illustrative Example 21

The idealized model for a suspension bridge is shown. The trusses are pin connected at
D, on hinged support at C and on roller support at E. The parabolic cable is supported on towers
at AC and BE.

(1) Determine the tension in the cable at mid length, L where the slope is zero.
(2) Determine the vertical reaction at the pin at D.
(3) Determine the total vertical Force at the tower at AC.
(4) Determine the maximum force in the Cable.

A B

4m L

2m

6m
C E

D
5.6k 142.4k

25.8m 25.8m

Answers: (1) 315.1899 kN; (2) 48.8667 kN; (3) 99.1333 kN; (4) 330 kN
Arches
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long-span structures. Essentially,
an arch acts as an inverted cable, so it receives its load mainly in compression although, because
of its rigidity, it must also resist some bending and shear depending upon how it is loaded and
shaped. In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape and it is subjected to a uniform horizontally
distributed vertical load, then from the analysis of cables it follows that only compressive forces
will be resisted by the arch. Under these conditions the arch shape is called a funicular arch
because no bending or shear forces occur within the arch.

Types of arches

A fixed arch, is often made from reinforced concrete. Although it may require less material to
construct than other types of arches, it must have solid foundation abutments since it is
indeterminate to the third degree and, consequently, additional stresses can be introduced into the
arch due to relative settlement of its supports.

A two-hinged arch, is commonly made from metal or timber. It is indeterminate to the first degree,
and although it is not as rigid as a fixed arch, it is somewhat insensitive to settlement. We could
make this structure statically determinate by replacing one of the hinges with a roller. Doing so,
however, would remove the capacity of the structure to resist bending along its span, and as a result
it would serve as a curved beam, and not as an arch.
A three-hinged arch, which is also made from metal or timber, is statically determinate. Unlike
statically indeterminate arches, it is not affected by settlement or temperature changes. Finally, if
two and three-hinged arches are to be constructed without the need for larger foundation abutments
and if clearance is not a problem, then the supports can be connected with a tie rod.
A tied arch allows the structure to behave as a rigid unit, since the tie rod carries the horizontal
component of thrust at the supports. It is also unaffected by relative settlement of the supports.
5
Three-Hinged Arch
To provide some insight as to how arches transmit loads, we will now consider the analysis of a
three-hinged arch such as the one shown in the following figures.
Illustrative Example 22.
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at A, B, and C of the three-hinged
arch. Assume A, B, and C are pin connected.

Answers: Ax = 2.7243 k; Ay = 3.7838 k; Bx = 2.7243 k; By = 0.2162 k; Cx = 0.2757 k; Cy = 0.2162 k;

Illustrative Example 23.

The tied three-hinged arch is subjected to the loading shown. Determine the components of
reaction at A and C, and the tension in the rod
 ACTIVITY 4
CABLES AND ARCHES

1. Determine the Tension in each cable segment 3. The cable supports the uniform load
and the distance YD Wo = 600lb/ft. Determine the tension
in the cable at each supports A and B

2. Determine the forces P1 and P2 needed to hold 5. The tied three-hinged arch is subjected
the cable in the position shown, i.e., so to the loading shown. Determine the
segment CD remains horizontal. Also find the components of reaction at A and C and
maximum loading in the cable. the tension in the cable.

4. The cable is subjected to a uniform 6. Determine the resultant forces at the pins
loading of w=250lb/ft. Determine the A, B, and C of the three-hinged arched
maximum and minimum tension in the roof truss.
cable.
2.4 PLANE FRAMES

SUPPORT REACTIONS of FRAMES

Illustrative Examples 24.
Determine the reactions on the beam as shown below. Assume A is a pin and the support at B is a
roller (smooth surface)

Answers: RB = 1331.5217 lb; RA = 2903.5426 lb

Illustrative Examples 25.

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pins A, B, and C of the two-
member frame shown.

Answers: Ax = 9.8667 kN; Ay = 9.4 kN; Bx = Cx = 14.6667 kN; By = Cy = 3 kN

Illustrative Examples 26.
The given frame shown is pin connected at A and supported by a roller at C. It is subjected to a
concentrated load of 45 KN at the midspan of BC and a horizontal uniformly distributed wind load
of 55 KN/m. 45 KN

55 KN/m

B
3m

A 4m 2m 2m

a. Compute the total reaction at A.

b. Compute the reaction at C.
Answers: RA = 166.1704kN; RC = 64.6875 kN

Illustrative Examples 27.

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pins A, B, and D of the three-
member frame. The joint at C is fixed connected.

Answers: Ax =1.75 kN; Ay =10.1667 kN; Bx =10.25kN; By = 1.1667kN; Dx = 10.25kN; Dy = 14.8333 kN

Illustrative Examples 28.
Determine the components of reaction at the fixed support D and the pins A, B, and C of the
three-member frame. Neglect the thickness of the members.

Answers: Ax =Bx=Cx = 0; Dx =9kN; Ay =By=Cy =Dy = 14; MD=27 kN-m

Illustrative Examples 29.

Determine the components of reaction at the fixed support D and the pins A, B, and C of the three-
member frame. Neglect the thickness of the members.

Answers: Ax =Bx =Cx=Dx = 1.5k; Ay =By=Cy =Dy =8k; MD=6 k-ft

 ACTIVITY NO. 5
FRAME REACTIONS

Determine the structures whether it is internally stable or unstable. Classify if it is statically Determinate,
statically indeterminate, or unstable. If indeterminate, specify the degree of indeterminacy. Determine also
the reactions at the support for the frames shown.

1. Determine the horizontal and vertical component 4. Determine the horizontal and vertical
force at pins A and C of the two-member frame. components of reaction at the supports A
and B. Assume the joints at C and D are
fixed connections.

2. Determine the horizontal and vertical components

of reaction at the pins A, B, and C.

5. Determine the reactions at the smooth

support A and the pin support B. The joint at
C is fixed connected.

3. Determine the components of reaction at the fixed

support D and the pins A, B, and C of the three-member
frame. Neglect the thickness of the members.
 2.5 INFLUENCE LINES FOR REACTIONS AND INTERNAL STRESS RESULTANTS
DUE TO MOVING LOADS
2.5.1 INFLUENCE LINES ON BEAMS

Influence Line is a diagram constructed to show the variation in the effect of a single moving unit
load on some function at any section of a beam, floor girders or trusses such as reactions, shear,
bending moments or deflections in a member.
Qualitative Influence Line is a diagram showing the general slope of an influence line without
the numerical Value of its Ordinate.
Quantitative Influence Line is a diagram with numerical values of its ordinate known.

2.5.1.2 MULLER – BRESLAU’S PRINCIPLE

Muller – Breslau’s Principle states that the influence line for a function (Reaction, Shear or
Moment) is to the same scale as the deflected shape of the beam when the beam is acted upon by
the Function.
 Steps in Constructing Influence Line for Reactions on a Beam Using Muller Breslau’s
Principle
1. To construct the Influence Line for Vertical Reaction at A, we REMOVE the restraint
corresponding to Ay, by replacing the hinged support at A by a roller support, which can
exert only a vertical reaction.
2. Point A is now free to displace a vertical displacement, Δ = 1.
3. The deflected shape of the beam represents the influence line for Reaction at A.
4. Apply the Concepts of Similar Triangles, to determine the other Ordinates.

Illustrative Examples 30.

A B A

1
1
A A
B
  Steps in Constructing Influence Line for Shear on a Beam Using Muller Breslau’s
Principle

1. To construct the Influence Line for Shear at C of the beam, REMOVE the restraint
corresponding to Vc by cutting the beam at C and end with the direction of the Shear
force Vc.
2. The released Beam is now free to displace vertically relative to each other, the deflected
shape give us the influence line for shear at C.
3. The end C for the portion AC will move down by Δ1 while the end C for the portion CB
will move up by Δ2 so that the relation Δ1 + Δ2 =1.
4. Apply the Concepts of Similar Triangles, to determine the other Ordinates.

Illustrative Examples 31.

A C B A C

C C

Δ2 Δ2
A A C
C B Δ1
Δ1
  Steps in Constructing Influence Line for Moment on a Beam Using Muller Breslau’s
Principle
1. To obtain the general shape of the Influence line for the bending moment at C, we
INSERT a hinge at C in the given beam.
2. The portions AC and CB are now free to rotate relative to each other.
3. To keep the released beam in equilibrium, we apply the Moment at C so that the relation
Ɵ1 + Ɵ2 =1.

Illustrative Examples 32.

A C B A C

C C

Ɵ1 Ɵ2 Ɵ1 Ɵ2
A C B A C
Illustrative Examples 33.
A simple beam has a span of 6m. It is required to determine the influence line for the reactions of
A, Shear at C, Moment at C and Reaction at B using Muller – Breslau’s Principle.

A C B
2m 4m

Illustrative Examples 34.

