PA L5 - SP2 - Learner Guide

SAQA QUALIFICATION TITLE NQF MIN
ID LEVEL CREDITS
50060 National Certificate: Public Administration 5 141
LEARNER GUIDE
Skills Program Two (2):
Manage and Lead Human
Resources in the Workplace
Public Administration NQF Level 5 1

© Public Service Sector Education & Training Authority 2013
Learner Information:
Details Please Complete this Section

Name & Surname:
Organisation:
Unit/Dept:
Facilitator Name:
Date Started:
Date of Completion:
Copyright
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protected and expressly reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrievable
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otherwise without the prior permission.
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Learner Guide Introduction
About the Learner This Learner Guide provides a comprehensive overview of the MANAGE AND
Guide… LEAD HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE WORKPLACE, and forms part of a
series of Learner Guides that have been developed for National Certificate:
Public Administration Learning Programme at NQF Level 5, worth 156
credits.
The series of Learner Guides are conceptualized in modular’s format and

developed for National Certificate: Public Administration Learning
Programme. They are designed to improve the skills and knowledge of
learners, and thus enabling them to effectively and efficiently complete specific
tasks.
Learners are required to attend training workshops as a group or as specified

by their organization. These workshops are presented in modules, and
conducted by a qualified facilitator.
Purpose The purpose of this Learner Guide is to provide learners with the necessary
knowledge related to MANAGE AND LEAD HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE
WORKPLACE
Outcomes At the end of this module, you will be able to:
 Build teams to meet set goals and objectives
 Interpret and manage conflicts within the workplace
 Analyse leadership and related theories in a work context
 Manage diversity in the workplace
 Analyse the role that emotional intelligence plays in leadership
 Manage the development and performance of human capital in the
public sector
Assessment Criteria The only way to establish whether a learner is competent and has
accomplished the specific outcomes is through an assessment process.
Assessment involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the learner’s
ability to perform a task.
This guide may include assessments in the form of activities, assignments,
tasks or projects, as well as workplace practical tasks. Learners are required to
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perform tasks on the job to collect enough and appropriate evidence for their
portfolio of evidence, proof signed by their supervisor that the tasks were
performed successfully.
To qualify To qualify and receive credits towards the learning program, a registered
assessor will conduct an evaluation and assessment of the learner’s portfolio
of evidence and competency
Range of Learning This describes the situation and circumstance in which competence must be
demonstrated and the parameters in which learners operate
Responsibility The responsibility of learning rest with the learner, so:
 Be proactive and ask questions,
 Seek assistance and help from your facilitators, if required.
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BUILD TEAMS TO MEET SET GOALS AND
Learning Unit1
OBJECTIVES
UNIT STANDARD NUMBER : 15237

NQF LEVEL : 5
CREDITS : 3
FIELD : Business, Commerce and Management Studies
SUB FIELD : Generic Management
This is a Unit Standard intended for managers in all economic sectors. These managers would
typically be second level managers such as a heads of department, section heads or divisional
PURPOSE:
heads, and may have more than one team reporting to them.
The qualifying learner is capable of:
 Demonstrating knowledge of the principles and processes of team building in workplace
activities.
 Getting agreement from team members on objectives, timeframes, rules and guidelines for
participation.
 Leading team to complete workplace activities.
LEARNING ASSUMED TO BE IN PLACE:
It is assumed that people learning towards this Unit Standard are competent in:
 Communication at NQF level 4.
 Computer Literacy at NQF level 4.
SESSION 1
Demonstrate knowledge of the principles and processes of team building in workplace
activities.
Learning Outcomes
 The goals and objectives of the workplace activity are identified and explained with examples.
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 Styles of team leadership and membership are identified and their impact on team dynamics is
evaluated for the specific organisation.
 Principles of effective delegation are identified and explained with relevance to team-building.
The goals and objectives of the workplace activity

