Imagery as a general term covers the use of or thing that is an abstract, inanimate, or

language to represent objects, actions, feelings, inexistent character.

thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory Example: “Death be not proud, though some
experience. It is a figurative language used to have called thee.”
appeal to the senses through vivid descriptive
language. Imagery creates mental pictures in - John Donne, “Death Be Not Proud”
the reader as they read the text. 6.Hyperbole – a figure of speech which
Example: contains an exaggeration for emphasis.
An excerpt from Peter Redgrove’s Lazarus and Example: “To make enough noise to wake the
the Sea contains imagery: The tide of my death dead.”
came whispering like this – R. Davies, “What’s Bred in the Bone”
Soiling my body with its tireless voice.
I scented the antique moistures when they 7.Synecdoche – a figure of speech in which the
sharpened part stands for the whole, and thus something
The air of my room, made the rough wood of my else is understood within the thing mentioned.
bed, (most dear), Standing out like roots in my Example: “Give us this day out daily bread”
tall grave. *Bread stands for the meals taken each day.

Diction refers to the selection of words in a 8.Metonymy – a figure of speech in which the
literary work. A work’s diction forms one of its name of an attribute or a thing is substituted for
centrally important literary elements as writers the thing itself.
use words to convey action, reveal character, Example: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend
imply attitudes, identify themes, and suggest me your ears.”
values. It includes the formality of the language, – William Shakespeare, “Julius Caesar”
the emotional content, the imagery, the *Lend me your ears = to pay attention; to listen
specificity, and the sounds of the words.
Example:
9.Oxymoron – a figure of speech which
“I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold,
combines incongruous and apparently
Or all the riches that East doth hold.”
contradictory words and meanings for a special
Anne Bradstreet, “To My Dear and Loving effect.Example: “Here’s much to do with hate,
Husband” but more with love.
Why then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O
FIGURES OF SPEECH anything! of nothing first create!
Figures of speech are words or phrases used in O heavy lightness! serious vanity!
a non-literal sense for rhetorical or vivid effect.
Mis-shapen chaos of well-seeming forms!”
The most common figures of speech are simile,
- William Shakespeare, “Romeo and Juliet”
metaphor, onomatopoeia, personification,
apostrophe, hyperbole, synecdoche,
metonymy, oxymoron, and paradox. 10. Paradox – a statement which seems on
its face to be logically contradictory or absurd
1.Simile – a stated comparison (formed with yet turns out to be interpretable in a way that
“like” or “as” between two fundamentally makes sense. Example: “One short sleep past,
dissimilar things that have certain qualities in we wake eternally And death shall be no more;
common. Example: “Does it dry up like a raisin STRUCTURE OF POETRY
in the sun?” – Langston Hughes, “Harlem” One significant way to analyse poems is by
looking into the stanza structure and the
2.Metaphor – an implied comparison between form of the poem. Generally speaking,
two unlike things that have something in structure refers to the overall organization of
common. lines and/or the conventional patterns of
Example: “Hope is the thing with feathers – sound. However, various modern poems
That perches in the soul –” may not have particular structure.
- Emily Dickinson, “Hope is the Thing with
Feathers” A. Stanza
Stanzas refer to series of lines grouped
together and separated by a space from
3.Onomatopoeia – uses words that imitate other stanzas. They correspond to a
sounds associated with objects or actions.
paragraph in an essay. Identifying the
Example: “The crooked skirt swinging, whack by stanza is done by counting the number of
whack by whack.”- James Joyce, “Ulysses” lines. The following are some of the terms
used to refer to the number of stanzas:
4.Personification – endows human qualities or monostich (1 line) couplet (2 lines), tercet (3
abilities to inanimate objects or abstraction. lines), quatrain (4 lines), cinquain (5 lines),
Example: “Ah, William, we’re wary of the sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a
weather,” said the sunflowers shining with dew. – sexain), septet (7 lines), octave (8 lines).
William Blake, “Two Sunflowers Move in the
Yellow Room”