Draw the Influence line for RA, RB, VC, MC form the beam shown using Muller Breslau’s Principle

A C B
2m 1m 3m

Illustrative Examples 35.

Draw the Influence line for RA, RB, VC, MC form the beam shown using Muller Breslau’s Principle

A 4m C 6m B
5m

Illustrative Examples 36.

Draw the Influence line for RB, RD, VC, MC form the beam shown using Muller Breslau’s Principle

A B
5m 10m C 10m D 10m E
2.5.1.2 APPLICATION OF INFLUENCE LINES
 Due to a Concentrated Live Load
1. The maximum positive / negative value of a Response Function (such as Reaction, Shear,
and Moment) due to Single Moving Concentrated load, the load must be placed at the
location of maximum positive / negative ordinate of the Influence Line.
2. The value of a response function due to only single concentrated load can be obtained by
multiplying the magnitude of the load by the ordinate of the influence line at the position
of the load.

P(x) = Ph
P
Where:
P= Load
h = Ordinate h

 Due to the Uniform Live Load

1. The value of a Response Function due to a uniformly distributed live load over a portion
of the structure can be obtained by multiplying the uniform live load by the area under
the corresponding portion of the Influence Line.
2. The maximum positive / negative value of a response function is equal to the uniform
live load multiplied by the area over those portion of the structures where the ordinates of
the influence line are positive/ negative.
w(x)
M(x) = w(x) A

Where:
w= Uniform Load Area
A = area under the uniform load

 Due to Uniform Dead Load

1. To obtain the value of a Response Function due to a Uniform Dead Load, Place the
uniform dead load throughout the entire span of the structure and multiply it by the Total
positive and Negative areas of the influence line.

 Maximum Influence at a Point due to a Series of Concentrated Loads

 ACTIVITY 6
INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS

1. Draw the influence line for (a) the vertical reaction at A and B, (b) the shear at B, and (c)
the moment at B. Assume A is fixed.

2. Draw the influence line for (a) the vertical reaction at A and B, (b) the shear at C, and (c) the
moment at C.

3. Draw the influence line for (a) the vertical reaction at A and B, (b) the shear just to
right of rocker at A, and (c) the moment at C.
5. The beam is used to support a dead load of 0.6k/ft, a live load of 2k/ft and a concentrated live
load of 8k, Determine (a) the maximum positive (upward) reaction at A, (b) the maximum
positive moment at C, and (c) the maximum positive shear just to the right of the support A.
Assume the support at A is a pin and B is a roller.

6. Determine the (a) maximum reaction (b) maximum shear at point B , and (c) maximum
moment at point B in the beam shown due to the wheels loads of moving truck.

4. The beam supports a 1m- 5KN/m live load. Determine (a) the maximum positive moment at
C; and (b) the maximum positive shear at C. Assume the support at A is a roller and B is a pin.
2.5.2 INFLUENCE LINES ON TRUSS
Trusses are often used as primary load – carrying elements for bridges. Since the truss members
are affected only by the joint loading, we can therefore obtain the ordinate values of the influence
line for a member by loading each joint along the deck with a unit load and then use the method
of joints or the method of sections to calculate the force in the member. As Convention, if the
member force is tensile it is considered as positive value and if it is compressive it is considered
negative.

 Steps in Constructing the Influence Line for Trusses

1. Place the unit load at “x” distance to calculate the reactions at supports.
2. Pass a section through the members and isolate the left / right segment to determine the
required member.
3. The data can be arranged in tabular form, listing “UNIT LOAD AT JOINT” versus
“FORCE IN MEMBER”.

“x” Distance “Required” Member

x1 Force “T or C”
x2 Force “T or C”
xn Force “T or C”
4. Plot the tabular data and draw straight line between the points to illustrate the Influence
Line.
Illustrative Examples 37.
Draw the Influence Line for the Force in member GB and GC of the bridge truss shown.

H G F

6m

A E
6m B 6m C 6m D 6m
A

Illustrative Examples 38.

The Parker Truss shown carries a uniform live load of 30 kN/m and a concentrated live load of
90 kN. Using the Influence line in each case.
1. Compute the live load stress of member FC
2. Compute the live load stress of member FG
3. Compute the live load stress of member GC

G
1.5m
F H

4.5m

A E
6m B 6m C 6m D 6m
A
 ACTIVITY 7
INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSS

1. Draw the Influence Line for the force in (a) member EH and member JE
2. Draw the Influence Line for the Force in member JI
3. Draw the Influence Line for the force in member AL
If the truss carries a uniform live load of 30KN/m and a concentrated live load of 90KN.
4. Determine the maximum (compressive and tensile) stress in member EH and JE.
5. Determine the maximum (compressive and tensile) stress in member JI.
6. Determine the maximum (compressive and tensile) stress in member AL.

7. Draw the influence line for the force in member GD and HG, then determine the
maximum force (tension or compression) that can be developed in this member due to a
uniform live load of 3KN/m that acts on the bridge deck along the bottom cord of the truss.
 3. CLASSICAL METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS FOR TRANSLATIONS
(DEFLECTIONS) AND ROTATIONS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE
STRUCTURES
3.1 DEFLECTION DIAGRAMS AND THE ELASTIC CURVE

Deflections of structures can occur from various sources, such as loads, temperature, fabrication
errors, or settlement. In design, deflections must be limited in order to provide integrity and
stability of roofs, and prevent cracking of attached brittle materials such as concrete, plaster or
glass. Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely in order to “appear” safe for its
occupants. More important, though, deflections at specified points in a structure must be
determined if one is to analyse statically indeterminate structures.

The deflection of a structure is caused by its internal loadings such as normal force, shear force,
or bending moment. For beams and frames, however, the greatest deflections are most often caused
by internal bending, whereas internal axial forces cause the deflections of a truss.

Deflection diagram represents the elastic curve or locus of points which defines the displaced
position of the centroid of the cross section along the members.

The supports that resist a force, such as a pin, restrict displacement; and those that resist moment,
such as a fixed wall, restrict rotation.

The deflection of frame members that If a pin connection is used at the joint,
are fixed connected causes the joint to the members will each have a different
rotate the connected members by the slope or rotation at the pin, since the
same amount Ɵ. pin cannot support a moment.
If the elastic curve seems difficult to establish, it is suggested that the moment diagram for the
beam or frame be drawn first. By our sign convention for moments, a positive moment tends to
bend a beam or horizontal member concave upward. Likewise, a negative moment tends to bend
the beam or member concave downward.

Therefore, if the shape of the moment diagram is known, it will be easy to construct the elastic
curve and vice versa.
For example, consider the beam shown in Figure 1, with its associated moment diagram. Due to
the pin-and-roller support, the displacement at A and D must be zero. Within the region of negative
moment, the elastic curve is concave downward; and within the region of positive moment, the
elastic curve is concave upward. In particular, there must be an inflection point at the point where
the curve changes from concave down to concave up, since this is a point of zero moment.

Using these same principles, note how the elastic curve for the beam shown in Figure 2 was drawn
based on its moment diagram. In particular, realize that the positive moment

Figure 1 Figure 2
3.2 ELASTIC – BEAM THEORY

In this section we will develop two important differential equations that relate the internal
moment in a beam to the displacement and slope of its elastic curve. These equations form the
basis for the deflection methods presented in this chapter, and for this reason the assumptions and
limitations used in their development should be fully understood.
To derive these relationships, we will limit the analysis to the most common case of an
initially straight beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied perpendicular to the beam’s x
axis and lying in the x – v plane of symmetry for the beam’s cross-sectional area.
Due to the loading, the deformation of the beam is caused by both the internal shear force
and bending moment. If the beam has a length that is much greater than its depth, the greatest
deformation will be caused by bending, and therefore we will direct our attention to its effects.
Deflection caused by shear will be discussed later in the chapter.

When the internal moment M deforms the element

of the beam, each cross section remains plane and the angle
between them becomes dƟ. The arc dx that represents a
portion of the elastic curve intersects the neutral axis for
each cross section.
The radius of curvature for this arc is defined as the
distance, which is measured from the center of curvature O’
to dx. Any arc on the element other than dx is subjected to a
normal strain.

For example, the strain in arc ds, located at a position y from the neutral axis,

𝒅𝒔′ − 𝒅𝒔
∈=
𝒅𝒔
𝒅𝒔 = 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝆𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝒔′ = (𝝆 − 𝒚)𝒅𝜽

((𝝆 − 𝒚)𝒅𝜽 − 𝝆𝒅𝜽

∈=
𝝆𝒅𝜽
 𝟏 𝝐
=−
𝝆 𝒚

If the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear elastic manner, then Hooke’s law applies.