People in every workplace talk about building the team, working as a team, and my team, but few
understand how to create the experience of team work or how to develop an effective team. Belonging to
a team, in the broadest sense, is a result of feeling part of something larger than yourself. It has a lot to
do with your understanding of the mission or objectives of your organization.
In a team-oriented environment, you contribute to the overall success of the organization. You work with
fellow members of the organization to produce these results. Even though you have a specific job function
and you belong to a specific department, you are unified with other organization members to accomplish
the overall objectives. The bigger picture drives your actions; your function exists to serve the bigger
picture.
You need to differentiate this overall sense of teamwork from the task of developing an effective intact
team that is formed to accomplish a specific goal. People confuse the two team building objectives. This
is why so many team building seminars, meetings, retreats and activities are deemed failures by their
participants. Leaders failed to define the team they wanted to build. Developing an overall sense of team
work is different from building an effective, focused work team when you consider team building
approaches.
Twelve Cs for Team Building
Executives, managers and organization staff members universally explore ways to improve business.
Many view team-based, horizontal, organization structures as the best design for involving all employees
in creating business success.
No matter what you call your team-based improvement effort: continuous improvement, total quality, lean
manufacturing or self-directed work teams, you are striving to improve results for customers. Few
organizations, however, are totally pleased with the results their team improvement efforts produce. If
your team improvement efforts are not living up to your expectations, this self-diagnosing checklist may
tell you why. Successful team building, that creates effective, focused work teams, requires attention to
each of the following.
 Clear Expectations: Has executive leadership clearly communicated its expectations for the team
performance and expected outcomes? Do team members understand why the team was created? Is
the organization demonstrating constancy of purpose in supporting the team with resources of
people, time and money? Does the work of the team receive sufficient emphasis as a priority in terms
of the time, discussion, attention and interest directed its way by executive leaders?
 Context: Do team members understand why they are participating on the team? Do they understand
how the strategy of using teams will help the organization attain its communicated business goals?
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Can team members define their team importance to the accomplishment of corporate goals? Does
the team understand where its work fits in the total context of the organization goals, principles, vision
and values?
 Commitment: Do team members want to participate on the team? Do team members feel the team
mission is important? Are members committed to accomplishing the team mission and expected
outcomes? Do team members perceive their service as valuable to the organization and to their own
careers? Do team members anticipate recognition for their contributions? Do team members expect
their skills to grow and develop on the team? Are team members excited and challenged by the team
opportunity?
 Competence: Does the team feel that it has the appropriate people participating? (As an
example, in a process improvement, is each step of the process represented on the team?) Does the
team feel that its members have the knowledge, skill and capability to address the issues for which the
team was formed? If not, does the team have access to the help it needs? Does the team feel it has
the resources, strategies and support needed to accomplish its mission?
 Charter: Has the team taken its assigned area of responsibility and designed its own mission,
vision and strategies to accomplish the mission. Has the team defined and communicated its goals; its
anticipated outcomes and contributions; its timelines; and how it will measure both the outcomes of its
work and the process the team followed to accomplish their task? Does the leadership team or other
coordinating group support what the team has designed?
 Control: Does the team have enough freedom and empowerment to feel the ownership
necessary to accomplish its charter? At the same time, do team members clearly understand their
boundaries? How far may members go in pursuit of solutions? Are limitations (i.e. monetary and time
resources) defined at the beginning of the project before the team experiences barriers and rework?
Is the team’s reporting relationship and accountability understood by all members of the organization?
Has the organization defined the team’s authority? To make recommendations? To implement its
plan? Is there a defined review process so both the team and the organization are consistently aligned
in direction and purpose? Do team members hold each other accountable for project timelines,
commitments and results? Does the organization have a plan to increase opportunities for self-
management among organization members?
 Collaboration: Does the team understand team and group process? Do members understand
the stages of group development? Are team members working together effectively interpersonally? Do
all team members understand the roles and responsibilities of team members? Team leaders? Team
recorders? Can the team approach problem solving, process improvement, goal setting and
measurement jointly? Do team members cooperate to accomplish the team charter? Has the team
established group norms or rules of conduct in areas such as conflict resolution, consensus decision
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making and meeting management? Is the team using an appropriate strategy to accomplish its action
plan?
 Communication: Are team members clear about the priority of their tasks? Is there an
established method for the teams to give feedback and receive honest performance feedback? Does
the organization provide important business information regularly? Do the teams understand the
complete context for their existence? Do team members communicate clearly and honestly with each
other? Do team members bring diverse opinions to the table? Are necessary conflicts raised and
addressed?
 Creative Innovation: Is the organization really interested in change? Does it value creative
thinking, unique solutions, and new ideas? Does it reward people who take reasonable risks to make
improvements? Or does it reward the people who fit in and maintain the status quo? Does it provide
the training, education, access to books and films, and field trips necessary to stimulate new thinking?
 Consequences: Do team members feel responsible and accountable for team achievements?
Are rewards and recognition supplied when teams are successful? Is reasonable risk respected and
encouraged in the organization? Do team members fear reprisal? Do team members spend their time
finger pointing rather than resolving problems? Is the organization designing reward systems that
recognize both team and individual performance? Is the organization planning to share gains and
increased profitability with team and individual contributors? Can contributors see their impact on
increased organization success?
 Coordination: Are teams coordinated by a central leadership team that assists the groups to
obtain what they need for success? Have priorities and resource allocation been planned across
departments? Do teams understand the concept of the internal customer—the next process, anyone to
whom they provide a product or a service? Are cross-functional and multi-department teams common
and working together effectively? Is the organization developing a customer-focused process-focused
orientation and moving away from traditional departmental thinking?
 Cultural Change: Does the organization recognize that the team-based, collaborative,
empowering, enabling organizational culture of the future is different than the traditional, hierarchical
organization it may currently be? Is the organization planning to or in the process of changing how it
rewards, recognizes, appraises, hires, develops, plans with, motivates and manages the people it
employs?
Styles of team leadership and membership