5.Apostrophe – is addressing an absent person B. Form

In many cases, a poem may not have
specific lines or stanza, and metrical a.Ballad. It is a narrative poem that has a
pattern, however, it can still be labelled musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad
according to its form or style. Here, we will is usually organized into quatrains or
discuss the three most common types of cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure,
poetry according to form are: lyric, and tells the tales of ordinary people.
descriptive and narrative. We will also b.Epic. It is a long narrative poem in
include other popular types of poetry. elevated style recounting the deeds of a
legendary or historical hero.
1. Lyric Poetry. It is any poem with one
speaker (not necessarily the poet) who 1.Descriptive Poetry. It is a poem that
expresses strong thoughts and feelings. describes the world that surrounds the
Most poems, especially modern ones, are speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and
lyric poems. Below are some types of lyric adjectives. While emotional, it is more
poetry. "outward-focused" than lyric poetry,
which is more personal and introspective.
a. Ode. An ode is a lyric poem that praises
an individual, an idea or an event. The OTHER FORMS OF POETRY
length is usually moderate, the subject is 1. Haiku. It has an unrhymed verse form
serious, the style is elevated and the having three lines (a tercet) and usually
stanza pattern is elaborate. In Ancient 5,7,5 syllables, respectively. It is usually
Greece, odes were originally accompanied considered a lyric poem.
by music. In fact, the word “ode” comes
from the Greek word aeidein, which means 2. Limerick. It has a very structured poem,
to sing or to dance. usually humorous & composed of five lines
(a cinquain), in an AABBA rhyming pattern;
b. Elegy. An elegy is written with a beat must be anapestic (weak, weak,
purpose to “mourn the dead”. It usually strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2
begins by reminiscing about the dead feet in lines 3 & 4. It is usually a narrative
person, then weeps for the reason of poem based upon a short and often ribald
death, and then resolves the grief by anecdote.
concluding that death leads to immortality.
It has no set stanza or metrical pattern. It Mga Gawaing Pampag-iisip sa Akademiya
often uses "apostrophe" as a literary Ang salitang akademiya ay mula sa mga
technique. salitang Prances na académié, sa Latin na
academia, at sa Griyego na academeia. Ang huli
ay mula naman sa Academos, ang bayaning
c.Sonnet. It is a lyric poem consisting of 14
Griyego, kung saan ipinangalan ni Plato ang
lines and, in the English version, is usually
hardin.
written in iambic pentameter. The three
basic kinds of sonnets are:
Malikhain at Mapanuring Pag-iisip
Ang mapanuring pag-iisip ay ang paggamit ng
 Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after kaalaman, kakayahan, pagpapahalaga, at talion
Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The upang epektibong harapin ang mga sitwasyon at
Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave hamon sa buhay-akadmiko at maging sa mga
(eight lines) and a sestet (six lines). It tends gawaing di-akademiko.
to divide the thought into two parts
(argument and conclusion). The rhyming Akademiko vs. Di-Akademiko
pattern is ABBA ABBA CDECDE, or some Ang salitang akademiko o academic ay mula sa
accepted sestet such as CDCCDC, wikang Europeo (Prances:academique;
CDDCDE or CDCDCD Medieval Latin: academicus) noong gitnang
 Shakespearean sonnet consists of bahagi ng ika-16 na siglo. Tumutukoy ito o may
three quatrains (four lines each) and a kaugnayan sa edukasyon, iskolarsyip,
concluding couplet (two lines). The final institusyon, o larangan ng pag-aaral na
couplet is the summary. The rhyming nagbibigay-tuon sa pagbasa, pagsulat, at pag-
pattern is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. aaral, kaiba sa praktikal o teknikal na gawain
 Spenserian Sonnet is divided into three
quatrains, or segments of four lines, Mga Batayang Kaalaman sa Pagsulat
followed by a rhyming couplet. The Ano ang pagsulat? Ang mga sumusunod ay iba’t
rhyming pattern is usually ABAB BCBC ibang pananaw tungkol sa pagsulat:
CDCD EE.  Ang pagsulat ay ang masistemang paggamit ng
mga grapikong marka na kumakatawan sa
2.Narrative Poetry. It is a poem that tells a espesipikong lingguwistikong pahayag (Rogers,
story; its structure resembles the plot line 2005). Ibig sabihin, may natatanging simbolo
of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict (mga titik, bantas, at iba pang marka) para sa
and characters, rising action, climax and bawat ponema o tunog, at ang mga simbolong
the denouement. The most common types ito ang ginagamit sa pagsusulat ng mga
of narrative poetry are ballad and epic. pahayag.
 Ang pagsulat ay Sistema ng permanente o Mga Gamit ng Akademikong Pagsulat
malapermanenteng pananda na kumakatawan Sa pagbabasa ng sanaysay, encyclopedia,
sa mga pahayag (Daniel & Bright, 1996). batayang aklat, balita at iba pang akademikong
Permanente dahil nakasulat o nakaukit ang mga sulatin, maoobserbahang may iba’t ibang gamit
pananda sa papel, kahoy, bato at iba pang o hulwarang ginagamit upang maging malinaw
material. Ihambing ang tulang isinulat upang ang daloy ng mga ideya. Kabilang ditto ang mga
basahin sa tulang binigkas upang basahin sa sumusunod.
tulang binigkas upang mapakinggan. Maaari
mong balikan (o muling basahin) ang una nang a.Depinisyon – pagbibigay ng katuturan sa
walang interbensiyon ng makata dahil nakasulat konsepto o termino. Halimbawa, ang pormal na
ito, samantalang kailangang bigkasing muli ng depinisyon ng “Kalayaan,” mga salitang
makata ang tula kung nais mo itong marinig kasingkahulugan nito, at etimolohiya o
muli. pinanggalingan ng salitang ito.
 Masistema ang pagsulat dahil bawat pananda b.Enumerasyon – pag-uuri o pagpapangkat ng
ay may katumbas na makabuluhang tunog at mga halimbawang nabibilang sa isang uri o
isinaayos ang mga panandang ito upang klasipikasyon.
makabuo ng makabuluhang salita o c. Order – pagsusunud-sunod ng mga
pangungusap, Masistema ang pagsulat dahil pangyayari o proseso. Halimbawa, kronolohiya
ginagabayan ito ng mga batas sa gramatika. ng mga pangyayari sa Pilipinas mula 1896
 Ang pagsulat ay nakadepende sa wika. Kung hanggang 1898, proseso sa pagluluto ng adobo,
walang wika, walang pagsulat. at pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari na
 Arbitraryo ang mga Sistema ng pagsulat. nagdulot sa paglubog ng barkong MV Doῆa Paz.
Napagkasunduan ang tumbasan ng mga titik, d.Paghahambing – pagtatanghal ng
ang kahulugan ng salita, ang kabuluhan ng pagkakatulad o pagkakaiba ng mga tao
pagpapahayag. Sa ibang salita, nag-iiba-iba ang (Benigno Aquino III at Gloria Macapagal-
Sistema ng pagsulat depende sa wika at kultura. Arroyo), lugar (Coron at El Nido), pangyayari
Halimbawa, ang alagang hayop na tinaguriang (EDSA I, EDSA II, at EDSA III), konsepto
bestfriend ng tao ay isinusulat na “aso” sa (katarungan at hustisya, at iba pa.
Filipino, “dog” sa Ingles, at “perro” sa Espanyol. e.Sanhi at Bunga – paglalahad ng mga dahilan
 Ang pagsulat ay isang paraan ng pagrerekord at ng pangyayari o bagay at ang kaugnay na
pagpepreserba ng wika. epekto nito. Halimbawa, dahil sa kawalan ng
 Kominikasyon ang isa sa mga pangunahing disiplina sa pagtatapon ng basura (sanhi),
layunin ng pagsulat (Fischer, 2001). lagging bumabaha sa kalakahang Maynila
(bunga).
 Ang pagsusulat ay simbolong kumakatawan sa
f. Problema at Solusyon – paglalahad ng mga
kultura at tao.
suliranin at pagbibigay ng mga posibleng lunas
 Ang pagsulat ay pundasyon ng sibilisasyon
sa mga ito. Halimbawa, edukasyon ang sagot sa
(Goody, 1987).
kahirapan.
g.Kalakasan at Kahinaan – paglalahad ng
Mga Layunin sa Akademikong Pagsulat
positibo at negatibong katangian ng isa o higit
Karamihan sa mga batayang aklat at iba pang
pang bagay, sitwasyon o pangyayari.
babasahin tungkol sa pagbasa, pagsulat, at
Halimbawa, mga kalakasan at kahinaan ng
pagtatalumpati ay nagpapaliwanag na ang
programang K to 12 sa Sistema ng edukasyon
bawat anyo ng komunikasyon ay may isa sa
sa Pilipinas.
mga sumusunod na layunin: magpabatid, mang-
aliw at manghikayat.
BIG BANG THEORY
Ang impormatibong akademikong sulatin ay
The existence of all matter is believed to have
nagbibigay ng kaalaman at paliwanag. Nito ang
started with the birth of the universe. There are
balita, lahok sa encyclopedia, ulat na
many theories effortly trying to explain what
nagpapaliwanag sa estadistika, papel na
happened to the beginning of the universe.
nagpapaliwanag ng konsepto, sulatin tungkol sa
These theories were classified into scientific and
kasaysayan, tesis at iba pa.
theological theories (theories of the different
Tanggap na sa kasalukuyan ang mga personal
religions). However, the most widely accepted
o malikhaing akda bilang mga halimbawa ng
scientific explanation to the origin of the universe
akademikong sulatin. Halimbawa sa mga
is the Big Bang Theory.
disiplinang nag-aaral ng panitikan, sining,
kultura, at kasarian, itinuturing na akademikong
teksto ang autobiography, diary, liham at iba pa.
mayroong mga kritikal o akademikong akda na
naisusulat sa paraang malikhain gaya ng rebuy,
pagsusuri o talang pangkasaysayan. Bukod sa
pagbibigay ng impormasyon, nagbibigay din ng
aliw ang mga tekstong ito sa mambabasa.
Ang sulating nanghihikayat naman ay may
layuning kumbinsihin o impluwensyahan ang
mamababasa na pumanig sa isang paniniwala,
opinion o katuwiran. Halimbawa ng ganitong Figure 1.1. The
akademikong sulatin ang konseptong papel, Big Bang Theory
(Imagewww.express.co.uk/news/science/1195939/Big-Bang-
theory-science-physicists-simulate-universe-cosmic-
source:
According to the Big Bang Theory, our universe
started approximately 14 billion years ago as a
“singularity”, a hot dense mass, one centimeter
in diameter. The singularity experienced a huge
inflation, spreading its products as a fast moving
cloud of gas. This event was accompanied by an
emission of a huge amount of light. On the first
second after the inflation, sub-atomic particles,
such as protons (+), neutrons (n) and electrons
(-) were formed. Because of too much heat,
these particles can’t bond together to form
atoms. As the expanding universe cooled,
protons and neutrons starterd to combine,
forming heavier nuclei of deuterium (hyrogen
isotope with one proton and one neutron).
Isotopes are atoms of element that have the
same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. Tritium, another form of hydrogen From a small, young, yellow star, it had
isotope, is formed when a neutron fuses with a undergone successive nuclear reactions until it
deuterium. became a giant red star. These reactions occur
inside and it forms different layers or regions of
elements called fusion shells (refer to Fig. 1.5).
These layers add up to the size of the star, in
different regions described like the structure of
an onion.
Inside the yellow stars, energy from the
fusion of hydrogen nuclei forms helium via
nuclear fusion. Once the amount of helium
produced were enough, they will be
concentrated at the core of the star, making it
hotter. Hydrogen fusion continues, but it occurs
outside the helium core.

As the process progresses, atomic nuclei join to

form a new type of isotope, resulting in the
formation of light elements (hydrogen, helium,
and lithium). In this processes, there are also
two isotopes of helium can be formed (refer to
Fig 1.3 and Fig 1.4). These processes in which
light elements are formed is called Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis. Astronomers believed in the
early processes of Big Bang, the universe was
composed of approximately 75% hydrogen and
25% helium, and trace amounts of lithium.