𝝈
∈=
𝑬
Also, since the flexure formula applies,

𝑴𝒚
𝝈=−
𝑰
Combining these equations and substituting into the above equation, we have

𝟏 𝑴
=
𝝆 𝑬𝑰

Where:

The product EI in this equation is referred to as the flexural rigidity, and it is always a positive
quantity. Since 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝆𝒅𝜽, then form

𝑴
𝒅𝜽 = 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝑰
𝟏
If we choose the axis positive upward, and if we can express the curvature 𝝆 in terms of x and v,
we can then determine the elastic curve for the beam. In most calculus books it is shown that this
curvature relationship is

This equation represents a nonlinear second-order differential equation. Its solution, v=f(x), gives
the exact shape of the elastic curve—assuming, of course, that beam deflections occur only due to
bending. In order to facilitate the solution of a greater number of problems will be modified by
making an important simplification. Since the slope of the elastic curve for most structures is very
small, we will use small deflection theory and assume dv/ dx ≈ 0. Consequently, its square will be
negligible compared to unity and therefore

It should also be pointed out that by assuming dv/ dx ≈ 0, the original length of the beam’s axis x
and the arc of its elastic curve will be approximately the same. In other words, ds is approximately
equal to dx, since

This result implies that points on the elastic curve will only be displaced vertically and not
horizontally.

3.3 DOUBLE – INTEGRATION METHOD FOR BEAMS

Procedure of Analysis
The following procedure provides a method for determining the slope and deflection of a
beam (or shaft) using the method of double integration. It should be realized that this method is
suitable only for elastic deflections for which the beam’s slope is very small. Furthermore, the
method considers only deflections due to bending. Additional deflection due to shear generally
represents only a few percent of the bending deflection, and so it is usually neglected in
engineering practice.

Elastic Curve
 Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope and
zero displacement occur at a fixed support, and zero displacement occurs at pin and roller
supports.
 Establish the x and v coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel to the undeflected beam
and its origin at the left side of the beam, with a positive direction to the right.
 If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x coordinates that are valid for each
region of the beam between the discontinuities.
 In all cases, the associated positive v axis should be directed upward.

Load or Moment Function

 For each region in which there is an x coordinate, express the internal moment M as a
function of x.
 Always assume that M acts in the positive direction when applying the equation of moment
equilibrium to determine M = f(x)
Slope and Elastic Curve
𝑑2 𝑣
 Provided EI is constant, apply the moment equation 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 =M(x), which requires two
integrations. For each integration it is important to include a constant of integration. The
constants are determined using the boundary conditions for the supports and the continuity
conditions that apply to slope and displacement at points where two functions meet.
 Once the integration constants are determined and substituted back into the slope and
deflection equations, the slope and displacement at specific points on the elastic curve can
be determined. The numerical values obtained can be checked graphically by comparing
them with the sketch of the elastic curve.
 Positive values for slope are counter clockwise and positive displacement is upward.

Illustrative Example 39 – a.

A concentrated load of 300 N is supported as shown. Determine the deflection and slope 2m from
the left support and the maximum deflection in the beam.

300 N

A 2m B
1m

Answers: EIy’ (2) =800/3 N-m2; EIy = -400/3 N-m3;ymax = -145.155/EI N-m3

Illustrative Example 40 – a.

Find the value of EIy at the position midway between the supports and at the overhanging end for
the beam shown. Determine also the location and value of the maximum deflection. Draw the
elastic curve by determining the deflection at an interval of 1m.

600 kN
400 N/m

A 1m B
3m 2m 2m

Answers: EIy (3)= -1941.6666/EI kN-m3; EIy (8)= -1816.6664/EI kN-m3; ymax = -2053.6558/EI N-m3 at x=2.4636m from the left support
Illustrative Example 41 – a.
Determine the midspan value of EIy and the maximum deflection for the beam shown that
carries a uniformly varying load over part of the span.

60 lb/ ft

A 6 ft 4 ft 2 ft B

Answers: EIy (6)= -3904.0002/EI lb-ft3; EIymax = -3918.4502/EI lb-ft3

Illustrative Example 42 – a.
Determine the deflection of the overhanging end and the maximum deflection. Draw the leastic
curve of the beam.

400 N/m

2m 3m

Answers: EIy (5)= -721.25/EI kN-m3;

3.4 AREA – MOMENT METHOD FOR BEAMS AND PLANE FRAMES

The initial ideas for the two moment-area theorems were developed by Otto Mohr and later
stated formally by Charles E. Greene in 1873.These theorems provide a semi – graphical technique
for determining the slope of the elastic curve and its deflection due to bending. They are
particularly advantageous when used to solve problems involving beams, especially those
subjected to a series of concentrated loadings or having segments with different moments of
inertia.
To develop the theorems, reference is made to the beam shown.
 If we draw the moment diagram for the beam and then divide it by the flexural
rigidity, EI, the “M/EI diagram” shown in the Figure below results.

Thus it can be seen that the change dƟ in the slope of the tangents on either side of the
element dx is equal to the lighter-shaded area under the M/EI diagram. Integrating from point A
on the elastic curve to point B, we have

This equation forms the basis for the first moment-area theorem.

THEOREM 1: The change in slope between any two points on the elastic curve equals the
area of the M/EI diagram between these two points.
 The notation 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is referred to as the angle of the tangent at B measured with respect to the
tangent at A. From the proof it should be evident that this angle is measured counter clockwise
from tangent A to tangent B if the area of the M/EI diagram is positive. Conversely, if this area is
negative, or below the x axis, the angle 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is measured clockwise from tangent A to tangent B.
Furthermore, 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is measured in radians.

THEOREM 2: The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point (A) on the elastic curve with respect
to the tangent extended from another point (B) equals the “moment” of the area under the M/EI
diagram between the two points (A and B). This moment is computed about point A (the point on
the elastic curve), where the deviation 𝑡𝐴/𝐵 is to be determined.
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the
displacement and slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the moment-area theorems.

M/EI Diagram
 Determine the support reactions and draw the beam’s M/EI diagram.
 If the beam is loaded with concentrated forces, the M/EI diagram will consist of a series of
straight line segments, and the areas and their moments required for the moment-area
theorems will be relatively easy to compute.
 In any case, the M/EI diagram will consist of parabolic or perhaps higher-order curves, and
it is suggested that the table on the inside back cover be used to locate the area and centroid
under each curve.

Elastic Curve
 Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope
occur at fixed supports and zero displacement occurs at all fixed, pin, and roller supports.
 If it becomes difficult to draw the general shape of the elastic curve, use the moment (or
M/EI) diagram. Realize that when the beam is subjected to a positive moment the beam
bends concave up, whereas negative moment bends the beam concave down. Furthermore,
an inflection point or change in curvature occurs where the moment in the beam (or M/EI)
is zero.
 The displacement and slope to be determined should be indicated on the curve. Since the
moment-area theorems apply only between two tangents, attention should be given as to
which tangents should be constructed so that the angles or deviations between them will
lead to the solution of the problem. In this regard, the tangents at the points of unknown
slope and displacement and at the supports should be considered, since the beam usually
has zero displacement and/or zero slope at the supports.

Illustrative Example 39 – b.

A concentrated load of 300 N is supported as shown. Determine the deflection and slope 2m from
the left support and the maximum deflection in the beam.

300 N

A 2m B
1m

Answers: EIy’ (2) =800/3 N-m2; EIy = -400/3 N-m3;ymax = -145.155/EI N-m3
Illustrative Example 40 – b.

Find the value of EIy at the position midway between the supports and at the overhanging end for
the beam shown. Determine also the location and value of the maximum deflection. Draw the
elastic curve by determining the deflection at an interval of 1m.

600 kN
400 N/m

A 1m B
3m 2m 2m

Answers: EIy (3)= -1941.6666/EI kN-m3; EIy (8)= -1816.6664/EI kN-m3; ymax = -2079.1487/EI N-m3 at x=2.4636m from the left support

Illustrative Example 41 – b.
Determine the midspan value of EIy and the maximum deflection for the beam shown that
carries a uniformly varying load over part of the span.

60 lb/ ft

A 6 ft 4 ft 2 ft B

Answers: EIy (6)= -3904/EI lb-ft3; EIymax = -3918.4751/EI lb-ft3

Illustrative Example 42 – b.
Determine the deflection of the overhanging end and the maximum deflection. Draw the elastic
curve of the beam.

400 N/m

2m 3m

Answers: EIy (5)= -721.25/EI kN-m3;

3.3 CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. Müller-Breslau in 1865. Essentially, it requires
the same amount of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine a beam’s slope or
deflection; however, this method relies only on the principles of statics, and hence its application
will be more familiar.

Here the shear V compares with the slope the moment M compares with the displacement,
and the external load w compares with the M/EI diagram.