The member who fulfils the leadership role will have both a direct and an indirect effect on the team as a
whole. The direct effect is usually clear and easy to identify - it consists of the instructions the leader
issues or policies they put in place.

Quite as important, but less simple to distinguish, however, are the leader's indirect effects on their team.
These stem not from the leader's actions themselves, but from the ways in which they perform these
actions - in other words, from their individual behavioural style. Consider the following leadership styles;
The Director: is a leadership style that tends to appear where the leader has a highly Dominant
personality. Such a leader has a demanding and impatient leadership style. They rarely tolerate
dissension, and act quickly to quell any possible threats (as they will see them) to their leadership
position.
The Persuader: (a style related to profiles showing high Influence) prefers to foster a friendly, open
atmosphere, and to build strong relationships with the members of their team. This approach often hides
the fact, though, that this style is still an assertive and active one, and will react badly where they believe
other members of the team are in some sense taking advantage of their informal style.
The Supporter: (a style based on high Steadiness) tends to see themselves as providing a service for
the team's members, rather than a source of direction. While they understand their responsibilities as a
leader, they will typically seek to establish rapport with the members of their team, providing support
where circumstances require it, and looking for similar support from their members.
The Thinker: (which applies to styles showing high Compliance) represents a leader who works through
planning and structure. We have already seen how highly Compliant types will attempt to impose
authority through procedure and organisation. This is due largely to their desire for certainty - they will
wish to know as much as possible about the operations of the team on a day-by-day level.
Principles of effective delegation

When you begin to think of yourself as a successful leader, you realize that there are more
demands on your time than you can possibly fill. This is a common problem faced by many leaders.
The solution to this challenge is developing a process of effective delegation. However, delegation is an
important tool that many leaders hesitate to use, and it has been the downfall of many leaders. The
biggest barrier to delegation is overcoming the attitude that you must do it all! It becomes a leader's curse
when you adhere to the adage, "If you want something done right, do it yourself."
Delegation is very different from simply assigning someone a task or project that falls into his or
her established job description or requirements. When you delegate, you give someone else one of
your job tasks to complete with the authority and control to complete it properly. Delegation is not
abdication. You share accountability for the assignment, which is why checkpoints are established to
monitor overall progress. Just as the outcomes of your entire department are your responsibility, you are
also responsible for the ultimate success of the delegation process.
When delegation is done properly and for the right reasons, it helps foster a climate of trust and creates
growth opportunities for your employees. Here are five principles that can help you create an effective
delegation process.

1. Determine what you will delegate. Effective delegation begins with defining your responsibilities.
Write down all of your activities and responsibilities. Review your master list and categorize all of the
items into two secondary lists: things you alone must do and things that others could do or help you
complete. Anything that falls into the second list presents an opportunity for delegation.
2. Choose the right person to delegate the task to. Andrew Carnegie said, "The secret to success
lies not in doing your own work, but in recognizing the right person to do it. " The key to finding the
right person to delegate an assignment to is matching skills and attitude to the task at hand.
3. Clarify the desired results. When the results are clear, it allows the employee to use his or her own
creativity and resources to accomplish the task. An added benefit of effective delegation is the
individual may find a better and more effective way to accomplish the task or achieve the desired
results.
4. Clearly define the employee's responsibility and authority as it relates to the delegated
task. Clearly communicate the expectation, responsibilities, and timeline. Be sure to ask the
employee to share his or her understanding.
5. Establish a follow up meeting or touch points. The follow up meetings should be focused on two
things-monitoring progress and determining the need for assistance. The number of follow up
meetings will vary based on the scope of the task or project and whether the employee is new or a
long term member of the department.
Once you have created a solid process for delegation, stick to it, and avoid reverse delegation. At times, a
team member may try to dump the delegated task back to you, and you may feel tempted to take it back
especially if he or she seems to be struggling. Helping him or her stretch outside his or her comfort
zone is all part of a positive growth and development. Use the scheduled follow up meetings to
manage the delegation process, provide encouragement, and monitor the results!

