Nanik Mariani

Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

AN INTRODUCTION TO

LINGUISTICS

Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

i
 National Library : Catalog in print

An Introduction to Linguistics

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

viii + 148 pages, 21 x 29,7 cm

ISBN : 978-602-53643-6-5

Editor :
Fahmi Hidayat
Bayu

Cover desainer:
Galih Rizki Khairul Ulum

Second Printing : November 2019 (Revison)

Published by
Jurusan PBS FKIP Universitas Lambung Mangkurat Banjarmasin, Kalimantan
Selatan, Indonesia

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, we have accomplished this learning and teaching material for the subject of
Introduction to Linguistics. First, we are indebted to the Rector of and Dean of Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary facilities in
accomplishing it.
We are indebted to the Head of UPT Bahasa, Lambung Mangkurat University, Prof. Dr.
Fatchul Mu’in, M.Hum., for giving us the opportunity of revising our Teaching Material of
Introduction to Linguistics to be adopted and adapted in the form of monograph. Also, to Dean of
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary
facilities in accomplishing it. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Jumariati, M.Pd, and Dr.
Sainul Hermawan, M.Hum. as the chairperson and the secretary of the Department of Language and
Arts, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University for motivating and
providing us the chance to use the office facilities. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr.
Noor Eka Chandra, M.Pd., the Head of English Language Education Program, Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, motivating and providing us to provide the
references for the students of the English Language Education Program.
We would also like to express our appreciation to Prof. Emer. M.P. Lambut, Dra.Nirmala Sari,
M.A Drs. Aris Djinal, Dr. H. Ahmad Sofyan, M.A, Prof. Dr. Abdul Muth’im, M.Pd, and Dr. Cayandrawati
Sutionom M.A, as well as Dr. Rina Listia, M.Pd, the senior lecturers of English Education Study
Program for sharing their ideas and academic experiences with us.
Banjarmasin, November 2019

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

iii
iv
Acknowledgments

Contents

Preface

Chapter I What is Language? / 1- 8

Chapter II Language in Social Context / 9 - 12

Chapter III Linguistics & Language Teaching/ 13 - 18

Chapter IV Phonetics /19 - 30

Chapter v Phonology / 31 - 34

Chapter VI Morphology / 35 - 46

Chapter VII Syntax / 47 - 54

Chapter VIII Transformational Generative Grammar/55 - 62

Chapter IX Semantics/63 - 78

Chapter X Pragmatics / 79 - 94

Chapter XI Discourse Analysis / 95 - 114

Chapter XII Sociolinguistics / 115 - 138

Chapter XIII Psycholinguistics / 139 - 148

REFERENCES

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 PREFACE

The book entitled An Introduction to Linguistics is intended for providing materials

to our students attending the subject of Introduction to Linguistics. Up to the present time,
the subject has been lectured by using the handouts as a result of our compilation of some
references on language and linguistics. This book is written based on the handouts that have
been used since the writers handled the subject.
The materials discussed in this book cover What is a Language, Characteristics of
Language, What is Linguistics, Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax,
Transformational Grammar, Semantics, Sociolinguistics, and Psycholinguistics. In What is a
language, the writers elaborate on the definition and concept of Human Language and
Animal Language. In Characteristics of the human language, they explain some concepts on
“A language is systematic, A language is arbitrary, A language is social, A language is
spoken, A language is used for communication, and A language is complete for its
speakers.”
In Linguistics and Language Teaching, they present the definition of linguistics and
its branches of linguistics, and linguistics in language teaching.
In Phonetics, they present the concept of phonetics and organs of speech are used for
producing speech sounds, both vowels, and consonants, and will be explained how to
differentiate voiced from voiceless sounds. While in classification of consonants, the kinds of
consonants based on (a) Manner of Articulation, namely: Plosives/Stops, Fricatives,
Affricates, Nasals, Lateral/Liquids, and Semi-vowels/Glides, and (b) Place of Articulation,
namely: Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Palatal, Velar, dan Glottal sounds will
be explained in detail so that the students understand the mechanism of producing the
consonants. In the classification of vowels, the kinds of vowels: (a) Front, Central, Back
Vowels, (b) Open, Half-open, Close, Half-close vowels, and (c) Rounded and Unrounded
Vowels and (d) Tenses and Lax Vowels will be elaborated.
In Phonology, the definition of phonology and the difference between phonetics and
phonology will be presented. Also, in this chapter, phonemes, phones, and allophones will
be discussed; these sub-topics include the ways to identify phonemes and phones, and also
allophonic variation. The minimal pairs and minimal sets are also presented. The other sub-
topic contains a brief description of Phonological Rules and its types such as Aspiration,
Vowel Lengthening, Vowel Nasalization, Flapping, dan Nasal Deletion. The description is
meant to help students to classify sounds in the processes of aspiration, vowel lengthening,
vowel nasalization, flapping, and nasal deletion.
In Morphology, the definition of morphology, differences between phonemes and
morphemes, differences between morphemes dan allomorph, and types of morphemes: Free
morphemes and Bound morphemes are presented. This chapter also discusses the Word-
formation process to show the students the process of word-formations (inflection and
derivation).
In Syntax, the definition of syntax, content words and functional words, syntactical
construction, and its types and sub-types, syntactic devices, and syntactical analysis are
presented and elaborated. In Transformational-Generative Grammar, the definition of TG
Grammar and its principles, and types of transformation are discussed briefly.