Properties of Conjugate Beam

1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of the actual beam.
2. The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual beam.
3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate beam.
4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the conjugate beam.
5. The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero slope for
the real beam.
6. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of
maximum deflection for the real beam.
Supports of Conjugate Beam
Knowing that the slope on the real beam is equal to the shear on conjugate beam and the
deflection on real beam is equal to the moment on conjugate beam, the shear and bending moment
at any point on the conjugate beam must be consistent with the slope and deflection at that point
of the real beam. Take for example a real beam with fixed support; at the point of fixed support
there is neither slope nor deflection, thus, the shear and moment of the corresponding conjugate
beam at that point must be zero. Therefore, the conjugate of fixed support is free end.

THEOREM 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.

Conjugate-Beam Supports
When drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the shear and moment developed at the
supports of the conjugate beam account for the corresponding slope and displacement of the real
beam at its supports, a consequence of Theorems 1 and 2.
Examples of Beam and its Conjugate
The following are some examples of beams and its conjugate. Loadings are omitted.
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the
displacement and slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the conjugate – beam
method.

Conjugate Beam
 Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam. This beam has the same length as the real beam
and has corresponding supports.
 In general, if the real support allows a slope, the conjugate support must develop a shear,
and if the real support allows a displacement, the conjugate support must develop a
moment.
 The conjugate beam is loaded with the real beams’ M/EI diagram. This loading is assumed
to be distributed over the conjugate beam and is directed upward when M/EI is positive
and downward when M/EI is negative. In other words, the loading always acts away from
the beam.

Equilibrium

 Using the equations of equilibrium, determine the reactions at the conjugate beam’s
supports.
 Section the conjugate beam at the point where the slope Ɵ and the displacement Δ of the
real beam are to be determined. At the section show the unknown shear V’ and moment M’
acting in their positive sense.
Determine the shear and moment using the equations of equilibrium. V’ and M’ equal Ɵ and
Δ, respectively, for the real beam. In particular, if these values are positive, the slope is counter
clockwise and the displacement is upward.

Illustrative Example 39 – c.

A concentrated load of 300 N is supported as shown. Determine the deflection and slope 2m from
the left support and the maximum deflection in the beam.

300 N

A 2m B
1m
Illustrative Example 40 – c.

Find the value of EIy at the position midway between the supports and at the overhanging end for
the beam shown. Determine also the location and value of the maximum deflection. Draw the
elastic curve by determining the deflection at an interval of 1m.

600 kN
400 N/m

A 1m B
3m 2m 2m

Illustrative Example 41 –c.

Determine the midspan value of EIy and the maximum deflection for the beam shown that
carries a uniformly varying load over part of the span.

60 lb/ ft

A 6 ft 4 ft 2 ft B

Illustrative Example 42 – c.
Determine the deflection of the overhanging end and the maximum deflection. Draw the leastic
curve of the beam.

400 N/m

2m 3m
 ACTIVITY NO. 8
DEFLECTIONS

Determine the value of the maximum deflection, deflection and slope at the Midspan. Assume
E=10GPa and I= 1.54x106 mm4.
15KN/m

2. 10KN/m
1.
4m 2m
6m
6m
15KN/m

4. 5KN 3.
25KN/m
4m
4m 2m 6m

50KN
6. 600N/m 5.
600N/m M=100KN-m
vv vv
2m 1m 2m 2m 2m 3m

10KN/m

8. M=1800N-m 200N/m 7.
2m
2m 2m 2m 2m 5m 5m

9. 600N/m
10.
10KN/m 10KN/m
200N/m

5m 5m 2m 3m
4. ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY INDETERMINTE STUCTURES

A structure of any type is classified as statically indeterminate when the number of unknown
reactions or internal forces exceeds the number of equilibrium equations available for its analysis.
In this section we will discuss the merits of using indeterminate structures and two fundamental
ways in which they may be analyzed. Realize that most of the structures designed today are
statically indeterminate. This indeterminacy may arise as a result of added supports or members,
or by the general form of the structure. For example, reinforced concrete buildings are almost
always statically indeterminate since the columns and beams are poured as continuous members
through the joints and over supports.

4.1 TYPES OF STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS

There are three types of Statically Indeterminate beams.

(1) Propped beam is a beam having one built-in support (fix) and one simple support (roller
or pin). For example, consider one end of the beam supported by fixed support and the
other end by roller support such beams can be called as propped beam.

(2) Restrained beam is a beam with fixed support at both ends. It is also called a fixed ended
beam.

(3) Continuous beam is a beam with several number of span.

4.2 DEFLECTION DIAGRAM AND ELASTIC CURVE

In this chapter we will show how to determine the elastic deflections of indeterminate beams using
1.) Double Integration and 2.) Area Moment Method for propped and restrained beams. For
continuous beams, Three Moment Equations and Moment Distribution will be used. Each of these
methods has particular advantages or disadvantages, which will be discussed when each method
is presented.

Deflections of structures can occur from various sources, such as loads, temperature, fabrication
errors, or settlement. In design, deflections must be limited in order to provide integrity and
stability of roofs, and prevent cracking of attached brittle materials such as concrete, plaster or
glass. Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely in order to “appear” safe for its
occupants. More important, though, deflections at specified points in a structure must be
determined if one is to analyze statically indeterminate structures.

The deflections to be considered throughout this text apply only to structures having linear elastic
material response. Under this condition, a structure subjected to a load will return to its original
undeformed position after the load is removed. The deflection of a structure is caused by its internal
loadings such as normal force, shear force, or bending moment. For beams and frames, however,
the greatest deflections are most often caused by internal bending, whereas internal axial forces
cause the deflections of a truss.

Before the slope or displacement of a point on a (1)

beam or frame is determined, it is often helpful
to sketch the deflected shape of the structure
when it is loaded in order to partially check the
results. This deflection diagram represents the ∆=0
elastic curve or locus of points which defines the rocker or roller
displaced position of the centroid of the cross
section along the members. For most problems (2)
the elastic curve can be sketched without much
difficulty. When doing so, however, it is
necessary to know the restrictions as to slope or
displacement that often occur at a support or a ∆=0
pin
connection. With reference to figures on the
right, supports that resist a force, such as a pin, (3)
restrict displacement; and those that resist
moment, such as a fixed wall, restrict rotation.

∆=0
𝜃=0
fixed support
If the elastic curve seems difficult to establish, it
is suggested that the moment diagram for the positive moment,
beam or frame be drawn first. By our sign concave upward
convention for moments as shown in the figure
on the right, a positive moment tends to bend a
beam or horizontal member concave upward.
Likewise, a negative moment tends to bend the
negative moment,
beam or member concave downward. Therefore,
concave downward
if the shape of the moment diagram is known, it
will be easy to construct the elastic curve and
vice versa.

For example, consider the beam below (left) with its associated moment diagram. Due to the pin-
and-roller support, the displacement at A and D must be zero. Within the region of negative
moment, the elastic curve is concave downward; and within the region of positive moment, the
elastic curve is concave upward. In particular, there must be an inflection point at the point where
the curve changes from concave down to concave up, since this is a point of zero moment. Using
these same principles, note how the elastic curve for the beam below (right) was drawn based on
its moment diagram. In particular, realize that the positive moment reaction from the wall keeps
the initial slope of the beam horizontal.

beam
beam

𝑀
𝑀

𝑥 𝑥

moment diagram moment diagram

−𝑀 −𝑀
inflection point
+𝑀 inflection point

deflection curve +𝑀 deflection curve

Illustrative Examples 43.

Illustrative Examples 44.

Illustrative Examples 45.

Illustrative Examples 46.

Illustrative Examples 47.

 ACTIVITY NO. 9

1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)
4.3 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
(Propped and Restrained Beams)

Procedure for Analysis:

The following procedure provides a method for determining the slope and deflection of a beam (or
shaft) using the method of double integration. It should be realized that this method is suitable only
for elastic deflections for which the beam’s slope is very small. Furthermore, the method considers
only deflections due to bending. Additional deflection due to shear generally represents only a few
percent of the bending deflection, and so it is usually neglected in engineering practice.

Elastic Curve
 Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope
and zero displacement occur at a fixed support, and zero displacement occurs at pin
and roller supports.
 Establish the x and v coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel to the undeflected
beam and its origin at the left side of the beam, with a positive direction to the right.
 If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x coordinates that are valid for
each region of the beam between the discontinuities.
 In all cases, the associated positive v axis should be directed upward

Load or Moment Function

 For each region in which there is an x coordinate, express the internal moment M as a
function of x.
 Always assume that M acts in the positive direction when applying the equation of
moment equilibrium to determine M = f(x).

