Taylor’s Theorem

And

It’s Applications
Taylor's theorem is named after the mathematician Brook Taylor,
who stated a version of it in 1715.Taylor's theorem gives an
approximation of a k-times differentiable function around a
given point by a polynomial of degree k, called the kth-order
Taylor polynomial. For a smooth function, the Taylor polynomial
is the truncation at the order k of the Taylor series of the
function. The first-order Taylor polynomial is the linear
approximation of the function, and the second-order Taylor
polynomial is often referred to as the quadratic approximation.[1]
There are several versions of Taylor's theorem, some giving
explicit estimates of the approximation error of the function by
its Taylor polynomial.
 STATEMENT OF TAYLOR’S THEOREM
Assume that if f(x) be a real or composite function, which is a differentiable function of a neighbourhood
number that is also real or composite. Then, the Taylor series describes the following power series :

In terms of sigma notation, the Taylor series can be written as :

Examples related to taylor’s theorem
Example-1 : Determine the Taylor series at x=0 for f(x) =

Therefore,
 Example 2 : Evaluate the Taylor Series for f ( x ) = cos ( x ) for x = 0.

Therefore, according to the Taylor series

expansion;
APPLICATIONS
OF TAYLOR’S
THEOREM
1. IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION:
Taylor series is one of the best and powerful applications in order to solve complex problems in many fields, one of that is in
Simple Harmonic motion in the field of mechanical physics.

Sometimes, there is a particle which is oscillating with a large angle or displacement, so the motion of the particle is not purely the
simple harmonic one, there when taylor series comes into play. You can trace a parabola which passes through the minima of the
system. It is the perfect parabola crossing to the point of minimal which will give you information regarding the time period,
velocity or amplitude of the system.

We have a function f(x) and the point of minimum is x0 , so by using taylor series we can approximate the function.

f(x)= f(x0) + (x-x0)(df/dx)x0 + (x-x0)^2(½! d^2f/dx^2)x0 + ………

Now here we have taylor series to expand the f(x). To find the simple harmonic motion the first derivative goes to zero i.e. df/dx=0.
Next for the second derivative test which gives the Hook’ s constant i.e. F= -kx where k is the spring constant in simple harmonic
motion.

So we can write that,

w= where w is the angular frequency.

Here, function represents the potential . Now for particle’s motion you have to determine any minimal, then you can find any
approximate it as the simple harmonic motion and then frequency of the particle.
 TIME PERIOD OF A PENDULUM USING TAYLOR’S SERIES
The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for a pendulum to make one complete back-and-forth swing.
For a pendulum with length l that makes a maximum angle θmax with the vertical, its period T is given by:

T=

where g is the acceleration due to gravity and k=sin(θmax/2). Use the binomial series

to estimate the period of this pendulum. Specifically, approximate the period of the pendulum if

1. you use only the first term in the binomial series, and
2. you use the first two terms in the binomial series.

SOLUTION:

We use the binomial series, replacing x with , then we can write the period as:
TIME PERIOD OF A PENDULUM USING TAYLOR’S SERIES

Using just the first term in the integrand, the first-order estimate is

Since is small, k = is small.

For larger values of , we can approximate T by using more terms in the integrand. By using the
first two terms in the integral, we arrive at the estimate

The applications of Taylor series in this section are intended to highlight their importance. In
general, Taylor series are useful because they allow us to represent known functions using
polynomials, thus providing us a tool for approximating function values and estimating complicated
integrals.
 Power-flow study
In power engineering, the power-flow study, or load-flow study, is a numerical analysis of the flow of electric power
in an interconnected system. A power-flow study usually uses simplified notations such as a one-line diagram and
per-unit system, and focuses on various aspects of AC power parameters, such as voltages, voltage angles, real
power and reactive power. It analyzes the power systems in normal steady-state operation.
Power-flow or load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power systems as well as in
determining the best operation of existing systems. The principal information obtained from the power-flow study
is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus, and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.
Commercial power systems are usually too complex to allow for hand solution of the power flow. Special purpose
network analyzers were built between 1929 and the early 1960s to provide laboratory-scale physical models of
power systems. Large-scale digital computers replaced the analog methods with numerical solutions.
A rough outline of solution of the power-flow problem is:
1. Make an initial guess of all unknown voltage magnitudes and angles. It is common to use a "flat start" in which
all voltage angles are set to zero and all voltage magnitudes are set to 1.0 p.u.
2. Solve the power balance equations using the most recent voltage angle and magnitude values.
3. Linearize the system around the most recent voltage angle and magnitude values
4. Solve for the change in voltage angle and magnitude
5. Update the voltage magnitude and angles
6. Check the stopping conditions, if met then terminate, else go to step 2
There are several different methods of solving the resulting nonlinear system of equations. The most popular is
known as the Newton–Raphson method. This method begins with initial guesses of all unknown variables (voltage
magnitude and angles at Load Buses and voltage angles at Generator Buses). Next, a Taylor Series is written, with
the higher order terms ignored, for each of the power balance equations included in the system of equations .
The result is a linear system of equations that can be expressed as:

The process continues until a stopping condition is met. A common stopping condition is to terminate if
the norm of the mismatch equations is below a specified tolerance
“ Finding Approximations easily through Taylor’s series ”
● Calculators -Ever Wonder how a calculator can figure out sin x, cos x, or a multitude of
other functions so quickly? Using a Maclaurin series ( a Taylor series centered at zero), many
normal functions can be represented as straight forward sums. Calculators are really good
at sums, so in order to make a calculator quickly find sin(x) with 12 decimal point accuracy,
the Taylor series expansion of sin x centered at zero is used. Taylor series are used a lot in
computer programming to help improve computational efficiency, especially with the
trigonometric functions.

● Note- “We are not going to talk about the electronics of a calculator here.
We are going to see how calculators and computers calculate most function values”
Example : To find the value of sin 1 (in radians), a calculator will use the
maclaurin series expansion of sin x that we found earlier.

The calculator substitutes into as many terms of the polynomial that it needs to in order
to get the required number of decimal places. Let’s say our calculator has 6 decimal plac
accuracy.
We simulate what the calculator will do by substituting

One term (the first term of the series )

Two terms

Three terms
Four terms

Five terms

Six terms
Taylor Approximation and The Delta Method
Applying the Taylor Theorem - In many fields where models/functions can
get the Complex taylor series is a useful tool for approximating the
functions locally. In Statistics and Econometrics Delta method in one such
application of taylor series .

The Delta method is the approximate probability distribution for function

of an asymptotically normal statistical estimator , From knowledge of the
limiting variance of that estimator .

Demonstration of this result is fairly simple , To begin we use the mean

value theorem (i.e First order approximations of a taylor Series using
taylor’s theorem)
 Example: Approximate Mean and Variance

Suppose X is a random variable with E(x) = . If we want to estimate a function g(µ), a

first-order approximation like before would give us :

g(X) = g(µ) + g’(µ)(X − µ).

Thus, if we use g(X) as an estimator of g(µ), we can say that approximately

Eg(X) ≈ g(µ),

Var(X) ≈ VarX.

Well, suppose we take g(µ) = 1/µ with µ unknown. If we estimate 1/µ with 1/X, then we can say

As we have seen, we can use these Taylor series approximations to estimate the mean and
variance estimators. As mentioned earlier, we can generalize this into a convergence result
akin to the Central Limit Theorem. This result is known as the Delta Method.
 A Final Word
Linear approximations in particular will find their way into nearly everything you do in
advanced mathematics, so it is essential for you to be comfortable with them.We should note
that Taylor expansions are often written in a this form:

Very often the Taylor’s theorem is used to expand infinite series such as sin x or

However, it can be applied to functions that can be expanded finitely. You may then find the
theorem very useful in dealing with polynomials or partial fractions.
 CONTRIBUTORS
❖ Aditya Parag Adhyapak - 21BEC10028 (Delta Method)
❖ Kavyansh Shukla - 21BSA10066 (Calculator Example)
❖ Lavanya Basera - 21BMR10007 (Application in SHM)
❖ Meghna Shaw - 21BCY10206 (Pendulum time period example)
❖ Shakti Singh - 21BCY10219 (Mean and variance example)
❖ Sujal Kumar Sen - 21BCY10064 (Powerflow study)
❖ Rahul Ganesh Thevar - 21BCY10036 (Powerflow study)
❖ Raj Vijay Deshmukh - 21BSA10031 ( Calculator Theory)
❖ Charush Jain - 21BCY10013 (Introduction)
❖ Vansh Mittal - 21BCY10116 (Introduction)
❖ Ashish Chaudhary - 21BCY10079 (A final word)
❖ Divyansh Dagar - 21BCY10141 (Conclusion)
❖ Baba Sekhar - 21BCY10207 (Conclusion)