vii
 In Semantics, the definition of semantics and its aspects are discussed. While in
Pragmatics, the definition of pragmatics and the difference between pragmatics and
semantics are elaborated. While in Sociolinguistics, the definition of sociolinguistics,
Language in socio-cultural aspects, Language variation, Language use, etc. are explained.
And, in Psycholinguistics, the definition of psycholinguistics, the relation of linguistics and
psychological aspects, language acquisition and language learning, mastery of two or more
languages are presented.

viii
 Chapter VIII

TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE GRAMMAR
Fatchul Mu’in

What is Grammar?
A grammar is defined as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the
language under analysis. The term producing may be replaced by generating. Therefore term
generative grammar is used. Speaker’s language knowledge (=grammar, vocabulary and
pronunciation) enable to produce a grammatical sentence, and transform it into some new
sentences.
By a grammar a speaker will be able to generate all the well-formed syntactic structures
(e.g. phrases and/or sentences) of the language. This grammar will have a finite (or limited)
number of rules, but will be able to generate an infinite number of well-formed structures.
Each adult speaker of a language clearly has some type of ‘mental grammar’, that is, a
form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of
appropriately structures expressions in that language. Second concept of a grammar is that it
refers to linguistic etiquette, that is, the identification of the proper or best structures to be used
in a language. Third concept of a grammar is that it involves the study and analysis of the
structures found in a language, usually with the aim of establishing a description of the
grammar of a given language as distinct from the grammar of any other language.

Transformational-Generative Grammar
A speaker who knows a language, he can speak and be understood by oth- ers who
know that language. This means that he is able to produce sounds which signify certain
meanings and to understand or interpret the sounds by others (Fromkin, Victoria and Robert
Rodman, p.1-2). In other words, we can say that when someone knows a language, he can make
sentences in accordance with his purposes. Starting from a word book, he may pro- duce
phrases such as: a book, the book, many books, etc.; based on the phrases he may produce some
sentences such as: It is a book, there is a book on the table; the book is yours; and there are
many books in the room, etc.
A grammar includes phrase-structure rules, lexical-insertion rules, and transformational
rules. The grammar can be thought of as a machine which generates all the possible sentences of
the language. A grammar con- taining such rules is called a generative grammar. When the
rules include transformational rules, we have a transformational-generative grammar (Fromkin,
Victoria and Robert Rodman, p.224).