Slope and Elastic Curve

 Provided EI is constant, apply the moment equation 𝐸𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑣 ⁄𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑀(𝑥) which requires
two integrations. For each integration it is important to include a constant of integration.
The constants are determined using the boundary conditions for the supports and the
continuity conditions that apply to slope and displacement at points where two functions
meet.
 Once the integration constants are determined and substituted back into the slope and
deflection equations, the slope and displacement at specific points on the elastic curve can
be determined. The numerical values obtained can be checked graphically by comparing
them with the sketch of the elastic curve.
 Positive values for slope are counterclockwise and positive displacement is upward.
Boundary Conditions
  At supports, y = 0, unless stated with settlement
 At fixed supports, y = 0 and θ = 0
 At roller support, y = 0, and if the roller support is at the end, M = 0
 At pin/hinge support, y = 0, and if the pin/hinge support is at the end, M = 0

Illustrative Examples 48

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑨𝒙 = 0 𝑴𝑨 = 43.75kN. m
𝑨𝒚 = 25.469kN 𝑩𝒚 = 14.531kN

Illustrative Examples 49.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection 2m to the right of point A.

𝑪𝒙 = 0 𝑩𝒚 = 14kN
𝑪𝒚 = 46kN 𝜟𝟐𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑨 = 2.155mm
𝑴𝑪 = 44kN. m 𝜽𝟐𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑨 = −0.001

Illustrative Examples 50.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Determine also the location and
value of the maximum deflection.

𝑨𝒙 = 0 𝑩𝒙 = 0
𝑨𝒚 = 19.375kN 𝑩𝒚 = 20.625kN
𝑴𝑨 = 25.833kN. m 𝑴𝑩 = 30.833 kN. m

𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 0
𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝜹 = 0
Illustrative Examples 51.
Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑨𝒙 = 0 𝑩𝒙 = 0
𝑨𝒚 = 0 𝑩𝒚 = 0
𝑴𝑨 = 0 𝑴𝑩 = 0

Illustrative Examples 52.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑪𝒙 = 0 𝑴𝑪 = 11.33𝑘. 𝑓𝑡
𝑪𝒚 = 17.444𝑘 𝑩𝒚 = 22.556𝑘
 ACTIVITY NO. 10
Using double integration method, solve the following problems.

1.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

2.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection at the midspan.

3.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Determine also the location
and value of the maximum deflection.

4.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

5.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection 2m to the right of point B.

6.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

7.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection at the midspan.

8.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Determine also the location
and value of the maximum deflection.

9.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

10.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the
slope and deflection 6m to the right of point A.
4.4 AREA MOMENT METHOD
(Propped and Restrained Beams)

Procedure for Analysis:

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the displacement and
slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the moment-area theorems.

M/EI Diagram
 Determine the support reactions and draw the beam’s M/EI diagram.
 If the beam is loaded with concentrated forces, the M/EI diagram will consist of a series
of straight line segments, and the areas and their moments required for the moment-area
theorems will be relatively easy to compute.
 If the loading consists of a series of concentrated forces and distributed loads, it may be
simpler to compute the required M/EI areas and their moments by drawing the M/EI
diagram in parts, using the method of superposition. In any case, the M/EI diagram will
consist of parabolic or perhaps higher-order curves, and it is suggested that the table on
the inside back cover be used to locate the area and centroid under each curve.

Elastic Curve
 Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope
occur at fixed supports and zero displacement occurs at all fixed, pin, and roller supports.
 If it becomes difficult to draw the general shape of the elastic curve, use the moment (or
M/EI) diagram. Realize that when the beam is subjected to a positive moment the beam
bends concave up, whereas negative moment bends the beam concave down.
Furthermore, an inflection point or change in curvature occurs where the moment in the
beam (or M/EI) is zero.
 The displacement and slope to be determined should be indicated on the curve. Since the
moment-area theorems apply only between two tangents, attention should be given as to
which tangents should be constructed so that the angles or deviations between them will
lead to the solution of the problem. In this regard, the tangents at the points of unknown
slope and displacement and at the supports should be considered, since the beam usually
has zero displacement and/or zero slope at the supports.

Moment-Area Theorems
 Apply Theorem 1 to determine the angle between two tangents, and Theorem 2 to
determine vertical deviations between these tangents.
  Realize that Theorem 2 in general will not yield the displacement of a point on the
elastic curve. When applied properly, it will only give the vertical distance or
deviation of a tangent at point A on the elastic curve from the tangent at B.
 After applying either Theorem 1 or Theorem 2, the algebraic sign of the answer can
be verified from the angle or deviation as indicated on the elastic curve.

Boundary Conditions
 At supports, y = 0, unless stated with settlement
 At fixed supports, y = 0 and θ = 0
 At roller support, y = 0, and if the roller support is at the end, M = 0
 At pin/hinge support, y = 0, and if the pin/hinge support is at the end, M = 0

Illustrative Examples 53.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑨𝒙 = 0 𝑴𝑨 = 43.751kN. m
𝑨𝒚 = 25.469kN 𝑩𝒚 = 14.531kN

Illustrative Examples 54.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection 1.8m to the right of point A.

𝑪𝒙 = 0 𝑩𝒚 = 14kN
𝑪𝒚 = 46kN 𝜟𝟏.𝟖𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑨 = −2.155mm
𝑴𝑪 = 44.002kN. m 𝜽𝟏.𝟖𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑨 = −0.001
Illustrative Examples 55.
Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Determine also the location and
value of the maximum deflection.

𝑨𝒙 = 0 𝑩𝒙 = 0 𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝜹 = 0
𝑨𝒚 = 0 𝑩𝒚 = 0 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 0
𝑴𝑨 = 0 𝑴𝑩 = 0

Illustrative Examples 56.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑨𝒙 = 0 𝑩𝒙 = 0
𝑨𝒚 = 0 𝑩𝒚 = 0
𝑴𝑨 = 0 𝑴𝑩 = 0

Illustrative Examples 57.

Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑪𝒙 = 0 𝑴𝑪 = 0
𝑪𝒚 = 0 𝑩𝒚 = 0
 ACTIVITY 11
Using area moment method, solve the following problems.

1.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

2.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection at the midspan.

3.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Determine also the location and
value of the maximum deflection.

4.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

5.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection 2m to the right of point B.

6.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

7.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection at the midspan.

8.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Determine also the location and
value of the maximum deflection.
9.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown.

10.) Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam shown. Compute also the slope and
deflection 6m to the right of point A.
4.5 THREE-MOMENT EQUATION

The three-moment equation, which was initially presented by Clapeyron in 1857, provides a
convenient tool for analyzing continuous beams. The three-moment equation represents, in a
general form, the compatibility condition that the slope of the elastic curve be continuous at an
interior support of the continuous beam. Since the equation involves three moments—the bending
moments at the support under consideration and at the two adjacent supports—it commonly is
referred to as the three-moment equation. When using this method, the bending moments at the
interior (and any fixed) supports of the continuous beam are treated as the redundant. The three-
moment equation is then applied at the location of each redundant to obtain a set of compatibility
equations which can be solved for the unknown redundant moments.

Sign Convention
The clockwise moments that act on the member are considered positive, whereas
counterclockwise moments are negative.

Derivation of Three-moment Equation

Consider three points on the beam loaded as shown.

Loads on simply supported

beam

Moment diagram of loads

on simply supported beam
 Moment diagram of
loading by end moments

For properties between similar triangles:

ℎ1 − 𝑡1/2 𝑡3/2 − ℎ3
=
𝐿1 𝐿2

ℎ1 𝑡1/2 𝑡3/2 ℎ3
− = −
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿2
𝑡1/2 𝑡3/2 ℎ1 ℎ3 Equation 1
+ = +
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

Values of 𝑡1/2 and 𝑡3/2

1
𝑡1/2 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1−2 ) ∙ 𝑥̅1
𝐸1 𝐼1
1 1 1 1 2
𝑡1/2 = [𝐴1 𝑎̅1 + ( 𝑀1 𝐿1 ) ( 𝐿1 ) + ( 𝑀2 𝐿1 ) ( 𝐿1 )]
𝐸1 𝐼1 2 3 2 3
1
𝑡1/2 = [6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 + 𝑀1 𝐿1 2 + 2𝑀2 𝐿1 2 ]
6𝐸1 𝐼1
1
𝑡3/2 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2−3 ) ∙ 𝑥̅3
𝐸2 𝐼2
1 1 2 1 1
𝑡3/2 = [𝐴2 𝑏̅2 + ( 𝑀2 𝐿2 ) ( 𝐿2 ) + ( 𝑀3 𝐿2 ) ( 𝐿2 )]
𝐸2 𝐼2 2 3 2 3
1
𝑡3/2 = [6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 + 2𝑀2 𝐿2 2 + 𝑀3 𝐿2 2 ]
6𝐸2 𝐼2
Substitute 𝑡1/2 and 𝑡3/2 to Equation 1

1 6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 ℎ1 ℎ3

[ + 𝑀1 𝐿1 + 2𝑀2 𝐿1 ] + [ + 2𝑀2 𝐿2 + 𝑀3 𝐿2 ] = +
6𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐿1 6𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

Multiply both sides by 6

1 6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 ℎ1 ℎ3
[ + 𝑀1 𝐿1 + 2𝑀2 𝐿1 ] + [ + 2𝑀2 𝐿2 + 𝑀3 𝐿2 ] = 6 ( + )
𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐿1 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