STELLAR FORMATION AND

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS (FORMATION OF
HEAVY ELEMENTS)
With the continuous expansion of the
universe for several years, clouds of hydrogen
and helium gases condensed to form stars.
Stars have undergone different phases, which
made them bigger ang bigger. After over millions  Polarity: refers to the overall charge of a
of years, these stars became hotter and denser, molecule
creating nuclear reactions inside. These  Molecule: a group of elements bonded
reactions resulted in the formation of elements together
heavier than lithium. Light elements combined to  Positive charge: refers to an atom or a
form atoms of Carbon (C), Neon (Ne), Oxygen
molecule with an excess proton
(O), Silicon (Si) and Iron (Fe).
 Negative charge: refers to an atom or a
molecule with an excess, unpaired
electron
 Electronegativity (EN): the tendency of
an atom/element to attract an electron,
 resulting in a negative charge, hence the in a solvent.
name.  Melting point: this is a property that
refers to the temperature when a molecule
A polar bond is generally an unfair starts
bond: one is more tight while the other is rather
loose. In chemistry, this bond refers to an ionic to melt.
bond—a result of an unequal and big difference  Boiling point: this is a property that refers
in electronegativities of elements involved in the to the temperature when a molecule starts
bond. On the other hand, a nonpolar bond is a
fair bond: the electronegativities of the elements to boil.
concerned are equal, as well as the sharing of
electrons (this usually occurs in covalent What Is It
bonds). In analogy to the rope, visualize this Molecules do not have the same
bond as something with both ends of the rope properties, which contributes to the wonderful
equally tied tight. diversity of things around us and the different
DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A ways such things react with the world. One of
MOLECULE the major factor that determines what properties
The easier and more basic way in molecules have is their polarity.
determining the polarity of a given structure is The first property we will discuss is the
through the Lewis structure and some solving, solubility. This is the ability of a molecule to be
given the following steps and examples: dissolved in a solvent. Another property is the
1. First, recall how to draw the Lewis melting point—temperature when a molecule
starts to melt or transition into a liquid state. The
structure and apply it to an example. In
next property is the boiling point—temperature
this case, let’s have the molecule C O 2 when a molecule starts to boil or transition into a
(more commonly known as carbon gaseous state.
dioxide. The following examples will cover
examples of the correlation of polarity and the
2. Find the electronegativity (EN) difference mentioned properties:
of each bond. Use a periodic table of
elements for this. SOLUBILITY
If the EN difference of the bond is greater  The general law for solubility among
than 0.4, it is polar but if it is lesser than molecules is that polar molecules can be
0.4, it is nonpolar. If ALL of the bonds in dissolved in polar solvents (polar to polar)
the molecule is nonpolar, the molecule is and nonpolar molecules can be dissolved
automatically nonpolar. However, if one in nonpolar solvents (nonpolar to
bond is polar, continue with the steps. nonpolar). An example to this is salt
In the case of CO 2, the EN difference is (NaCl) which is polar. Have you noticed
0.89 which is greater than 0.4. In this that it can easily be dissolved in water (
stage we can assume that CO 2 is polar.
H 2 O )? This is because water is polar,
3. If the central atom has no lone pairs
(unpaired electrons) with all of the other too.
atoms around it the same, the molecule is  As opposed to salt, oil (containing Carbon
considered to be nonpolar. If the central and Hydrogen only) is nonpolar. Have you
atom has lone pairs (unpaired electrons) seen what happens when oil and water
with all of the other atoms around it different, are mixed? They separate. This is
the molecule is possibly polar.
because water is polar. Oil, being
In the case of CO 2, the central atom C
nonpolar, can only be dissolved in a
has no lone pairs around it and the atoms
nonpolar solvent.
around it are identical. In this stage, C O 2 is
now nonpolar.
4. Your teacher will teach you how to draw a MELTING AND BOILING POINT
sketch for the molecule which will essentially Polar molecules usually have Hydrogen bonds.
help you identify if the molecule is Hydrogen bond is a big thing in bonding
asymmetrical (polar) or symmetrical because this means a stronger attraction.
(nonpolar).
Therefore, polar molecules have a stronger
In the case of CO 2, the sketch will show that this attraction as opposed to nonpolar molecules.
molecule is symmetrical (evenly distributed). What does this mean for both the melting point
The final judgement for the CO 2 molecule is that and boiling point? The stronger the attraction,
it’s nonpolar. the higher both the melting and boiling point
given that they are of the same sizes.
 Properties: this refers to the behaviour of
an entity or an object. Anthropology
 Solubility: this is a physical property that The science of humanity which studies human
beings in aspects ranging from the biology and
refers to the ability of a molecule to evolutionary history of “Homo Sapiens” to the
dissolve
features of society, distinguish humans and rationalist temper was lacking. But the recovery
other species. of this temper, through texts of the great
Sociology classical philosophers, is the very essence of
Refer to the study of human society between the Renaissance and the Enlightenment in
interactions and the processes that preserve modern European history. With the
changes. It deals with dynamic of constituent Enlightenment, in the 17th and 18th centuries,
part of society such as institutions, communities, one may begin.
gender, population, racial age or group.
Social Psychology
The scientific study of the behaviour of Counseling is a principled relationship
individuals in their social and cultural setting. characterised by the application of one or more
The term may be taken to include the social psychological theories and a recognised set of
activity of laboratory animals or those in the wild, communication skills, modified by experience,
the emphasis here is on human social intuition and other interpersonal factors, to
behaviour. clients’ intimate concerns, problems or
Political Science aspirations. Its predominant ethos is one of
The systematic study of governance by the facilitation rather than of advice-giving or
empirical and generally scientific method of coercion. It may be of very brief or long duration,
analysis. Political science examines the state take place in an organisational or private
and its organs and institutions. practice setting and may or may not overlap with
practical, medical and other matters of personal
Economics welfare. It is both a distinctive activity
It is a branch of social science that seeks to undertaken by people agreeing to occupy the
analyse and describe the production and roles of counsellor and client and it is an
consumption of wealth. emergent profession.... It is a service sought by
Geography people in distress or in some degree of
The study of diverse environment, space of confusion who wish to discuss and resolve these
Earth's surface, interactions, and places. It in a relationship which is more disciplined and
seeks to answer the questions of why things are confidential than friendship, and perhaps less
as they are, where they are. The modern stigmatising than helping relationships offered in
academic discipline of Geography is rooted in traditional medical or psychiatric settings.
ancient practice, concerned with the Behavioural Change
characteristics of places, in particular their Enable people to live more, productive and
natural environment, people as well with satisfying life.
relations between the two.
Education Improving Relationship
In the context of social science, Education can Becoming more effective in interpersonal
be thought as the transmission of values and relationships. Negative self-image or lack of
accumulated knowledge of a society. social skills are often the problem of lacking
relationships.
Historians consider history as one of the
humanities. It is generally best, in any case, to Enhancing Coping Skill
consider history as marginal to the humanities Help individuals to cope with new situations and
and social sciences. Since insights and challenges.
techniques pervade both. The study of
Comparative Law may also be regarded as part Promote Decision Making
of social science although it is ordinarily pursued Helping people to realize the consequences of
in schools of law rather than in departments of their decisions. Making sure that we give better
schools containing most of the other social options to people.
sciences.
Facilitate Potential
Although, strictly speaking, the social sciences Learning to use abilities and interests such as
do not precede the 19th century—that is, as emotions, physical, mental and spiritual.
distinct and recognized disciplines of thought—
one must go back farther in time for the origins Scope and Core Values of Counseling
of some of their fundamental ideas and
Individual Counseling
objectives. In the largest sense, the origins go all
the way back to the Ancient Greeks and their
rationalist inquiries into human nature, the state,
 Adolescent identity, concerns, teen-
and morality. The heritage of both Greece and
Rome is a powerful one in the history of social parent relationships, peer relationships
thought, as it is in other areas of Western
society. Very probably, apart from the initial  Anxiety
Greek determination to study all things in the  Anger management
spirit of dispassionate and rational inquiry, there
would be no social sciences today. True, there
have been long periods of time, as during the
Western Middle Ages, when the Greek
 Children’s concerns within the family
3. Principle of empathy—instead of showing
unit, sibling relationships, school
sympathy put yourself in patients shoes and
experiences, peer relationships
 Depression then give reflections accordingly (Empathy is
 Family of origin dynamics and issues
ability to identify with a person.)
 Gender: identity, sexuality,
homosexuality
4. Principle of non-judge—mental attitude-do not
 Grief and bereavement
 Relationships: personal and criticize or comment negatively regarding

interpersonal dynamics patient’s complaints.

 Sexual abuse recovery
 Seniors: challenges, limitations, 5. Principle of confidentiality—always keep the
transitions
patient’s name, and the problem strictly secrete
 Singles: single, newly single, single
through divorce or being widowed and assure the patient about the same.
 Spirituality
 Stress management 6. Principle of individuality—treat each and
 Workplace stress and relationships
every patient as unique and respect his problem
 Young adult: identity, relationships,
vocation as well.

Marital and Pre-marital Counseling 7. Principles of non-emotional involvement—not

 Marital and relational dynamics getting emotionally involved with the patient and
 Extended family relationships
 Fertility issues avoid getting carried away with his feelings.

Characteristics of Quantitative
Family Counseling
Research
 Adolescent and child behaviours within
family dynamics Different researchers and educators
 Adult children give different definitions to “quantitative
 Divorce and separation issues and research.” Here is one of them:
adjustment
 Family dynamics: estrangement, Creswell (1994) states that quantitative
conflict, communication research is a type of research that
 Family of origin / extended family issues endeavors to explain phenomena by
 Life stages and transitions collecting numerical data that are
 Parenting patterns: blended, single, co- analyzed using mathematically based
parenting families methods (in particular statistics).
 Remarriage relationship counselling
Let’s study this definition step by step.
1.1.5 Principles of Counseling In quantitative research, we collect
1. Principle of acceptance—accept the patient numerical data. Numerical data may
with his physical, psychological, social, include age, salary, performance rating
economical and cultural conditions. satisfaction score, IQ scores, test
results etc. These data are collected by
2. Principle of communication—communication means of survey, questionnaire or some
secondary documentations. The
should be verbal as well as non-verbal and analysis uses mathematically based
methods, statistics. In order to be able
should be skilful. to use mathematically based methods,
our data have to be in numerical form.
The statistical tools may include, but not
limited to frequency count, percentages,
 mean, variance, correlation, t-test, 6. Quantitative models or formula
ANOVA etc. derived from data analysis can
predict outcomes. If then scenarios
Therefore, because quantitative can be constructed using complex
research is essentially about collecting mathematical computations with the
numerical data to explain a particular aid of computers.
phenomenon, particular questions seem
immediately suited to being answered 7. Advanced digital or electronic
using quantitative methods. For
instruments are used to measure or
example,
gather data from the field.