SESSION 2.
Obtain agreement from team members on objectives timeframes, rules and guidelines for
participation.
Learning Outcomes
 Team members are involved in decision-making about the tasks at hand.
 Viewpoints of the team members are discussed and decisions taken and incorporated into plans of
action and work procedures.
 Individual participation is encouraged in the process.
 The team determines objectives, timeframes, etc for the tasks to be performed with the manager
guiding the group to reach consensus when required.
Team members are involved in decision-making about the tasks at hand

Strategic leaders and teams
Why be concerned about consensus team decision making at the strategic level? What is so important
about that approach to policy making? Consensus decision making offers the benefit of using more fully
the experience, judgment, perceptions, and thinking of a team of people. To those who have not
participated in consensus decision making, the process may seem frustrating. But, mastery of small group
consensus decision making processes may be the key to achieving a successful resolution of whatever
crisis appears in this complex environment. Because of the nature of modern issues in the global
environment, strategic decision makers must rely on teams to solve problems and to make policy
recommendations. A high performing team can be a positive force in assessing strategic situations and
formulating national policy.
Long term vision
Effective strategic leaders employ a strategic team to help them in the visioning process. This team
"sees" the strategic environment from various frames of reference, visualizing the effectiveness of
proposed strategies over time. Teams help leaders to understand a complex situation and gain insight
into how to achieve long-term objectives, allocate resources and integrate operational and tactical
decisions into strategic plans.
Consensus style
Effective strategic leaders know how to get everyone involved in policy making and build consensus in the
process. Within large complex organizations, whether public or private, consensus is the engine that
sustains policy decisions. No strategic leader can succeed unless he or she can build such consensus.
Thus, the search for consensus among peers, allies, and even competitors becomes a requirement for
shared commitment to a national policy, and to corporate, business policy.
Team Building
Successful strategic leaders use their knowledge and skills to structure and lead high performing teams.
Strategic teams that perform with unity of purpose contribute to the creation of strategic vision, develop

long-range plans, implement strategy, access resources, and manage the implementation of national
policy. Given the nature of the strategic environment and the complexity of both national and global
issues, strategic leaders must use teams. They cannot do it alone.
Challenges to decision making teams
Strategic decision makers regularly use teams to solve urgent problems such as in the drug wars where
both civil and military assets and federal and state resources are jointly employed. Most strategic-level
decision-making teams exist for brief periods to resolve a major problem or to develop national policy and
strategies to meet future challenges. While these teams carry great responsibilities, they are often "ad
hoc" in nature.
A team leader has two overriding responsibilities: First, the leader is accountable for the effective
functioning of the team. The leader monitors team performance and takes action to improve team
effectiveness. Teams tend to perform best when responsibilities are shared and leadership tasks are
distributed among members. Empowered team members are more likely to take responsibility for team
success. Second, the leader is responsible for developing a stable leadership structure. Many decision-
making teams tend to be more effective when the framework for leadership is clear. These teams tend to
work more efficiently, have fewer interpersonal problems, and produce better outputs. Common
observations of the strategic decision making process that contribute to the leadership challenge include:
 Diverse Team Membership. There are often several agencies involved, each having different
terminology, goals, and priorities. Members may lack understanding of various agency roles and
contributions to the issues. And, members have different perceptions about how the government
works.
 Lack of Policy Guidance. Strategic-level decision-making teams often are not given clearly defined
policy guidance from above due to politics or concerns about media scrutiny. This often leads to
involvement in undesirable arenas.
 Low Team Authority. The framework for getting things done is either ambiguous or nonexistent.
Nobody is in charge of the process. The "lead agency" concept is confusing and agencies are
designated without specific guidance. Standard military formats and structures are not useful.
 Internal Politics. Bureaucratic bias impedes team performance. Team member mindsets emphasize
agency goals and programs at the expense of overall government objectives. There is a strong
preference for agency autonomy due to narrow budget constraints and rigid resource controls. A
powerful bias against adapting and integrating operations precludes coordinated implementation.
 Organizational Inertia. There is strong inertia toward familiar situation assessments and courses of
action. Members resist change or divergence from existing policies.
 Lack of Integration. Sub-groups produce uncoordinated products because they work in parallel,
even when dealing with sequential tasks. There is no coordination mechanism to integrate subgroup