Distribute 1/EI

6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 𝑀1 𝐿1 2𝑀2 𝐿1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 2𝑀2 𝐿2 𝑀3 𝐿2 ℎ1 ℎ3

+ + + + + = 6( + )
𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐿1 𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐿2 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐿1 𝐿2

Combine similar terms and rearrange

𝑀1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑀3 𝐿2 6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 ℎ1 ℎ3

+ 2𝑀2 ( + )+ + + = 6( + )
𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐿1 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

If E is constant the equation becomes,

𝑀1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑀3 𝐿2 6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 ℎ1 ℎ3
+ 2𝑀2 ( + ) + + + = 6𝐸 ( + )
𝐼1 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐿1 𝐼2 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

If E and I are constants the equation becomes,

6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2 ℎ1 ℎ3
𝑀1 𝐿1 + 2𝑀2 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀3 𝐿2 + + = 6𝐸𝐼 ( + )
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

For the application of three-moment equation to continuous beam, points 1, 2, and 3 are usually
unsettling supports, thus ℎ1 and ℎ3 are zero. With E and I constants, the equation will reduce to

6𝐴1 𝑎̅1 6𝐴2 𝑏̅2

𝑀1 𝐿1 + 2𝑀2 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) + 𝑀3 𝐿2 + +
𝐿1 𝐿2
=0
Factors for the three-moment equation
The table below list the value of 6𝐴𝑎̅/𝐿 and 6𝐴𝑏̅/𝐿 for different types of loading

Type of loading ̅/𝑳

𝟔𝑨𝒂 ̅/𝑳
𝟔𝑨𝒃

Concentrated load anywhere

on the span

𝑃𝑎 2
(𝐿 − 𝑎2 ) 𝑃𝑏 2
𝐿 (𝐿 − 𝑏 2 )
𝐿

Concentrated load at the

midspan

3𝑃𝐿2 3𝑃𝐿2
8 8

Uniform load over the entire

span

𝜔𝑜 𝐿3
𝜔𝑜 𝐿3
4
4
Increasing triangular load
over the entire span

8𝜔𝑜 𝐿3 7𝜔𝑜 𝐿3
60 60

Decreasing triangular load

over the entire span

7𝜔𝑜 𝐿3 8𝜔𝑜 𝐿3
60 60

Isosceles triangular load over

the entire span

5𝜔𝑜 𝐿3 5𝜔𝑜 𝐿3
32 32

Moment load at any point on

the span

𝑀 𝑀
− (3𝑎2 − 𝐿2 ) + (3𝑏 2 − 𝐿2 )
𝐿 𝐿
 General uniform loading 6𝐴𝑎̅ 𝜔𝑜 2 2
= [𝑏 (2𝐿 − 𝑏 2 ) − 𝑎2 (2𝐿2 − 𝑎2 )]
𝐿 4𝐿

6𝐴𝑏̅ 𝜔𝑜 2 2
= [𝑑 (2𝐿 − 𝑑 2 ) − 𝑐 2 (2𝐿2 − 𝑐 2 )]
𝐿 4𝐿

Illustrative Examples 58.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑨𝒚 = 43.073k 𝑴𝑨 = 0
𝑩𝒚 = 100.064k 𝑴𝑩 = 327.823k ∙ ft
𝑪𝒚 = 24.860k 𝑴𝑪 = 173.612k ∙ ft

Illustrative Examples 59.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

𝑨𝒚 = 29.72k 𝑴𝑨 = 267.576 k ∙ ft
𝑩𝒚 = 64.68k 𝑴𝑩 = 600k ∙ ft
𝑪𝒚 = 65.60k 𝑴𝑪 = 267.576k ∙ ft
Illustrative Examples 60.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. EI is constant all
throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 800 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4

Illustrative Examples 61.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 300 𝑖𝑛4 and
𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 600 𝑖𝑛4

Illustrative Examples 62.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam which is assumed to have the
following support settlements: A = 1.25 in. = 0.104 ft., B = 2.40 in. = 0.200 ft., C = 2.75 in. =
0.229 ft., and D = 1.10 in. = 0.0917 ft. EI is constant all throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 =
29 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝐼 = 8147.6 𝑖𝑛4
 ACTIVITY 12
Using three moment equation, solve the following problems.
1.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

2.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

3.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

4.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

5.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.
6.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

7.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

8.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 500 𝑖𝑛4 ,
𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 750 𝑖𝑛4 and 𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 600 𝑖𝑛4 .

9.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. EI is constant all
throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 = 85 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 950 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4

10.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam which is assumed to
have the following support settlements: A = 2.5mm, B = 5.4mm, C = 6.2mm, and D = 2.6mm.
EI is constant all throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 = 62 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 740 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
4.6 MOMENT-DISTRIBUTION METHOD

The moment-distribution method is a displacement method of analysis that is easy to apply once
certain elastic constants have been determined.

The method of analyzing beams and frames using moment distribution was developed by Hardy
Cross, in 1930. At the time this method was first published it attracted immediate attention, and it
has been recognized as one of the most notable advances in structural analysis during the twentieth
century.

The moment-distribution is a method of successive approximations that may be carried out to any
desired degree of accuracy. Essentially, the method begins by assuming each joint of a structure is
fixed. Then, by unlocking and locking each joint in succession, the internal moments at the joints
are “distributed” and balanced until the joints have rotated to their final or nearly final positions.
It will be found that this process of calculation is both repetitive and easy to apply. Before
explaining the techniques of moment distribution, however, certain definitions and concepts must
be presented.

Sign Convention
The clockwise moments that act on the member are considered positive, whereas
counterclockwise moments are negative.

Carry-Over Moment
Carry-over moment is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of a beam by the action of
the moment apply at the other end.

Consider the beam shown on the right,

𝐸𝐼𝑡𝐵/𝐴 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐵 ) ∙ 𝑥̅𝐵 = 0

1 2 1 1
𝐿𝑀𝐴 ( 𝐿) + 𝐿𝑀𝐵 ( 𝐿) = 0
2 3 2 3

1
𝑀𝐴 = − 𝐿𝑀𝐵
2

Thus, the moment applied at the roller end

carries over to the fixed end a moment that
is half the amount and of opposite sign.
Beam Stiffness
Beam stiffness is the moment required to produce unit rotation at the simply supported end of a
beam, the other end being rigidly fixed.

From the beam on the previous page,

𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐵
1 1
𝐸𝐼𝜃 = 𝐿𝑀𝐴 + 𝐿𝑀𝐵
2 2
1 1
𝐸𝐼𝜃 = − 𝐿𝑀𝐵 + 𝐿𝑀𝐵
4 2
1
𝐸𝐼𝜃 = 𝐿𝑀𝐵
4
4𝐸𝐼𝜃
𝑀𝐵 =
𝐿

If 𝜃 = 1 radian, 𝑀𝐵 = beam stiffness K, thus

4𝐸𝐼
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐾 =
𝐿

For constant E,

𝐼
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐾 =
𝐿

Distribution Factor (DF)

At a joint, the distribution factor of a member is the ratio of the bending stiffness of the member
to the sum of bending stiffness of all the members connected to the joint.

𝐾
𝐷𝐹 =
∑𝐾

In general, the end moments of any two adjacent spans are not equal creating an unbalance
moment at the joint. This unbalanced moment is then distributed in percentage equal to the
distribution factor.
Note:
DF = 0 for fixed end
DF = 1 for hinged or roller end

Fixed-End Moments (FEMs)

When all of the joints of a structure are clamped to prevent any joint rotation, the external loads
produce certain moments at the ends of the members to which they are applied. These moments
are referred to as fixed-end moments. The next table presents fixed-end moments for various
loading conditions.

Beam Loading Fixed-end Moments

𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
8 8

𝑃𝑎𝑏 2 𝑃𝑎2 𝑏
𝐿 𝐿

𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿2
12 12

𝑤𝑏 3 3𝑏 𝑤𝑏 2 8𝑏 3𝑏 2
( ) (4 − ) ( ) (6 − + 2)
12𝐿 𝐿 12 𝐿 𝐿

𝑤𝐿2
𝑤𝐿2 30
20
 5𝑤𝐿2
96
5𝑤𝐿2
96
𝑀𝑏 3𝑎
( − 1)
𝐿 𝐿

𝑀𝑎 3𝑏
( − 1)
𝐿 𝐿

6𝐸𝐼∆
𝐿2

6𝐸𝐼∆
𝐿2

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a general method for determining the end moments on beam
spans using moment distribution.

Distribution Factors and Fixed-End Moments

The joints on the beam should be identified and the stiffness factors for each span at the joints
𝐾
should be calculated. Using these values the distribution factors can be determined from 𝐹 = ∑ 𝐾
. Remember that DF = 0 for a fixed end and DF = 1 for an end pin or roller support.
The fixed-end moments for each loaded span are determined using the table given on the inside
back cover. Positive FEMs act clockwise on the span and negative FEMs act counterclockwise.