7 Characteristics of Quantitative Research Strengths

Seven characteristics discriminate
qualitative from quantitative research. 1. Provides estimates of population at
large.
1. Data gathering instruments contain 2. Indicates the extensiveness of attitudes
items that solicit measurable held by people.
characteristics of the population
(e.g. age, number of children, 3. Provides results which can be
educational status, economic condensed to statistics.
status). 4. Allows for statistical comparison
between various groups.
5. Has precision, is definitive and
2. Standardized, pre-tested standardized.
instruments guide data collection
6. Measures level of occurrence, action,
thus ensuring the accuracy,
trends, etc.
reliability and validity of data.
7. Can answer such questions as “How
3. For more reliable data analysis, a many?” and “How often?”
normal population distribution curve
is preferred over a non-normal
distribution. This requires a large Weaknesses
population of numbers of which
1. It may be time consuming considering a
depend on how the characteristics
large sample.
of the population vary. This requires
adherence to the principle of 2. Exact answers may not be properly
random sampling to avoid represented because they are
researcher’s bias in interpreting the quantitatively expressed.
results that defeat the purpose of 3. Statistical calculations are complex for
the research. some people.
4. Too much methodology may dismay
4. The data obtained using quantitative researchers, especially on
methods are organized using tables, randomization in the selection of
graphs, or figures that consolidate sample.
large numbers of data to show 5. Not all quantitative data are extremely
trends, relationships, or differences discussed and interpreted.
among variables. This fosters
understanding to the readers or
clients of the research investigation.
When Do We Use Quantitative Methods?

5. Researchers can repeat the There are six main types of research
quantitative method to verify or questions that quantitative research is
confirm the findings in another particularly suited to find an answer to:
setting. This reinforces the validity of
groundbreaking discoveries or 1. The first is when we want a
findings thus eliminating the quantitative answer. For example, ‘If
possibility of spurious or erroneous the students have their choice, how
conclusions. many of them choose to study
 Experiential English I? The reason Kinds of Quantitative Research
why we need to use quantitative
research to answer this kind of There are several types of quantitative
question is very obvious: qualitative, research. For instance, it can be classified as
nonnumerical methods will obviously 1) survey research, 2) correlational research,
not provide us with the numerical 3) experimental research and 4) causal-
answer we want. comparative research.

2. Numerical change can likewise only Each type has its own typical characteristics.
be accurately studied using Let’s take survey research as an example.
quantitative methods. For example,
‘Are the number of students in our Survey research uses scientific
school rising or falling?’ or ‘Is the sampling and questionnaire design to
achievement in English of our student measure characteristics of population with
going up or down?’ We would need to statistical precision. It seeks to provide
do a quantitative study to find out the answers to such questions as “How many
answer. people feel a certain way?” and “How often do
they do a certain behavior?” Survey research
enables management to make comparisons
3. Quantitative research is useful in between groups. It provides estimates from a
conducting audience segmentation. sample that can be related to the entire
It is done by dividing the population population with a degree of certainty (e.g.,
into groups whose members are 57% of the population +/- 3% will answer the
similar to each other and distinct from question this way 95% of the time). Survey
other groups. research requires that respondents are
“randomly” sampled – that means that each
4. Quantitative research is also useful to person in the population has a known
quantify opinions, attitudes and probability being sampled.
behaviors and find out how the whole
population feels about a certain issue. There are defined techniques such as
For example, ‘when we want to find random digit dialing and sampling procedures
out the exact number of people who to ensure a scientific sample. In developing a
survey, you would normally work with a
think a certain way, to set baselines
statistician to build a statistically valid
(e.g., to measure consumer attitudes
sampling plan, a researcher to develop a
regarding an issue prior to a
survey instrument and research objectives,
campaign), and to ensure that the and a reputable field service that has the
students can share some comments capacity to conduct large scale interview
or ideas to a new course. projects. It is important to work with experts
because the quality of the survey can be
5. Quantitative research is suitable to affected by the research.
explain some phenomena. For
instance, ‘What factors predict the TITLE
general English proficiency of the
Grade 10 students?’ or ‘What factors 1. Comprehensive. It gives the thrusts of
are related to changes in student the research.
English achievement overtime?’ This 2. Brief/Concise. It is not longer than 7
kind o question can be studied substantive words and no more than
successfully using quantitative three lines (written in an inverted
methods, and many statistical pyramid type).
techniques have been developed to
3. It is written in ALLL-CAPS case (all
make us predict scores on one factor
letters capitalized), bold face.
or variable (e.g., student English
proficiency) from scores on one 4. The researchers must abide with rules
another or more other factors or in formulating the research title.
variables (e.g., learning habits,
motivation, attitude).
ABSTRACT
6. The final activity for which quantitative
1. A summative statement that answers
research is especially suited is the
the following questions:
testing of hypotheses. We might want
to explain something, for example
whether there is a relationship between a. Include objectives and problems.
students’ achievement and their self- b. Include the respondents, the research
esteem and social background. tool and the statistical tools used.
c. Write the most important findings.
 d. Give the primary recommendation. f. End with the main objective of the study.
e. 100-150 words, preferably one
paragraph.
f. 1.15 space, italicized. Framework

a. Present an integrated set of propositions

2. The heading ABSTRACT should be
bold, centered and in uppercase. Text is (theory).
written in past tense. b. Discuss the theories and their relevance
3. The first line of the body is called to the study.
Synopsis and is not indented; the text c. Present the main dimensions or
is left and right-justified. variables (concepts) of the study based
4. By Chapter Heading and Subheadings.
on the theories and the presumed
5. Include separate lists of tables and/or
relationships among them (conceptual
figures.
framework).
d. It must explain the research flow.
e. It must explain how the specific
CHAPTER I questions of the study flow from the
main objective.