work while in development. In the end, the team staples together disconnected subgroup products for
implementation.
 Gaps and Ambiguities. In interagency teams, the economic component and the private sector often
have no spokespersons. The resource dimension security is often lacking, and team assessments in
this area are absent, weak, or wrong.
Given these difficulties, it should be no surprise that team meetings can be a journey into foreign territory
for each team member. By adopting a "consensus style" of leadership, some of these problems can be
eliminated.
Consensus in strategic decision making
Decision making at the strategic level hinges on the ability of decision-making teams to forge consensus
for action. No team can succeed unless it is strong enough to sustain decisions through bureaucratic
politics, interest group resistance, media criticism, and implementation. Consensus acts as the "power
plant" within the national security decision making system, or the private sector, to sustain policy
decisions through implementation either in the government bureaucracy, or in the market place.
Viewpoints of the team members

While many of the decisions we make on a daily basis are quite simple, some are not. These decisions
may involve assimilating a huge amount of information, exploring many different ideas, and drawing on
many strands of experience. And the consequences of the right or wrong decision may be profound for
the team and the organization.
So, should leaders be decisive, think the issues through on their own, and take firm action?
There's a limit to how much information any one individual can process, and a limit on how many
perspectives one person can see. Many decisions need full group participation to explore the situation,
provide input, and make a final choice. As you've probably seen,
groups can often make better decisions than any one person
operating on his or her own. This is one of the main reasons that
good companies have boards, to which important decisions are
taken.
What's more, many decisions need "buy-in" from the people
affected by them if they're to be implemented successfully, and
it's hard to get this buy-in if people haven't been involved in the
decision-making process.
The problem is that when you bring other people into the decision-making process, you need to approach
decisions differently. These approaches vary, depending on a number of different factors, including:
 The type of decision.
 The time and resources available.

 The nature of the task being worked on.
 The environment the group wants to create.
 The amount of buy-in needed.
Understanding why and how best to organize decisions for your team is an important skill. We'll show you
some key tools that you can use when you want to involve your whole team in the decision-making
process.
The Challenge of Team Decisions
Using team input is challenging, and it takes preparation and time. As the saying goes, if you put three
people together in a room, you'll often get four opinions. People can often see issues differently – and
they all have different experiences, values, personalities, styles, and needs. Team decision-making
strategies should therefore be used when you want to get participation and achieve consensus.
When time is of the essence, a good decision is one that's made quickly. That doesn't usually happen
with full team decision-making. And when one or two people have the necessary expertise to make the
decision, it doesn't make sense to involve the whole team – the experts provide most of the input and
make the final choice anyway.
However, where the situation is complex, consequences are significant, commitment and buy-in are
important, and where team members can work together maturely, team decision-making is often best.
Team Consensus Methods
When your whole group needs to be involved in the process, you need to explore consensus decision-
making models. With these, each team member has the opportunity to provide input and opinions. All
members discuss alternatives until they agree on a solution.
With consensus, there's often compromise. Not everyone gets everything they want out of the final
decision. However, because everyone has fair input, the decisions reached are often ones that all can live
with.
Let's look at a few team decision-making strategies.
Ensuring Participation
A consensus decision depends on hearing everyone's opinion. In a team situation, that doesn't always
happen naturally: assertive people can tend to get the most attention. Less assertive team members can
often feel intimidated and don't always speak up, particularly when their ideas are very different from the
popular view.
The Stepladder Technique can help you manage these differences. Each team member thinks about the
problem individually and, one at a time, introduces new ideas to the group leader – without knowing what
ideas have already been discussed. After the first two people present their ideas, they discuss them
together. Then the leader adds a third person, who presents his or her ideas before hearing the previous
input. This cycle of presentation and discussion continues until the whole team has a chance to add their
opinions.