Moment Distribution Process

Moment Distribution Process Assume that all joints at which the moments in the connecting
spans must be determined are initially locked. Then:
1. Determine the moment that is needed to put each joint in equilibrium.
2. Release or “unlock” the joints and distribute the counterbalancing moments into
the connecting span at each joint.
3. Carry these moments in each span over to its other end by multiplying each
1
moment by the carry-over factor+ 2.
By repeating this cycle of locking and unlocking the joints, it will be found that the moment
corrections will diminish since the beam tends to achieve its final deflected shape. When a small
enough value for the corrections is obtained, the process of cycling should be stopped with no
“carry-over” of the last moments. Each column of FEMs, distributed moments, and carry-over
moments should then be added. If this is done correctly, moment equilibrium at the joints will be
achieved.

Illustrative Examples 63.

1.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

Illustrative Examples 64.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.
Illustrative Examples 65.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. EI is constant all
throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 800 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4

Illustrative Examples 66.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 300 𝑖𝑛4 and
𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 600 𝑖𝑛4

Illustrative Examples 67.

Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam which is assumed to have the
following support settlements: A = 1.25 in. = 0.104 ft., B = 2.40 in. = 0.200 ft., C = 2.75 in. =
0.229 ft., and D = 1.10 in. = 0.0917 ft. EI is constant all throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 =
29 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝐼 = 8147.6 𝑖𝑛4
 ACTIVITY 13
Using moment distribution, solve the following problems.
1.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

2.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

3.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

4.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.
5.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

6.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

7.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown.

8.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 500 𝑖𝑛4 ,
𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 750 𝑖𝑛4 and 𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 600 𝑖𝑛4 .
9.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam shown. EI is constant all
throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 = 85 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 950 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4

10.) Determine the reactions and moments at the supports of the beam which is assumed to have
the following support settlements: A = 2.5mm, B = 5.4mm, C = 6.2mm, and D = 2.6mm. EI is
constant all throughout the entire beam span. 𝐸 = 62 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝐼 = 740 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
5. APPROXIMATE METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS FOR STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE PLANE FRAMES

Statically determinate structure – the force equilibrium equation is sufficient to find the support
reactions
Approximate analysis – is to develop a simple model of the structure which is statically determinate
to solve a statically indeterminate problem. The method is based on the way the structure deforms
under loads. Their accuracy in most cases compares favourably with more exact methods of
analysis (the statically indeterminate analysis)

5.1 APPROXIMATE LATERAL LOAD ANALYSIS BY PORTAL METHOD

Portal Method is an approximate analysis used for analysing building frames subjected to lateral
loadings

Assumptions made in Portal Method

1. The point of contra Flexure lies at mid – heights of all the members.

Point of Inflection is the zero moment location for mechanically loaded structures
2. The horizontal shear acting in the interior column members is twice the horizontal shear
in the exterior column members.

Recall from mechanics of materials that the internal forces P (generic axial), V (shear) and M
(moment) represent resultants of the stress distribution acting on the cross section of the beam.

Beam Sign Convention for Shear and Moment

Internal Axial Force (P)
 Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
(resultant) of the components in the direction parallel to the axis
of the beam of all external loads and support reactions acting on
either side of the section being considered.
T = Tension; C = Compression

Positive Sign Conventions: Tension axial force on the section

Internal Shear Force (V)

 Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum
(resultant) of the components in the direction perpendicular to
the axis of the beam of all external loads and support reactions
acting on either side of the section being considered.

Positive Sign Conventions: Shears that produces clockwise moments

(Positive Shear)

Internal Bending Moment (M)

 Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum of the moments about
(the centroid of the cross section of the beam) the section of all external loads and support
reactions acting on either side of the section being considered.

Positive Sign Conventions:

Following our positive beam sign convention, a positive bending moment bends a beam
concave upward (or towards the positive y direction), whereas a negative bending moment
bends a beam concave downward (or towards the negative y direction).
Positive Internal Forces Acting on a Portal Frame
Illustrative Example 68

Use the Portal Method to draw the axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams of
the three-storied frame structure loaded as shown below
Illustrative Example 69

Use the Portal Method to draw the axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams of
the frame structure loaded as shown below
Illustrative Example 70

Use the Portal Method to draw the axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams of
the frame structure loaded as shown below
5.2 CANTILEVER METHOD

Cantilever method is very similar to the Portal Method. We still put hinges at the middles of the
beams and columns. The only difference is that for the Cantilever method, instead of finding shears
in columns first using an assumption, we will find the axial force in columns using an assumptions

Although the results, using the Portal Method are reasonable in most cases, the method suffers due
to the lack of consideration given to the variation of structural response due to the difference
between sectional properties of various members. The Cantilever Method attempts to rectify this
limitation by considering the cross sectional areas of columns in distributing the axial forces in
various column of a storey

PORTAL METHOD CANTILEVER METHOD

Suitable for buildings likely to deform in shear Suitable for slender buildings likely to deform
mode. It is based on the distribution of base in flexure mode. It is based on distribution of
shears proportional to influence areas. base moment as axial force on columns
proportional to their distance from the
centroidal axis of the building

Assumptions made in Cantilever Method

1. The point of contra Flexure lies at mid – heights of all the members.

Point of Inflection is the zero moment location for mechanically loaded structures

2. The direct stresses in column due to horizontal force are directly

proportional to their from the centroidal axis of frame
Illustrative Example 71

Use the Cantilever Method to draw the axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams of
the three-storied frame structure loaded as shown below
Illustrative Example 72
Determine (approximately) the reactions at the base of the columns of the frame shown. The
columns are assumed to have equal cross sectional areas. Use the cantilever method of analysis.
Illustrative Example 73
Show how to determine (approximately) the reactions at the base of the columns of the frame
shown. The columns have the cross sectional areas show. Use the cantilever of analysis.
Illustrative Example 74
Find the shear and moment diagram of the frame using the portal method and cantilever method
5.3 FACTOR METHOD

Factor Method is more accurate than either the portal method or the cantilever method. The portal
method and cantilever method depend on assumed location of hinges and column shears whereas
the factor method is based on assumptions regarding the elastic action of the structure.

 If the lateral loads are applied at the left side, this will be the elastic behaviour of the
structure
6KN

12KN

6KN

12KN
  If the lateral loads are applied at the right side, this will be the elastic behaviour of the
structure

6KN

12KN

Especially useful when moments of inertia of various members are different.

 Basis: At any joint the total moment is shared by all the members in proportion to their
stiffness. Half the moment gets carried over to the far end.
 For the application of Factor Method, the Relative Stiffness for each beam and column
should be known or assumed.
k = I/L

Where:
I = moment of inertia of Cross Section
L = Length of the member
The application of the factor method involves the following steps:

1. The girder factor (g), is determined for each joint from the following expression.

2. The column factor (c), is found for each joint from the following expression

Note: At each end of every member, there will be factors from step 1 or step 2. To these
factors, half the values of those at the other end of the same member are added.

3. The sum obtained as per step 2 is multiplied by the relative stiffness of the respective
members. This product is termed as column moment factor (C), for the columns and the
girder moment factor (G), for girders.

4. Calculation of column end moments for a typical member ij - The column moment factors
[C values] give approximate relative values of column end moments. The sum of column
end moments is equal to horizontal shear of the storey multiplied by storey height. Column
end moments are evaluated by using the following equation
5. Calculation of beam end moments - The girder moment factors [G values] give the
approximate relative beam end moments. The sum of beam end moments at a joint is equal
to the sum of column end moments at that joint. Beam end moments can be worked out by
using following equation,