Kinds of Sentences
In short, a sentence can be said as a group of words, at least, that consists of two words
used as the subject and its predicate. Such a sentence is a simple one; it only consists of a subject
and its predicate (verb) and some- times followed by an object or a complement. Beside such a
pattern of sentence, we are necessary to understand several kinds of sentences to- gether with
their patterns. The sentences can be classified into several kinds.
The sentences may be classified according their purpose, time (tense) and their complexity of

55 An Introduction to Linguistics
structures or construction, kind and number of their clauses. If the sentences are classified
according to their purpose, they can be in four kinds: (1) declarative, (2) interrogative, (3)
imperative, and (4) exclamatory sentences.
If the sentences are classified according to their tenses, they can be in: (1) past, (2)
present, and (3) future tenses. The sentences in the past tense can be classified into: (1) simple
past tense, (2) past continuous tense, and (3) past perfect continuous tense; those in the present
tense can classified into: (1) simple present tense, (2) present continuous tense, (3) present
perfect tense, and (4) present perfect continuous tense; and those in the future tense can be
classified can classified into: (1) simple future tense, (2) past future tense, (3) future perfect
tense, (4) future continuous tense, and (5) future perfect continuous tense.
If the sentences are classified according to their complexity of con- struction, they are (1) simple
sentences, (2) compound sentences, (3) com- plex sentences, and (4) compound-complex
sentences.
Let us consider the following sentences:
1. The newspapers refused to report the murder.
2. They were afraid to report the murder.
3. The newspapers refused to report the murder because they were afraid to report the
murder.
4. The newspapers refused to report the murder because they were afraid to.
If we discuss the above sentences, for instance, based on the purpose of producing the
sentences, we can say that those sentences are classified into the declarative sentences; based on
the tense to express the sentence, those sentences are in the simple past tense; and based on the
complexity of their structures, the first two sentences are simple sentences, and the second two
sentences are categorized as compound sentences.
The speaker’s linguistic knowledge enables the speaker to combine the two sentences (1 and 2)
into a compound sentence (3): The newspapers refused to report the murder because they were afraid
to report the murder.
The speaker, then, delete the second verb phrase (report the murder) to avoid from
repetition. Thus, the sentence he produces is : The newspapers refused to report the murder because
they were afraid to (4.)

Langue and Parole

The study of speech sounds in a language is not an end in itself in linguis- tics. The goal
is to find out what speech sound units are used to distin- guish and also to convey meaning,
and how they are combined to form sentences. In other words, it is aimed at revealing the
underlying system of the language.
Ferdinand de Saussure, a notable Swiss linguist, calls it langue or the language system
as apposed to parole or the act of speaking. To him langue is the totality of a language, which
can be deduced from an examination of the memories off all the language users; it is something
like a combina- tion of grammar + vocabulary + pronunciation system of a community.
However, langue in itself has no reality unless it is manifested through the actual, concrete act
of speaking on the part of individual. When the actual, concrete act of speaking is conducted,
the parole is manifested (Ramelan, 1984 ).

56 An Introduction to Linguistics
Linguistic Competence vs Linguistic Performance
The dichotomy of langue and parole is almost similar to the transformationalist’s
dichotomy of linguistic competence and linguistic per- formance. Linguistic competence refers
to the speaker and hearer’s knowl- edge about language, while linguistic performance is quite
the same as parole, i.e. the actual use of the language which can be directly observed.

Deep Structures and Surface Structures

Deep structure refers to one that provides an explicit meaning of the sentence or its
constituent, a meaning which is often not contained in any explicit way in the surface structure.
Deep structure provides meaning; sur- face structure provides form of the sentence.
Thus we can say that the deep structure of a sentence gives its mean- ing because the deep
structure contains all of the information needed to determine the meaning of a sentence. The
most important question of all is : How is the deep structure of a sentence becomes a surface
structure? A deep structure becomes a surface structure via transformations.

Transformation
Transformation is defined as a process which converts deep structures into surface
structures. There are some kinds of transformations:

1. Interrogative Transformation
As has been stated above, based on the purpose of producing a sentence, a speaker may
want to give a question to another. If he wants to do this, firstly he determines an interrogative
sentence in his mind and then he constructs his sentence in an interrogative sentence. His deep
structure can be drawn as: Question + Declarative Sentence. Let us take an example below:
Question + Anyone can solve this problem.
This interrogative transformation changes the word order of the deep structure so as to
generate the surface structure.
Can anyone solve this problem?
2. Negative Transformation
In producing a sentence, a speaker may deny, for instance, the desirability of the study
of Plato by undergraduates. Before producing the sentence, he determines a negative sentence
in his mind and then he constructs his sentence in an negative sentence. His deep structure can
be drawn as:
Negative+ Declarative Sentence.
Negative + Undergraduates should study Plato.
The negative transformation changes the deep structure into the surface structure by converting
the Negative constituent into not and inserting it after should. The surface structure is :
Undergraduates should not study Plato.
The sur-face structure is called intermediate structure. The surface structure Undergraduates
should not study Plato would become an inter- mediate structure if the final surface structure
were to be Undergradu ates shouldn’t study Plato. The transformation which may (optionally)
apply to a structure such as that above is the contraction transformation. The conversion of
“not” into “n’t” is done via the contraction transfor- mation.