INTRODUCTION

a. All characters in the title headings are in

bold, upper case letters and centered.
b. Chapter Numbers is in Roman numeral. Statement of the Problem
c. Chapter Title is written 1.5 spaces below
a. The main problem is stated in
the Chapter Number declarative form and should reflect the
title; integral with it is the objective of the
study. The specific problems are written
Background of the Study in question form.
b. The questions must match the thrusts of
a. Direct quotations must not be written as query of the interview or observation
the first paragraph, instead this can be guide.
rephrased to add substance to the c. Limit the questions on what research
details of the problem. wants to find out.
b. The succeeding paragraph must come d. This section should be written in the
from the researcher/s. This must not be present tense.
copied from any article.
c. Describe the problem situation by Hypotheses
considering global, national, and local
forces. Discussions should be from a. This must be based on the inferential
macro to micro (general to specific). question.
Emphasize situations using facts and
Importance of the Study
statistics. These discussions must have a. Describe the contributions of the study
sources. Follow referencing format to the discipline as new knowledge.
using APA style. b. Cite the usefulness of the study to
d. In the local scenario, cite the specific groups.
observations, local studies and the like.
There must be emphasis on the local Definitions of Terms
scenario to warrant the existence of the a. Identify only one key terms from the title
research. More discussions and and research problems.
descriptions must be seen on this part. b. The terms should be arranged
Statistics should even be cited for more alphabetically and should be defined
emphasis. operationally using complete sentences.
e. Make a clinching statement/paragraph It can also be that the arrangement will
that relates/emphasizes the situational be based on the statement of the
analysis to the proposed study. Always problem for clearer analysis.
link one paragraph to the other. Ensure c. Conceptual or “dictionary definitions”
coherence of ideas within and among should be documented as to reference.
paragraphs and across sentences.
 d. A term may start with its conceptual and can sense and perceive. His studies in logic led
followed by its operational definition. to the formulation of a formal process of
e. Adopt clustered-scheme in defining the analyzing reasoning which give rise to deductive
reasoning-the process by which specific
terms.
statements are analysed to reach a conclusion
or generalization.
The word philosophy comes from two Greek
words: philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). The
ancient Greeks used this term to refer to “love of The following are the branches of philosophy
wisdom” and they soon applied it to the study or that deals with a particular aspect of life or
discipline that uses human reason to investigate phenomena.
the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles Aesthetics is the branch of Philosophy which
which govern all things. deals with beauty and what makes things
Philosophy is the study of general and “beautiful”.
fundamental questions about existence, Logic is branch of philosophy which deals with
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. correct reasoning.
Philosophy in simple words is a way of thinking Epistemology discusses the nature of
about the world, the universe, and society. It knowledge and knowing.
works by asking very basic questions about the Ethics is the branch which deals with moral
nature of human thought, the nature of the questions and dilemmas.
universe, and the connections between them. Political Philosophy studies governments and
The ideas in philosophy are often general and deals with questions of justice, power and the
abstract. rights and obligations of citizens.
Philosophy is the study of humans and the world Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which
by thinking and asking questions. It is a science deals with questions regarding reality and
and an art. Philosophy tries to answer important existence.
questions by coming up with answers about real Philosophy of the Human Person-is an area in
things and asking "why?" philosophy that understand the human person
from a philosophical perspective.
The most notable ancient Greek philosophers
are: WHAT IS EPISTEMOLOGY?
Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE)- A There is no one correct definition of
mathematician and scientist, he was credited epistemology. The one that I’m going to use
with formulating the Pythagorean theorem. came from the philosopher Ayn Rand:
Heraclitus (535 BCe to 475 BCE)- He proposed “Epistemology is a science devoted to the
that everything that exists is based on a higher discovery of the proper method of acquiring and
order or plan which he called logos. validating knowledge” (Rand 1990).
Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE)- He devoted The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-
himself to the study of the causes of natural fold:
phenomena. 1. To show how we can acquire
Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE)- He knowledge.
was a known advocate of living a simple and 2. To give us a method of demonstrating
virtuous life. whether the knowledge we acquired is
Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE)- He believed really knowledge (i.e., true).
that philosophy could enable man to live a life of Since knowledge plays a central role in
happiness. epistemology let us briefly described its nature.
Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE)- He was
considered the foremost philosophers of ancient
THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE
times. He was credited with formulating the
According to Ayn Rand knowledge is a
Socratic method- means of examining a topic by
“mental grasp of reality reached either by
devising a series of questions that let the learner
perceptual observation or by a process of
examine and analyze his knowledge and views
reason based on perceptual observation” (Rand
regarding the topic.
1990). When you know something (be it the
Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE)- A student of
behavior of your friend, the movement of the
Socrates, he wrote down his mentor’s teaching
planets, or the origin of civilizations) you
and incorporated some of his own ideas into
understand its nature. You identify what it is.
them. Plato’s most significant ideas included his
And it stays with you. Knowledge is a retained
Theory of Forms, which proposes that
form of awareness (Binswanger 2014).
everything that exist is based on an idea or
So how do you acquire knowledge?
template than can only be perceived in the mind.
Miss Rand’s definition gives us two
Plato is also known for his dialectic- a method of
ways:
inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed
First, we can acquire knowledge using our
in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s
senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling,
lasting contribution to learning was his founding
smelling. How do you know that the table is
of the Academy, an institution of higher learning.
brown? Because you see it. How do you know
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE)- He attended
that fire is hot? Because you feel it. This method
the Academy, and was the prominent student of
of acquiring knowledge is called empiricism and
Plato. For him, all ideas and views are based on
it has many adherents in the history of
perception and our reality is based on what we
philosophy such as John Locke, George that walks, etc.
Berkley, David Hume.
3. Concept
After we perceive things we began to
notice that some of the things we perceive are
similar to other things. For example we see three
individuals let’s call them Juan, Pablo and Pedro
who may have nothing in common at first
glance. But when we compare them with another
entity, a dog for example, suddenly their
differences become insignificant. Their big
difference to a dog highlights their similarity to
one another (Binswanger 2014). We therefore
The grouped them into one class or group, named
(from left to ) John Locke, George Berkley,
right H the group (“man” or “human being”) and define
Empiricists and David what that group is to give it identity (Peikoff
1990). We now have a concept which according
to one dictionary means “an abstract or generic
idea generalized from particular instances”
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
The first concepts we formed are
Second, we can acquire knowledge by concepts of things like dog, cat, man, house,
thinking with the use of our minds (what car. These elementary concepts are called first
philosophers call the rational faculty). This is level concepts (Rand 1990). From these first
what rationalism advocates. (Some well-known level concepts we can form higher level
rationalists in history are Rene Descartes, concepts through a process which Rand calls
Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). “abstraction from abstractions” (Rand1990).
However, thinking is just half of the story Let us describe the two types of
of knowing (in fact the second half). The reason abstraction from abstractions: wider
is that thinking involves content. To think is to generalizations (or simply widenings) and
think of something. You cannot think about subdivisions (or narrowings) (Binswanger 2014):
nothing. This is where sense perception enters Wider generalization is the process of
the picture by feeding our minds with data forming wider and wider concepts. For example
coming from the outside world so that we can from Juan, Pedro and Pablo we can form the
have something to think about. concept “man”. Then from man, dog, cat,
monkey we can form a higher and wider concept
ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE “animal”. And from plant and animal we can form
Let us now explore the first part of epistemology: a still higher and wider concept “living
the process of acquiring knowledge. organism”. As we go up to these progressive
widenings our knowledge increases.
1. Reality Subdivisions consist of identifying finer
To know is to know something. This and finer distinctions. For example “man” is a
“something” is what philosophers call reality, first level concept that we can subdivide
existence, being. Let us employ the term according to profession (doctor, entertainer,
existence. Existence is everything there is fireman, teacher), or race (Asian, Caucasian
(another name for it is the Universe [Peikoff [white], black), or gender (man, woman, lesbian,
1990]). It includes everything we perceive gay), or nationality (Filipino, Chinese, American)
(animals, plants, human beings, inanimate among other things. As we go down these
objects) and everything inside our heads (e.g., progressive narrowings our knowledge of things
our thoughts and emotions) which represents subsumed under a concept increases.
our inner world. Existence is really all there is to The result of this progressive widenings
know. If nothing exists knowledge is impossible. and narrowings is a hierarchy (or levels) of
concepts whose based is sense perception. As
2. Perception we move further from the perceptual base
Our first and only contact with reality is knowledge becomes more abstract and as we
through our senses. Knowledge begins with move closer to the perceptual level knowledge
perceptual knowledge. At first the senses give becomes more concrete.
us knowledge of things or entities (what Aristotle
calls primary substance): dog, cat, chair, table, 4. Proposition
man. Later we became aware not only of things When we use concepts in order to
but certain aspects of things like qualities (blue, classify or describe an “existent” (a particular
hard, smooth), quantities (seven inches or six that exist be it an object, a person, an action or
pounds), relationships (in front of, son of) even event, etc) (Rand 1990) we use what
actions (jumping, running, flying). These so philosophers call a proposition (Binswanger
called Aristotelian categories cannot be 2014). A proposition is a statement that
separated from the entities that have it. Red for expresses either an assertion or a denial (Copi,
example cannot be separated from red objects; 2002) that an existent belongs to a class or
walking cannot be separated from the person possess certain attribute.
Proposition is usually expressed in a declarative realize that the steps you took to acquire
sentence. When I say, for example, that “Men knowledge (perception-concept-proposition-
are mortals” I am making an assertion of men inference) are the same steps needed to
which are affirmative in nature (thus the validate knowledge (but in reverse order). Thus
statement is an affirmative proposition). When I what the ancient pre-Socratic philosopher
make an opposite claim however, “Men are not Heraclitus said is true when applied to
mortals” I am denying something about men and epistemology: “the way up [knowledge
thus my statement is negative in nature (thus the acquisition] is the way down [knowledge
proposition is called a negative proposition) validation]” (quoted by Dr. Binswanger 2014).
An affirmative proposition therefore has the If we perform the process of reduction
following structure: “S is P” (where S is the we will realized that all true knowledge rest
subject, P is the predicate and “is” is the copula ultimately on sense perception. “A belief is true if
stating the logical relationship of S and P) while it can be justified or proven through the use of
the negative proposition has the structure “S is one’s senses” (Abella 2016). Consider the
not P” (“is not” is the copula expressing denial). following statements (Abella 2016):
Notice that statements like “Men are mortals”,
“Angels are not demons”, and “Saints are not You can only validate the above
sinners” can either be true or false. “Truth and statements if you observed yourself using your
falsity are called the two possible truth values of senses. Feel your body. Are you breathing? Feel
the statement” (Hurley 2011). (Later were going your pulse. Observe your body. Is it moving?
to explore the nature of truth). These and countless examples provided by your
5. Inference senses proved that you’re alive (Abella 2016).
How do we demonstrate that the Not all statements however can be
statement is true? By providing an argument. validated directly by the senses. Some beliefs or
According to Hurley an argument “is a group of ideas need a “multi-step process of validation
statements, one or more of which (the premises) called proof’ (Binswanger 2014). Nevertheless
are claimed to provide support for, or reason to proof rests ultimately on sense perception.
believe one of the others (the conclusion) Statements based on sense perception
(Hurley 2011). To clarify this definition let’s give are factual and if we based our beliefs on such
an example using the famous Socratic facts our beliefs are true (Abella 2016).
argument: For example the belief that human beings have
the right to life rests on the following claim:
All men are mortals 1. Human beings are rational animals.
Socrates is a man. 2. Animals (including human beings) are
Therefore Socrates is mortal. living organisms.
Here we have three related statements And of course the fact that we are alive can
(or propositions). The last statement beginning be demonstrated perceptually as shown above.
with the word “therefore” is what we call a A third way to determine if the statement is true
conclusion. A conclusion is a statement that we is through a consensus (Abella 2016). If the
want to prove. The first two statements are what majority agrees that a statement is true then it is
we call premises (singular form: premise). A true. However there are certain limitations to this
premise provides justification, evidence, and approach. Far too many times in history false
proof to the conclusion. ideas became popular which ultimately leads to
An argument expresses a reasoning disaster. For example the vast majority of
process which logicians call inference (Hurley Germans during the time of Adolph Hitler
2011). Arguments however is not the only form believed that Jews are racially inferior. This is
of inference but logicians usually used obviously false supported by a pseudo biological
“argument” and “inference” interchangeably. science of the Nazi. The result of this false
There are still many things to be discuss on the consensus is the extermination of millions of
topic of knowledge acquisition. We only provided Jews in many parts of Europe.
a brief overview of the topic. A fourth way to determine whether a statement
is true is to test it by means of action (Abella
2016). For example you want to know if a person
THE NATURE OF TRUTH is friendly. Well the best way to find out is to
approach the person. Thus, the famous Nike
Now that we know how we know, it’s injunction of “Just do it” is applicable in this
time to see whether the knowledge we acquired situation.
is “really” knowledge i.e., is true. This is the
second part of epistemology: validating one’s TRUTH VS OPINION
knowledge.
The first step in validating one’s Identifying truth however can sometimes
knowledge is to ask oneself the following be tricky. The reason is that there are times
question: “How did I arrive at this belief, by what when we strongly held an idea that we feel
steps?” (Binswanger 2014). Thus you have to “deep down” to be true. For example religious
retrace the steps you took to acquire the people strongly believed that there is life after
knowledge, “reverse engineer” the process death. Some people who embraced democracy
(Binswanger 2014). This is what Dr. Peikoff calls may passionately embraced the idea that the
reduction (Peikoff 1990). One will therefore majority is always right. Or on a more personal
level you may feel strongly that your sister is because they do not agree with reality, then any
“selfish”. preceding statement or proposition must be true.
However we must not confused strongly Thus, no matter what we say about the truth or
held beliefs with truth. Truth is knowledge falsehood of these statements, we immediately
validated and when we say validated we mean contradict ourselves.”
they are based on the facts of reality. This does not mean that the
You must understand dear student that Correspondence Theory of Truth is wrong or
the facts of reality are independent of your useless and, to be perfectly honest, it is difficult
thoughts, feelings or preferences (Ayn Rand to give up such an intuitively obvious idea that
calls this the primacy of existence [Rand 1982]). truth must match reality. Nevertheless, the
That is the characteristic of truth. For example above criticisms should indicate that it probably
the statement “Jose Rizal died in 1896” is true. is not a comprehensive explanation of the nature
You may not like that statement or deny it of truth.
strongly. That does not change the fact that the
statement is true because it is based on what
really happened in the past. There are many
sources that can validate the truth of that
statement if one cared to look.
However when you say that “Jose Rizal
is the greatest man who ever lived” you are
stating your preference and not facts. This is an
opinion. Now it is true that there are many facts 2. The Coherence Theory of Truth:
about Rizal but that statement is asserting
something that is beyond what the facts state. It has already been established that the
That statement represents not facts but your Correspondence Theory assumes that a belief is
interpretation of facts which may reveal your true when we are able to confirm it with reality.
biases. In other words, by simply checking if the
statement or belief agrees with the way things
really are, we can know the truth. However, as
To summarize an opinion has the Austin Cline argues, this manner of determining
following characteristics: the truth is rather odd and simplistic.
1. Based on emotions Cline said that a belief can be an
2. Open to interpretation inaccurate description of reality that may also fit
3. Cannot be confirmed in with a larger, complex system of further
4. Inherently biased inaccurate descriptions of reality. Thus, by
While truth is: relying on the Correspondence Theory, that
1. Based on the facts of reality inaccurate belief will still be called “truth” even
2. Can be confirmed with other sources though it does not actually describe actual state
3. Independent of one’s interpretation, of things. So how do we resolve this problem?
preferences and biases In order to know the truth of a statement,
In knowing the truth or falsity of a statement, we it must be tested as part of a larger set of ideas.
generally use the following Theories of Truth: Statements cannot be sufficiently evaluated in
isolation. For example, if you pick up a ball and
1. The Correspondence theory of Truth: drop it accidentally, the action cannot be simply
The basic idea of the correspondence explained by our belief in the law of gravity
theory is that what we believe or say is true if it which can be verified but also by a host of other
corresponds to the way things actually are factors that may have something to do with the
based on the facts. It argues that an idea that incident, such as the accuracy of our visual
correspond with reality is true while an idea, perception.
which does not correspond to reality is false. For Cline, only when statements are
For example, if I say, “The sky is blue” then I tested as part of a larger system of complex
looked outside and saw that it is indeed blue, ideas, then one might conclude that the
then my statement is true. On the other hand, if I statement is “true”. By testing this set of
say, “Pigs have wings” and then I checked a pig complex ideas against reality, then one can
and it does not have wings, then my statement ascertain whether the statement is “true” or
is false. In general, statements of beliefs, “false”. Consequently, by using this method, we
propositions, and ideas are capable being true establish that the statement “coheres” with the
or false. larger system. In a sense, the Coherence
However, according the Eubulides, a Theory is similar to the Correspondence Theory
student of the Megara school of philosophy, “the since both evaluates statements based on their
correspondence theory of truth leaves us in the agreement with reality. The difference lies in the
lurch when we are confronted with statements method where the former involves a larger
such as “I am lying” or “What I am saying here is system while the latter relies on a single
false.” These are statements and therefore, are evidence of fact.
capable of being true or false. But if they are
true because they correspond with reality, then 3. The Pragmatist Theory of Truth:
any preceding statement or proposition must be The Pragramatic Theory of Truth states
false. Conversely, if these statements are false that a belief/statement is true if it has a useful
(pragmatic) application in the world. If it does radio, print media such as newspapers and
not, then it is not true. In addition, we can know magazines, new media or internet, and non-
whether a belief/statement is true by examining traditional media like film, literature, and outdoor
the consequence of holding or accepting the media.
statement/belief to be true. For example, there Information- knowledge obtained from
are some people who think that there are investigation, study or instruction.
“ghosts” or “vampires” because they find it Technology- the practical application of
useful in explaining unusual phenomena and in knowledge especially in a particular area.
dealing with fears (Mabaquiao, 2016). So, if we Literacy- the quality or state of being literate.
are going to use the word “truth”, we define it as
that which is most useful to us.
However, there are objections against THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
this theory of truth. For Austin Cline, truth that is
based on what works is very ambiguous. What
happens when a belief works in one sense but
fails in another? Suppose a belief that one will
succeed may give a person the psychological
strength needed to accomplish a great deal but Source
in the end he fails in his ultimate goal. Was his
belief “true”?