The benefit of this process is that everyone feels heard and acknowledged. Once all of the ideas have
been presented, the team can look at ways to narrow the options down, and make a decision.
Individual participation is encouraged in the process

Team Relationships
It is very important to understand interpersonal relationships to create the best team. The different
relationships in a team can destine it for failure or great success, so it is very important to consider each
person who is put in a team. Also depending upon the task or goal of a team, there may be better types of
relationships for that team. A team's inclusion and relationships can be improved with training and
experience.
In order to answer the posed question, it is important to understand what is involved in interpersonal
relationships. These relationships are as diverse as there are different types of personalities. Every
person has a personality that has been shaped by years of experiences. Some are very aggressive and
others very relaxed. There are outspoken people and quiet people, analytical and qualitative, and many
others. All of these things are important in understanding how team members will handle different
situations and problems that they will face in a team. A good team facilitator will quickly pick up on the
different team member’s skills and personalities and then use this information to make the team effective.
The qualities of relationships that are the best for teams to be effective include being productive, having
mutual understanding and are self corrective. These things need to be evaluated in who is picked for a
team.
Productivity
A team needs to be productive, and therefore the relationships within a team need to be productive as
well. When all team members are included and involved in the team process, the team becomes very
productive. We have all probably been assigned to teams that were too large and it did not feel like your
individual effort mattered. When teams get too large, there is no longer a mutual need for the input of
every member. Despite having information or skills that the team needs, individuals may no longer put as
much effort into a project when there are too many members. Also in large groups, members tend to have
a perception of “someone else will go it”, so there is no need to be assertive. There usually are a number
of members that will no longer participate and feel like their time is being wasted. Having too large of a
team is a common way to lose the inclusion of all members.
Mutual understanding
Maybe you have been part of a team where certain members took over and made it harder for others to
be involved. Some members are reluctant to express conflicting ideas depending upon who is involved or
in charge of the meeting. Overly aggressive members can really stifle a team’s creativeness and
productivity. The mutual understanding and focus on a group task gets demoted by the over
aggressiveness or ego of someone who dominates a team. When everyone in a team feels free to

contribute, the mutual strength of the team increases. So it is important to pick team members with
relationships that will create a collaborative environment.
Self corrective
When selecting members of a team it is good too look at each individual’s skills in communicating with
others and their ability to work with others. Depending upon the type of problem to be solved by a group
or team, there may be a need for homogeneity, or a need for great diversity. In teams where everyone
has very similar backgrounds, values, and personalities, there is very low risk of conflicts. These teams
also tend to be more likely to make mistakes and to not explore all of the possibilities in solving problems.
They can have a hard time finding their mistakes and correcting them. Teams that have a large difference
in personality and background tend to have much more conflict and less cooperation. Despite these
challenges, these teams can be very effective in solving challenging issues, even relationship issues. One
key to making diverse teams be productive is to create a collaborate environment and keep the team
focused on the goal or task of the group. Diverse teams that understand the value of conflict resolution
and the value of their diversity can be self correcting and ease the burden of a team leader or facilitator.
Good team skill training and time together with a team can really help diverse teams.
Being Part of a Team
If you are not included in a team that you think could benefit from you being included, how do you
approach the team leader and/or existing team members to be included, or should you at all?
If we are not included in a team that you consider you should, the best thing to do is to present your
concerns to your team leader, your supervisor or manager. You can proceed according with the following
steps that have helped before:
 Request a space in his/her agenda
 Present your concern
 Present your point of view
 Discuss possible reasons if you get a no
 Conclude the meeting
 Follow up
As part of a team, we need to have an open and honest communication not only with our managers and
supervisors, but also with our team leader and co-workers. Communication is the key to succeed.
Communication is more than talking to others or writing e-mails or letters, it also includes the art of
“listening”. Also it will be explained in detail each will be applied in this type of situation:
 Request a meeting: Is a good idea to request a meeting, especially with superiors, because usually
they are busy and you will want to capture all of his/her attention. When you request a meeting, you
can be sure that the other person will pay attention to your concern. Usually this type of meetings
doesn’t last very long. Remember that our bosses are busy. A half hour to an hour will be enough.