57 An Introduction to Linguistics
3. Passive Transformation
The interchanged constituents must be noun phrases. The passive transformation can
interchange noun phrases regardless of the num- ber or kinds of words that each includes. This
property of the passive transformation is, in fact, an example of a general property of all trans-
formations: the ability to operate on constituents such as noun phrases without being affected
by the words which make up the con- stituent.
1. a. Frank distrusted Kamamazov.
b. Karamazov was distrusted by Frank.
2. a. Daisy puzzled Winterbourne
b. Winterbourne was puzzled by Daisy.
Although 1a is an active sentence in which the. subject is “Frank,” and 1b is a passive
sentence in which the subject is “Karamazov,” we know that the two sentences are
synonymous.
The same statement may be made about 2a and 2b. The explana- tion for this is that, in
each pair, the a and b sentences have identical deep structures, and, for present purposes, we
will assume that they are identical. If the passive transformation is not applied to it, the above
structure is equivalent to the surface structure of sentence 2b. If the passive transformation is
not applied to it, the above structure is equiva- lent to the surface structure of sentence 2b.
If you compare the deep and surface structures above, you will see that the following changes
have been made by the passive transforma- tion:
First, the constituents “Daisy” and “Winterbourne” have been in- terchanged. Second , “was”, a
form of “be”, has been introduced.
Finally, the preposition “by” has been inserted before the constituent“Daisy”. The
passive transformation can be described as the process which interchanges the constituents
“Daisy” and ‘“Winterbourne.” But, obviously, this is not enough, for it only defines what occurs
in a spe- cific sentence. (The passive transformation, of course, not only inter- changes the two
constituents, but also introduces a form of “be” and adds the preposition “by.” When we speak
of the interchange of con- stituents by the passive transformation, we assume the other
alterations of the phrase structure.)

4. Reflexive Transformation
Before discussing this kind of transformation, let us consider the following sentences; These
sentences are often called reflexive sentences.
1. a. I shot myself.
b. You shot yourself.
c. He shot himself.
d. She shot herself.
e. We shot ourselves.
f. They shot themselves.
These sentences, of course, involve the uses of reflexive pronouns. What is the interpretation of
reflexive pronoun? This pronoun is al- ways understood as referring to a noun phrase
previously mentioned in the sentence. So, we cannot say:
*Elisa shot themselves.

58 An Introduction to Linguistics
 The sentence is not grammatical because of the use of inappropri- ate reflexive pronoun
themselves. The reflexive pronoun must be changed into herself to make the sentence
grammatical. So, the sentence be- comes Elisa shot herself.
In this relation, we can assume that the deep structures of the six sentences contain noun
phrases identical to the subject noun phrases. The six sentences are derived from their deep
structures as follows:
1. a. *I shot I.
b. *You shot you.
c. *He shot he.
d. *She shot she.
e. *We shot we.
f. *They shot they.
These deep structures have to be transformed by the reflexive trans- formation. This kind of
transformation is applied whenever two noun phrases appear in the same simple sentence
are identical. When it is applied, the second of the identical noun phrases is converted into
the corresponding reflexive pronoun.