In this sense, Cline argues that when a Feedbac

belief works, it is more appropriate to call it Message
useful rather than “true”. A belief that is useful is k
not necessarily true and in normal
conversations, people do not typically use the
word “true” to mean “useful”.
To illustrate, the statement “It is useful to
believe that my spouse is faithful” does not at all
mean the same as “It is true that my spouse is
faithful.” Granted that true beliefs are also
usually the ones that are useful, but it is not
Receiver Channel
usually the case. As Nietzsche argued,
sometimes untruth may be more useful than
truth. Source- the source or sender is the origin of the
In sum, we can know if message.
statements/beliefs are true if we look at each Message- pertains to any information that is
statement/belief and determine if they passed on through communication.
correspond to facts, cohere with the rules of the Channel- refers to the medium and how the
system and result into useful application. information flows from the sender to the
It must be noted, however, that receiver.(Berlo, 1960)
Philosophers “continue to argue with each other Receiver- refers to the listener, reader and
on which among these three general methods is viewer of the message.
the correct one or one that works for all kinds of  Berlow further explained that in order to
statement or beliefs” (Mabaquiao, 59). have a smooth conversation betwwen
Nevertheless, it is not necessary to subscribe to the source and receiver, they should
only one method and consider it to work for share the same platform, have good
everyone. Perhaps it is better to use any of the communication skills, exhibit the right
three methods that is appropriate for any given attitude, and have the same level
statement or belief that is being examined. knowledge.
Defining the following:
Communication- is from the Latin term In studying the media information literacy,
communicare-“to share” of “to divide out” the following should be clearly defined:
- Another Latin word  Media Literacy- the ability to access,
communis- “working analyse, evaluate, and communicate
together” information in a variety of forms,
including print and non-print messages.
Bulan and de leon (2002)
 Information Literacy- the Association
“without speech or oral communication, societies
could not attain levels of civilization, of College and Research Libraries
communities could not organize into living and (ACRL USA) defined information literacy
working groups, mark and ritualize practices and as a set of abilities requiring individuals
traditions, debates and decide difficult issues, to “Recognize when information is
and transform society for its good. needed and have the ability to locate,
evaluate, and use the needed
Media- are tools used by the source to information effectively.
disseminate information to the receivers. It can  Technology Literacy- the New York
be broadcast media such as television and State Education Department (NYSED)
 defines technology literacy as the
understanding of the concepts behind 1. Implementation of utmost
computing equipment, network professionalism.
connectivity, and application software, 2. Must be objective at all times.
the skills to responsibly use appropriate 3. Provide the public with balance
technology to access, synthesize, reporting.
4. Fair and honest covering of stories or
evaluate, communicate, and create
events.
information to solve problems and
5. Examine and comprehend the interest
improving learning in all subject areas, of the public.
and the ability to acquire new 6. Make avenue to represent different
knowledge for on-going and lifelong voices and opinions.
learning in the 21st century global
workplace.