 Present your concern: Don’t be afraid, present your concern. Be open and honest. Ask why you
were not considered. The majority of the times you will be surprised that a) there was not a reason
behind, they just didn’t think about you or b) you can realize the reason behind the decision. At this
point, you will have the opportunity to clarify the perception or you can ask how you can perform
better or in a different way in order to be considered in future projects.
 Present your point of view and the reason(s) why you consider you will be a great asset to the
team: If the reason is they didn’t think about you, sell yourself and present your ideas. Showing them
that you have the experience and knowledge, as well as the skills and background that can benefit
the team selected. If you are still not considered, at least they will have an idea of who you are and it
will be a possibility in the future that they will select you. Remember: be clear, concise and simple.
 Discussion and answer of questions: Be prepared to defend your ideas, also to answer questions.
Usually the other person just wants to better understand your point of view. Other times they just want
to know if you really have the knowledge and the experience that you said you have. Don't be afraid
to sell yourself and tell them about your experience and knowledge. An excellent way to do this is
telling stories.
 Conclude the meeting: Always conclude the meeting in good and positive terms. Most of the times a
diplomatic conversation is more valuable and can open other opportunities.
 If necessary, always follow up the conversation: If after the meeting you get a possibility to be
included in the team, always follow up the conversation to show that you are interested.
The team determines objectives, timeframes
How can teams include the "best" members and what does "best" mean in selecting members? What key
attributes, skills, competencies, etc, should be looked for in selecting team members, which ones can be
sacrificed?
When selecting team members, it is important to select the “best” team members. “Best” in this
circumstance could be defined as the right team members with the necessary skills and abilities to
function together as a team. However selecting the best team members can be very difficult. Thus it is
important to have a process in place to assist in team selection. The proper selection will lead to better
inclusion.
If you are not included in a team that you consider will get a benefit with your inclusion, here is presented
some steps that can help you to approach the situation.
What Is the Process?

What process should be followed in order to select team members, or should a formal process exist?

The Process should exist, but be somewhat flexible. Flexibility is important to allow for small change
within each organization. The three step process as defined below can be used as a foundation for a
process.
Identify goal or team purpose
Goal
Defining a clear goal is important so the group understands what it is trying to achieve. Without a clear
goal or purpose, the team may not be able to identify when the task has been completed or finished. With
a clear goal, the team can unify and focus on the objectives rather than determine what the objectives
should be.
Timeline
It is important to establish a timeline for group selection as well as project finish date (the project finish
date may be defined as ongoing or indefinite). While selecting the "best" members of a group, one must
not lose track of the date by which the group must be formed.
Identify Group Needs
Experience
Identifying experience is important for group confidence. Experience in particular areas can help the
group identify with individuals and allow individuals to shine in their appropriate areas.
Attributes
Identify attributes are important as this can either help or hurt the group cohesion. Identifying whether
potential members are aggressive, passive, compassionate, dedicated, or motivated can directly
influence the speed and accuracy of the completion of team objectives. It is important to have a well
rounded team so they can effectively challenge and complement one another.
Specialty interest
Indentify passions or non-passions. Identifying individual passions or non-passions can help identify and
individual’s motivation. If a team member does not care about the outcome of the project, their motivation
and contribution may be limited. On the other hand, someone with extreme passion may be overbearing
and inhibit team success. Finding individuals with the appropriate interest levels must be balanced.
Skills
The necessary skill level is important so highly skilled individuals aren’t bored with the project at hand.
However it is important to have appropriately skilled individuals to be able to accomplish the task at hand.
Personalities
Are ideas going to be challenged? This question is important. If you have a group of individuals that
behave in the same manner, will the ideas presented in the group environment be challenged sufficiently
to be identified as the best possible solution or end product? Allowing individuals to be challenged, or
defend particular point of views can allow healthy collaboration. However with personalities that are

overbearing and domineering it can lead to a very “unsafe” group environment. This can lead to other
problems like group polarization.
Identify Possible Team Members
The third step in the process is to identify individuals who may fit within the team. Identify the “best” team
members according to the group needs and the defined goal, so the group has appropriate motivation
and does not stagnate.
These three steps are staring points to form the “best” team. Following these three processes can allow a
group to be interdependent on each other to complete group tasks. Not only can interdependence help
the group work together, it fosters a sense of inclusion, because every group member feels that she is
needed. As well, a simple process identifying the “best” individuals can help a group overcome
stereotyping, social loafing, and group process loss.

SESSION 3.
Lead team to complete workplace activities.
Learning Outcomes
 Completed workplace activities meet specified objectives within agreed timeframes.
 Leadership style contributes positively to the achievement of workplace activities.
 Time-wasting activities are identified and discouraged so as to improve productivity.
Completed workplace activities meet specified objectives

People effectively achieve organizational goals through teams. When working in a team, you consider
your individual work plans when helping to fulfill a team’s overall goal. Goals are better achieved by teams
when there is too much for a single person to do or when there are ranges of tasks involving varied skills.
In meeting goals, the team must be well organized and coordinated in its efforts. Here are some points to
consider:
 Encourage contributions from everyone
 Speak for yourself
 Be confident to ask questions and contribute
 Be as open and honest as you can
 Listen to the others in your group
 Be constructive and supportive
 Maintain confidentiality
 Make democratic decisions
 Share tasks fairly
 Complete tasks by agreed deadlines
Harmonious Working Relationships
Some studies have shown that job failures can be due to personality clash rather than lack of job
knowledge, skill or competence. The skills required to develop positive working relationships include:
 Open communication
 Negotiation for a “win-win” situation rather than a “win-lose” result
 Trust and respect
 Acknowledgment of individual differences
 Effective listening
 Focus on controlling or changing yourself rather than trying to control or change others
 Giving everyone fair opportunity to contribute and express their concerns and issues
 Genuine appreciation of others, rather than criticism or blame
 Understand the needs or others