5. Imperative Transformation
An imperative sentence involves a speaker as first person, and his hearer as second
person. The first person may be in the singular (I) or plural form (we), and the second person
(you) can be used either in the singular or plural form.
This imperative sentence is produced for the sake of asking or commanding someone to do
something. The person producing the sentence is the first person and the sentence itself is
addressed to the second person. For instance, a sentence Go home! involves you as the subject
of sentence. In fact, the sentence is generated from (You) go home!. Let us consider the
following sentences:
1. a. wash the car!
b. wash the windows!
2. a. He washed the car.
b. Those girls washed the car.
The sentences 1a and 1b are the imperative sentences. These sen- tences do not have an
explicit subject as the sentences 2a and 2b do. The subject of the former sentences is implicitly
stated, namely: you and not he or some other noun phrase.
There are sentences which are both imperative and reflexive. Their deep subject must be you.
For instance,
3. a. Wash yourself!
b. Wash yourselves!
The sentences above must originally have involved the subject phrases containing you
as the subject of the deep structures.
You wash you! (singular) You wash you! (plural).
In this relation, at least two transformations had to be applied to convert the deep
structures into surface structures. The first is the reflex- ive transformation which must be
applied. The results are :
You wash yourself! You wash yourselves!

59 An Introduction to Linguistics
The second, the imperative transformation, must be applied to change the sentences into the
imperative ones, by deleting the subject you of the reflexive sentences to generate the sentences
as stated above:
a. Wash yourself!
b. Wash yourselves!

6. Particle Movement Transformation

Particles look like prepositions, but they are different from prepo- sitions in several
ways. For instance, particles can occur on both sides of the Noun Phrase direct object such as in:
(1). a. The detective looks up the address.
b. The detective looks the address up.
And prepositions do not occur on this way:
(2). a. The detective ran up the stairs.
b. *The detective ran the stairs up.
Through the particle movement transformation, a particle as in the sentence 1a can be
repositioned to directly follow the direct object as in the sentence 1b.
7. Adverbial Phrase-Movement Transformation
A sentence may involve an adverb or adverbial phrase such as:
He opened the present eagerly.
The adverb eagerly is positioned after the noun phrase (the present). This kind of
transformation can move an adverb to a position either at the beginning of the sentence or at the
beginning of the verb phrase. The results are:
He eagerly opened the present,
Eagerly he opened the present.

8. Indirect-Object Transformation
This kind of transformation can be explained by using the fol- lowing example:
Father gave me some money.

When the sentence is changed, the result is :

Father gave some money to me.

The transformation shows that the direct object ‘some money’ is placed after the verb
‘gave’. In this case, ‘to’ is used before the objective pronoun ‘me’

9. Joining two or more sentences into one sentence

There are also transformations that change two or more sentences into one. That is, they
join sentences together. The results may be com- pound sentences or complex sentences or
combination of compound and complex sentences.
a. The man is my brother.
b. The man came to dinner.
The transformation places the second sentence after man in the first sentence and then
replaces the man in the second sentence by who. The result is:
The man who came to dinner is my brother.

60 An Introduction to Linguistics
Deep Structure, Surface Structure and Ambiguity
Structural linguistics cannot make explicit the kind of relations between sentences; and it
cannot solve the problem of ambiguity because it only results one IC analysis on the sentence
with two different interpretations. On the other hand, Transformational-Generative Grammar
(TG Grammar) can make explicit the kind of relations between and can solve the problem of
ambiguous sentence.
The following sentences are ambiguous ones; they give two mean- ings (two deep
structures):
1. The shooting of the hunters occurred at dawn can have two meanings.
a. The hunters were shot at dawn. In this relation, the sentence is trans- formed from :
Somebody shot the hunters. The shooting occurred at dawn.
b. The hunters went shooting at dawn. In this relation, the sentence is transformed from:
The hunters shot somebody. The shooting occurred at dawn.
2. John is difficult to love.
a. John may have a personal problem. Because of his personal prob- lem he is difficult to
love someone
b. John may have determined some criteria of a girl he wants to love. The girl who does not
fulfill the criteria is rejected. He is difficult to be loved.

Conclusion
A grammar includes phrase-structure rules, lexical-insertion rules, and trans-
formational rules. The grammar can be thought of as a machine which generates all the possible
sentences of the language. A grammar contain- ing such rules is called a generative grammar.
When the rules include trans- formational rules, we have a transformational-generative grammar.
In this discussion, some aspects related to TG Grammar are presented such as langue vs. parole,
competence vs performance, deep and surface structures, kinds of transformation, and
ambiguities in sentences.

61 An Introduction to Linguistics
62 An Introduction to Linguistics
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