Individuals can be benefited in being media

and information literate.
1. Significant improvement in the The Importance of Media:
quality of life.
2. Greater political participation.  Pervasiveness- the Cambridge
3. Better economic opportunities. dictionary defines pervasiveness as
4. Improved learning environment. present or noticeable in every part of a
5. Developed and unified social units. thing or a place.
 Information Source- the internet has
become everyone’s go-to place
whenever they need to know something.
-page2-  Entertainment Source- TV shows,
The Role of Media and Information in music, films, books, clips and videos,
Effective Communication and social media, are just some of the
 It makes the world a smaller place. things that the media offers as
 It makes communication convenient. entertainment.
 It shapes public opinion.  Persuasion Forum- the media has the
power to persuade people.
 Binding Influence- people rely on
The Media and Information Producers and media in their daily lives.
Users
 Media Producers- someone who The Concepts of Mass Media and Media
oversees projects (e.g. films, tv shows) Demassification:
from conception to completion and may
also be involved in the marketing and Mass Media- refer to channels of
distribution process. communication that involve transmitting
 Media Users- refer to the audience or information in some
consumers of media. way, shape of form to large
numbers of people.
Producers and users of media and information
may have the following purpose:  Distance- there is considerable amount
1. To inform of distance between the sender and
2. To educate receiver of the information in mass
3. To entertain media.
4. To advocate  Technology- satellites, that provides
5. To promote business electronic connections
6. To increase network  Scale- mass media communication
deals with broadcasting information to
Media Habits, Lifestyles, and Preferences: the masses simultaneously.
 Media Habits- person’s normal use of  Commodity- due to its massive scale
media and the technological equipment it
 Media Lifestyle- refers to a person’s requires, mass media is an expensive
type of communication.
use of media based on his or her
lifestyle.
Mass Demassification:
 Media Preferences- the media Divides the masses into segments
preference of an individual may be before choosing which segments to target. In
affected by the accessibility, availability, specifically determining the target market, media
affordability and convenience of the demassification can tailor fit their message and
media platform. delivery according to their target market and
achieve the intended response.
Media as oftentimes the only source of Information is defined as facts or details
information, it must ensure the following: about a subject. Acquiring information has never
been as easy as it is today. Before, people ideas) passed or transmitted
spend a lot of time, effort, and money on using a channel. Turow
research. Today, information is just at the tip of (2007) described
the user’s fingertips. them(messages) as a
Advancements in technology have led to an collection of symbols that
insurmountable availability of information and a appear purposefully
more convenient means of accessing them. organized (meaningful) to
However, it raises issues of credibility of the those sending or receiving
available information, requiring rigorous filtering them.
of information and verification. Information
literacy aims to solve this issue.
7. Media: are the methods or
tools in which information can
be exchanged and
communication can be
facilitated.

An information literate individual is able to:

 Determine the extent of information

needed.
 Access the needed information 8. Interpersonal
effectively and efficiently. Communication: refers to
 Evaluate information and its sources the communication between
critically. two persons, whether they
 Incorporate selected information into are verbal or non-verbal.
one’s knowledge base.
 Use information effectively to 9. Mediated Interpersonal
accomplish a specific purpose. Communication: refers to
 Understand the economic, legal, and the p[rocess where
social issues surrounding the use of technology stands in
information and access and use between the parties
information ethically and legally. communicating and becomes
the channel by which the
Technology literate students should be able message is sent or received.
to:
10. Mass Communication:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of refers to communication
concepts underlying hardware, software, systems used to create,
networking connectivity and in the use produce, and disseminate
of computers and applications.
media texts to mass
2. Demonstrate an understanding of ethics
audiences. Traditional forms
and safety issues in using electronic
media and responsible use of of mass communication
technology. consist of newspaper, radio,
3. Use technology for communication, television, and film, it is also
research and collaboration and problem- understood that in mass
solving with proficient technology skills, communication, there is no
students should be able to locate, immediate feedback between
collect, synthesize and evaluate the source and the receiver.
information from a variety of digital
sources, and to use telecommunications 11. Organizational
and other media to interact or Communication:
collaborate with peers, experts, and refers to
audiences. communication
4. Definition of Terms useds in the
business
5. Communication: pertaine to environments
a purposeful exchange of
information and messages 12. Media and Information
between people or groups of Literacy: refers to the
people by speaking, writing, essential competencies
gestures, and signs. (knowledge, skills, attitudes)
that allow citizens to engage
6. Messages: refer to any form with media and other
of communication information providers
(information, feelings, and effectively, and develop
 critical thinking and life-long  Dance was not just for religious
learning skills for socializing and military training but also a
and becoming active citizens. form of entertainment and
display.
Dance comes from the German word damson,  Plato immensely gave
which means “to stretch or “to drag”. It importance to dance in
developed as a natural expression of united education as stated in the
feeling and action. Dance is considered the education on the Laws. He
mirror of the society because it responds to highlighted the two kinds of
historical and religious events as well as social dance and music: the noble (fin
and political statements. and honorable) and the ignoble
(imitating what is mean or
Although there have been immense
comparative differences in period and culture, ugly).
people still dance mainly for four reasons: (a) to
please gods; (b) to please others; (c) to please
themselves; and (d) to build community within
an ethnic group or social interaction.

History and Development of Dance from the  Ancient Rome.