Summary:
 Illustrative Example 75

6KN

12KN

∑▒k_g

Member Sum of
Factor Moment Factor the
H L K= I/H K=I/L c/2 from g/2 from If I= 10 Column Girder
Joint 𝐾 𝐺 Column ∑
Column Beam 𝑘 𝑘 far end far end 𝑐 = 𝑐 + 𝑐/2 = + /2
=𝑐 𝑘 𝐺= 𝑘 Moment Moments Moment
∑
Column Beam Column Beam 𝑐= = ∑∑ K= I/H K=I/L at a Joint
∑
A AD 4 0.25 0.25 0 0.25 1 0 0.083333 1.083333 2.5 0 2.708333 0 13.81328
B BE 4 0.25 0.25 0 0.25 1 0 0.173913 1.173913 2.5 0 2.934783 0 14.96824
C CF 4 0.25 0.25 0 0.25 1 0 0.125 1.125 2.5 0 2.8125 0 14.34456
DA 4 0.25 0.5 0.666667 2.5 0 1.666667 0 8.500481
D DE 10 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.166667 0.833333 0.326087 1.15942 0 1 0 1.15942 1.15942 11.01906 1 11.01906
DG 4 0.25 0.142857 0.309524 2.5 0 0.77381 0 2.518583
EB 4 0.25 0.5 0.847826 2.5 0 2.119565 0 10.81039
ED 10 0.1 0.416667 1.068841 0 1 0 1.068841 0.384365 6.050096
E 0.5 0.266667 0.766667 0.347826 0.652174 2.780797 15.7405
EF 6 0.166667 0.375 1.027174 0 1.666667 0 1.711957 0.615635 9.690407
EH 4 0.25 0.258065 0.605891 2.5 0 1.514727 0 4.930108
FC 4 0.25 0.5 0.75 2.5 0 1.875 0 9.563041
F FE 6 0.166667 0.5 0.166667 0.666667 0.25 0.75 0.326087 1.076087 0 1.666667 0 1.793478 1.793478 13.22467 1 13.22467
FI 4 0.25 0.2 0.45 2.5 0 1.125 0 3.661632
GD 4 0.25 0.083333 0.369048 2.5 0 0.922619 0 3.002926
G 0.25 0.1 0.35 0.285714 0.714286 0.956221 3.002926
GH 10 0.1 0.241935 0.956221 0 1 0 0.956221 1 3.002926
HE 4 0.25 0.173913 0.690042 2.5 0 1.725105 0 5.614845
H HG 10 0.1 0.25 0.266667 0.516667 0.516129 0.483871 0.357143 0.841014 0 1 0 0.841014 2.147465 5.614845 0.391631 2.198947
HI 6 0.166667 0.3 0.783871 0 1.666667 0 1.306452 0.608369 3.415898
IF 4 0.25 0.125 0.525 2.5 0 1.3125 0 4.271905
I 0.25 0.166667 0.416667 0.4 0.6 1.403226 4.271905
IH 6 0.166667 0.241935 0.841935 0 1.666667 0 1.403226 1 4.271905
 Illustrative Example 76
6 6 6 6 6
275
s t u v w x

525
m n o p q r

650
g h i j k l

a b c d e f
∑▒k_g

Member H L K= I/H K=I/L Sum of

Factor Moment Factor
𝐾 c/2 from g/2 from Column
the
Girder
Joint 𝑘 𝑘 If I= 6 𝐺 Column ∑
Column Beam far end far end 𝑐 = 𝑐 + 𝑐/2 = + /2
=𝑐 𝑘 𝐺= 𝑘 Moment Moments Moment
∑
Column Beam Column Beam 𝑐= ∑
= ∑∑ at a Joint
A AG 3 0.333333 0.333333 0 0.333333 1 0 0.1 1.1 2 0 2.2 0 0 412.5 412.5
B BH 3 0.333333 0.333333 0 0.333333 1 0 0.166667 1.166667 2 0 2.333333 0 0 437.5 437.5
C CI 3 0.333333 0.333333 0 0.333333 1 0 0.166667 1.166667 2 0 2.333333 0 0 437.5 437.5
D DJ 3 0.333333 0.333333 0 0.333333 1 0 0.166667 1.166667 2 0 2.333333 0 0 437.5 437.5
E EK 3 0.333333 0.333333 0 0.333333 1 0 0.166667 1.166667 2 0 2.333333 0 0 437.5 437.5
F FL 3 0.333333 0.333333 0 0.333333 1 0 0.1 1.1 2 0 2.2 0 0 412.5 412.5
GA 3 0.333333 0.5 0.7 2 0 1.4 0 262.5
G GH 6 0.166667 0.666667 0.166667 0.833333 0.2 0.8 0.333333 1.133333 0 1 0 1.133333 1.133333 400.9615 1 400.9615
GM 3 0.333333 0.1 0.3 2 0 0.6 0 138.4615
HB 3 0.333333 0.5 0.833333 2 0 1.666667 0 312.5
HI 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.483871 262.8722
H 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2.066667 543.2692
HG 6 0.166667 0.4 1.066667 0 1 0 1.066667 0.516129 280.397
HN 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
IC 3 0.333333 0.5 0.833333 2 0 1.666667 0 312.5
IJ 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 271.6346
I 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2 543.2692
IH 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 271.6346
IO 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
JD 3 0.333333 0.5 0.833333 2 0 1.666667 0 312.5
JK 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 271.6346
J 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2 543.2692
JI 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 271.6346
JP 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
KE 3 0.333333 0.5 0.833333 2 0 1.666667 0 312.5
KL 6 0.166667 0.4 1.066667 0 1 0 1.066667 0.516129 280.397
K 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2.066667 543.2692
KJ 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.483871 262.8722
KQ 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
LF 3 0.333333 0.5 0.7 2 0 1.4 0 262.5
L LK 6 0.166667 0.666667 0.166667 0.833333 0.2 0.8 0.333333 1.133333 0 1 0 1.133333 1.133333 400.9615 1 400.9615
LR 3 0.333333 0.1 0.3 2 0 0.6 0 138.4615
MG 3 0.333333 0.1 0.3 2 0 0.6 0 138.4615
M MN 6 0.166667 0.666667 0.166667 0.833333 0.2 0.8 0.333333 1.133333 0 1 0 1.133333 1.133333 184.2949 1 184.2949
MS 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.366667 2 0 0.733333 0 45.83333
NH 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
NO 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.483871 146.9448
N 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2.066667 303.6859
NM 6 0.166667 0.4 1.066667 0 1 0 1.066667 0.516129 156.7411
NT 3 0.333333 0.25 0.583333 2 0 1.166667 0 72.91667
OI 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
OP 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 151.8429
O 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2 303.6859
ON 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 151.8429
OU 3 0.333333 0.25 0.583333 2 0 1.166667 0 72.91667
PJ 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
PQ 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 151.8429
P 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2 303.6859
PO 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.5 151.8429
PV 3 0.333333 0.25 0.583333 2 0 1.166667 0 72.91667
QK 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 2 0 1 0 230.7692
QR 6 0.166667 0.4 1.066667 0 1 0 1.066667 0.516129 156.7411
Q 0.666667 0.333333 1 0.333333 0.666667 2.066667 303.6859
QP 6 0.166667 0.333333 1 0 1 0 1 0.483871 146.9448
QW 3 0.333333 0.25 0.583333 2 0 1.166667 0 72.91667
RL 3 0.333333 0.1 0.3 2 0 0.6 0 138.4615
R RQ 6 0.166667 0.666667 0.166667 0.833333 0.2 0.8 0.333333 1.133333 0 1 0 1.133333 1.133333 184.2949 1 184.2949
RX 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.366667 2 0 0.733333 0 45.83333
SM 3 0.333333 0.1 0.433333 2 0 0.866667 0 54.16667
S 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 0.333333 0.666667 0.916667 54.16667
ST 6 0.166667 0.25 0.916667 0 1 0 0.916667 1 54.16667
TN 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.666667 2 0 1.333333 0 83.33333
T TU 6 0.166667 0.333333 0.333333 0.666667 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.75 0 1 0 0.75 1.583333 83.33333 0.473684 39.47368
TS 6 0.166667 0.333333 0.833333 0 1 0 0.833333 0.526316 43.85965
UO 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.666667 2 0 1.333333 0 83.33333
U UV 6 0.166667 0.333333 0.333333 0.666667 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.75 0 1 0 0.75 1.5 83.33333 0.5 41.66667
UT 6 0.166667 0.25 0.75 0 1 0 0.75 0.5 41.66667
VP 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.666667 2 0 1.333333 0 83.33333
V VW 6 0.166667 0.333333 0.333333 0.666667 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.75 0 1 0 0.75 1.5 83.33333 0.5 41.66667
VU 6 0.166667 0.25 0.75 0 1 0 0.75 0.5 41.66667
WQ 3 0.333333 0.166667 0.666667 2 0 1.333333 0 83.33333
W WX 6 0.166667 0.333333 0.333333 0.666667 0.5 0.5 0.333333 0.833333 0 1 0 0.833333 1.583333 83.33333 0.526316 43.85965
WV 6 0.166667 0.25 0.75 0 1 0 0.75 0.473684 39.47368
XR 3 0.333333 0.1 0.433333 2 0 0.866667 0 54.16667
X 0.333333 0.166667 0.5 0.333333 0.666667 0.916667 54.16667
XW 6 0.166667 0.25 0.916667 0 1 0 0.916667 1 54.16667
 Illustrative Example 77
Analyse the Building Frame shown using the three methods i.e. Portal, Cantilever and Factor
Method

Shear Forces Bending Moment Axial Forces

Member
Portal Cantilever Factor Portal Cantilever Factor Portal Cantilever Factor
Method Method Method Method Method Method Method Method Method
Girder
 Shear Forces Bending Moment Axial Forces
Member
Portal Cantilever Factor Portal Cantilever Factor Portal Cantilever Factor
Method Method Method Method Method Method Method Method Method
Column