Different Periods  Gave less importance to
 Dance During the Prehistoric Period dancing which eventually
 It had been a major form of became an integral part of the
religious ritual and social corruption in the latter days of
expression within primitive culture. the Roman Empire resulting in
 It was used as a way of expression the condemnation of dance by
and reinforcing tribal unity and early Christians.
strength.  Dance was primarily
 It is based on superstition and performed for religious, social
infused with magic. Shamans as and entertainment. However,
lead dancers acted as physicians theatrical entertainment was
and religious leaders and kept prohibited but still existed and
tribes healthy, prosperous and was performed within church
safe. during religious ceremonies.
 Dance During the Ancient
Civilization  Ancient Egypt.  Dance During the Middle Ages and
 3,300 BCE (First Dancing). It is The Renaissance
believed that the first people to  1400 (Ballet Comes into Play).
dance were the Egyptians. Ballet started in this year in Italy,
Archaeologists discovered but didn’t really become popular
paintings of dancing figures in until around the year 1500. Ballet
rock shelters and caves. gained its popularity when a lady of
 As a way of expressing the arts, Catherine de Medici,
religious service and teaching married King Henry 11 and threw
ancient myth, three (3) major festivals where they would perform
dancers were evolved: ballet dances. Ballet is believed to
(1) the king; be the main core of every single
(2) the priests who dance style.
performed magical  A vast dance movement occurred
dances; throughout the courts of Europe in
(3) virgin dancers who the 15th and 16th centuries. During
were trained to perform these times, new court dances
during ceremonies led performed by the nobility came
by the priests. about as well as the rise of the art
 Ancient Crete. of ballet in Italy and France.
 The Cretan civilization (3000-  Several other dance forms
1400 BC) was a cultural link in continued to sprout and spread
the ancient world between across several countries.
Egyptians and Greeks. Modern History
 Cretans used dance to
perfect their military training  Dance During the Late 16th and 17th
which made excellent. Centuries (1501-1700)
 Ancient Greece.
  1600 (Masque Dancing). Masque  1950 (Contemporary Dance).
dancing started from elaborate Contemporary dance is a style that
pageants and shows in the 16th combines jazz, ballet, and modern
century. Masque dancing involved dance. It can be many different
intricate costuming and stage styles, but most of the time it is
designing that also incorporated melancholy and or intense.
singing and acting as well as  1970 (Hip Hop Dance). There are
dancing. It was often used as a many styles of hip hop that include
court entertainment. breaking, popping, locking, and
 A period in the history of dance in more. Street dance was performed
Italy, France, and England which both in night clubs and on the
was considered to be pleasantly streets. It is associated with funk,
deep and rich. France became the breakdancing, and hip-hop.
forerunner in dance during this  Several social dance movements
period. also evolved such as castle walk,
 Dance increased as a court tango, foxtrot, Charleston, Lindy
amusement and later transformed Hop, Rumba, Mambo, Cha-
into professional entertainment. ChaCha, Samba, Bossa Nova,
Boogaloo and Twist.
 Popular fad dances also
 Dance During the 18th Century (1701- emerged like YMCA and
1800) Macarena.
 1795 (Classical Persian Dancing).  21st Century Dance (2001- Present)
This style of dance evolved from
 2018 (Dance Nowadays). Today's
courtroom dancing. An era
dance style has taken a turn
influencing Persian dance was the
towards more hip hop dances.
Qajar Dynasty which lasted from
Small and popular dances that
1795 to 1925. Dancers would
involve hip hop and that most
perform artistic and lively dances
everyone can achieve include the
for the Shah. The music is usually
whip and nae nae, Gangnam Style
played by a small band.
(it’s a little old), shooting, and
 1800 (Tippity Tappity, Time for
more.
Tap). Tap dancing originated from
The Health-Related Fitness Components
African tribe dancing. Tap dancing
makes percussion sounds because Before engaging any physical activities, you
of dancers most commonly wearing need to self- assess your health-related fitness
leather shoes with two pieces of status and determine barriers to physical activity
metal and clip and clap against participation. Health-related fitness involves
hard floors. Tap is still very popular exercise activities that you do in order to try to
to this day. improve your physical health and stay healthy.
Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of the
 Dance During the 19th Century (1801-
heart and lungs to work together to provide the
1900) needed oxygen and fuel to the body during
 1890 (Merengue Dancing). It is a sustained workloads. The 3-minute Step Test is
Caribbean dance style that used to test cardiovascular endurance.
involves partners holding each  Muscular strength is the amount of force
other in a tango-like position and a muscle can produce. The Push-Up
moving their hips side to side. Test is most often used to test muscular
 1900 (Jazz and Acro). It involves strength.
doing smooth and flexible  Muscular endurance is the ability of the
muscles to perform continuous without
movements, and lots of back
fatiguing. The Basic Plank is most often
bending and tricks. Both styles are used to test muscular endurance.
widely popular to this day.  Flexibility is the ability of each joint to
 Ballroom dances also emerged move through the available range of
during this period like Cotillion, motion for a specific joint. The Zipper
Polonaise, Quadrille, Waltz and Test and Sit and Reach Test is
Polka. frequently used to test body flexibility.
th
 20 Century Dances (1901-2000)  Body composition is the amount of fat
mass compared to lean muscle mass,
 Described as a period of “dance
bones and organs. The BMI is defined
fever” wherein the young and old as the body mass divided by the square
alike were not limited to express of the body height, and is universally
emotions through dance. expressed in units of kg/m², resulting
 from mass in kilograms and height in life such as birthing, courtship, wedding, and
meters. funeral.
Folk dance are the indigenous dances of any Ex: Binasuan (Pangasinan), Daling-daling
specific "folk" or the common people. They are (Muslim courtship dance from Sulu)
traditional customary or recreational dance c. Occupational dances
forms of a given country which have evolved - dances that exhibit work and
naturally and were handed occupation of the dances.
down across generations, Ex: Mag-asik (Cotabato), Mananagat (Cebu)
Folk dance are related to everything of All national and ethnic dances are folk
importance in our daily lives such as customs, dances, but not all folk dances are
rituals and occupations of a specific group of considered national or ethnic dances.
people. The Philippine has very rich and varied
According to Duggan, Schlottmann, and folk dances. There are hundreds of
Rutledge (1948), "folk dance became the overt traditional dance collections found in the
expression of emotions and ideas which were country that are mostly for all occasions.
peculiarly significant or the re-enactment of These dances exhibit the customs, ideas,
customs and events constituting an important beliefs, superstitions, and events of daily
Lopez (2006) defined Philippine folks dance living in a certain Filipino community.
as a " traditional mode of expression that FRANCISCA REYES-AQUINO is
employs bodily movement of redundant acknowledged as the pioneer of folk dancing
patterns linked to definitive features of in the Philippines. She is the first National
rhythmic beats or music." Artist for dance and the Mother of Philippine
She further stated that Philippine Folk dance, Folk Dance.
to be called such, should have the following
characteristics. DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHILIPPINE FOLK
1. It is traditional. DANCE
2. It has an expressive behavior. There are several ways to classify
3. Simple, basic rhythm dominates the folk Philippine folk dance. According to
dance and establishes the pattern of movement. Francisca Reyes-Aquino, folk dances may
4. It is created by unknown choreographer or by be classified by geographical extent of
communal efforts. origin, nature, speed of movement,
5. It performs a function in the life of the (folk) formation, and distinguishing feature.
people. The three major regional classifications
Oftentimes, the term folk dance is being of Philippine folk dances are the following:
confused or used interchangeably with ethnic 1. Tribal dances from the Cordilleras
and national dance. - include non-christian dances from the
Cordilleras.
What are the differences between folk, 2. Lowland Christian dances
national, and ethnic dance? - dances coming from places with
Folk dances are traditional dances Western influences such as that of the
found in a certain country. While national dances Tagalogs, Ilokanos, Pampangueños,
are also traditional folk dances but have a Pangasinense, Bisayans, and Bicolanas.
national scope. 3. Muslim dances
The Philippine dances Cariñosa, Curacha, - dances from the people of the
and Pandango are example of national folk Southern Islands of the Philippines such as
dances as they are popular dance throughout Mindanao and Sulu.
the country.
Examples of Pandango Dances are: 5 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHILIPPINE
• Pandango Ilocano FOLK DANCES
• Pandango Visayan o Cordillera Dances
• Pandango Dumagueteño o Spanish Influenced
• Pandango Ivatan Dances
• Pandango Rinconada o Muslim Dances
• Pandango sa Ilaw o Tribal Dances
o Rural Dances 
Ethnic dances or ethnological dances are
those performed in primitive tribes and have
retained their close kinship with religious Philippine folk dances, regardless of their
ritual and community custom. classifications, may also be categorized as:
1. Life-cycle dances- dances that serve as ritual
as one passes to a different stage in life.
Different types of Ethnic dances: Different dances that portray life-cycle:
a. Ritual dances a. Courtship dances b. Wedding
- dances that depicts ritual ceremonies. dances c. Funeral dances
Ex.: Dugso (Bukidnon), Pagdidiwata 2. Festival dances- dances that are either
(Palawan) religious or secular and are connected with the
b. Life-cycle dances celebration of recurring events of special
- dances relating to the cycle of human significance.
3. Occupational dances - dances that depicts Some dance steps done in 2/4 time
the means of livelihood of the Filipino people. rhythm can also be done in 3⁄4 time. Review the
Ex: Palay Festival. step patterns of the following basic dance steps
4. Ritual and Ceremonial dances- dances which are done in 3⁄4 time and identify which
performed as part of the rituals and ceremonies dance step can be done in 2/4and 3⁄4 time
of a certain tribe or group of people. signature.
5. Game dances- derivations from local folk  Touch step
games. o Point R foot in front( ct. 1 ), step
Ex: Pukol dance (Aklan and Capiz) R close to L ( ct. 2, 3 ). This is
6. Joke and trickster dances- include jokes or commonly done in front. =1M
tricks played by a dancer on another or a group  Step point
of dances who is one of them. Ex: Pandanggo o Step R foot in front ( ct. 1), point
sa Sambalilo dance L foot in front (cts. 2, 3 ) This
7. Mimetic or drama dances- dances that mimic step is executed in all directions.
animals, inanimate objects, or other people.
Ex: itik-itik dance

8. War dances - dances that express feud and  Step swing

emnity wherein two male dancers engage in o Step R (cts. 1,2); swing L (ct. 3)
physical combat with Spartan. Ex: Maglalatik or step R (ct. 1); swing L (cts.
9. Social amenities dances- dances that express 2,3)Step hop step R (cts. 1,2);
social graces, hospitality, and offerings of gifts to hop R (ct. 3) =1M
friends.  Close step
Ex: Minuete Yano, Habanera. o Step R foot ( cts. 1 ), close L to
R foot (cts. 2, 3 ) = 1M, ` or 2)
DANCE STEPS IN 2/4 TIME SIGNATURE Step R foot ( cts. 1, 2 ), close L
 Touch step- Point R foot in front( ct. to R foot (ct. 3) = 1M This may
1), step R close to L (ct. 2). This is be executed in any directions
commonly done in front. 1M  Native waltz
 Close step-Step R foot (ct. 1), close o Step L foot in front (ct.1), step R
L to R foot (ct. 2) = 1M This may be close to L in rear (ct.2), step L in
executed in any directions front (ct.3).This may be
 Change Step-Step R foot in front executed in all directions.
(ct. 1), step L close to R foot in rear  Cross waltz
(ct. and), step R foot quickly in front o Step R foot across the L foot in
(ct. 2). This may be executed in any
front and raise slightly the L foot
directions.
across in rear (ct.1), step
 Step-Point-Step R foot in front( ct.
the L foot close to R in rear( ct.2),
1), point L foot in front (ct. 2) This
step R foot in front (ct. 3). Step
step is executed in all directions.
on the ball of the rear foot on
 Plain Polka-Step L foot in front
the
(ct.1), step R close to left foot in rear
second count.
(ct. and), step L in front (ct.2), pause
 Waltz balance
(ct. and).
o Step R in front (ct.1), close L
 Hop polka-Hop on L foot and step
foot to R in rear and raise heels
R forward (ct.1), step L close to R in
(ct.2), lower heels with the
rear (ct. and), step R foot forward
weight of the body on the R foot
(ct. 2) and pause (ct. and). This may
(ct.3). The knees are slightly
be executed in any directions.
bent before raising the heels.
 Heel and toe polka-Place L heel in
This
fourth in front (ct.1), touch left toe in
may be executed forward,
rear ( ct. 2), Take one plain polka
backward, obliquely forward
step forward, starting with the L foot
and backward, sideward right
(ct. 1, and 2, and).
and left.
 Slide polka-Take two slide step
 Three-step turn
forward and a plain polka: Slide L
o step R (ct. 1) turn and step L(ct.
foot in front (ct. 1), close R to L foot
in rear (ct. and), slide R foot in front 2); turn and step R (ct. 3); close
( ct. 2), close L foot in rear ( ct. and). L to R (ct. 1); pause = 1M
Take one plain polka forward
starting with the L foot (cts. 1, and 2, SWAY BALANCE
and) The first step is usually done obliquely
forward, cts. 1, 2, the cross-step is done
sideward (ct. 3). The succeeding step is done
obliquely backward (ct. 2) and the last two
counts are done in front, in place. Arms open
from the first position to the fourth position R or L
DANCE STEPS IN ¾ TIME SIGNATURE arms high. Kumintang R (L) hand when pointing
with L (R) foot on cts. 2, 3 of the second
measure.
Sway balance with a point- step R, cross step
L /step R, point L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a brush - step R, cross
step L /step R, brush L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a close- step R, cross step
L/step R, close L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a hop - step R, cross step L
/step R, raise L, hop (1, 2 3 1, 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a raise - step R, cross step
L /step R, raise L (1, 2 3 1 2, 3) = 2M
Sway balance with a waltz - stepR,
crossstepL /stepR,closeL,stepR (1,23123) = 2M