Disagreements and differences of opinion in the workplace should not escalate into personal conflict.
Intervention is critical if this occurs to resolve the conflict as soon as possible. Some actions which can
be taken to resolve conflicts are:
 Do not avoid the conflict, hoping it will go away. Even if the conflict appears to have been
superficially put to rest, it will rear its ugly head whenever stress increases or a new disagreement
occurs. An unresolved conflict or interpersonal disagreement festers just under the surface in the
work environment.
 Talk to the people involved in the conflict and to your supervisor. Sometimes mediation is required so
that all employees are listened to and involved in the resolution.
 Everyone in your office and every employee, with whom the conflicting employees interact, is affected
by the stress when a conflict occurs. People feel as if they are walking on egg shells in the presence
of the antagonists. This contributes to the creation of a hostile work environment for other employees.
In worst case scenarios, team members take sides.
Individual Differences
It is essential that all team members demonstrate sensitivity to colleagues who may be having difficulty
achieving their individual sub-goals. It could be due to personal issues, stress, and lack of experience or
exposure to the topic, just to name a few reasons. If your work load permits, offer a helping hand.
Remember, this is a team objective; the most important lesson here is communication within a team
environment and achieving team goals. There are also individual differences inherent in:
 Culture
 Race
 Language
 Religion
 Physical capacity
 Ethnic origin
 Age and sex
SPECIFIC Clear and concise. Record the goals and circulate them
to the team
MEASURABLE You must be able to count and equate your results. You
must be able to measure if your goal has been
achieved.
ATTAINABLE Realistic and possible to achieve.
RELEVANT Goal must have a purpose and be important to the
individual and the team. Try to set interesting or
challenging goals, as these will motivate the team.
TIME RELATED Goals must have a set time frame for achievement, be

manageable and flexible enough to change.
Leadership style contributes positively to the achievement of workplace activities

The leader within an organisational context
Organisations are made up of individuals brought together to enable it to achieve its mission. The
organisation's structure will determine how these individuals work together in teams and how they relate
to one another. For an organistion to be successful, it is important that every individual in the organisation
is working towards the same goal.
Leaders have an important role to play in co-ordinating and integrating the activities of these individuals
and teams, ensuring that they are aware of the institution's priorities and that they are working towards
them. Leaders achieve this not only through the authority delegated to them within the organisation's
hierarchy, but also by being charismatic, knowledgeable and respected leaders who inspire and motivate.
Managers and leaders
There is much debate about the difference between a manager and a leader. Some argue that there is no
real difference and that leadership is just one aspect of the role of a manager, while others say that there
is a significant difference between the two. A leader is someone who has vision and drives change
whereas a manager maintains stability through planning, control and monitoring activities.
In the modern world with organisations facing many challenges, there is an emerging debate that
managers need to be both managers and leaders, and apply the combined skills to enable the survival
and success of an organisation.
Leadership qualities
Leadership is concerned with the influencing of the actions and attitudes of others ensuring that everyone
is following a common goal. Within an organisational setting, the power of a leader to influence others is
established within the organisational structure. However, positional power does not necessary mean that
others will follow or that they will follow willingly. It is therefore important that the leader has certain
characteristics and abilities.
Knowledge and expertise
We are more likely to follow someone if we admire and respect his/her expertise and knowledge.
Social skills
Leaders channel the efforts of individuals into team efforts. This builds an organisation into a community
of people working together to achieve a shared vision and goals. In order to achieve this, effective
working relationships have to be built. The leader has a key role to play to developing this sense of team
spirit.
Vision

Within an organisational setting, it is not surprising that individuals will view their work, the organisation
itself and the people they work with in different ways. It is the role of the leader to manage this diversity
and to reconcile the needs and values of the individual with the needs and values of the organisation to
encourage creativity and vision and minimize frustration and conflict.
Leaders need to inspire and motivate their workforce to achieve the organisation's goals. It is important to
clarify the organisation's vision so that everyone understands his/her place in achieving it and exactly
what is required. Leaders need to then ensure that the necessary systems, resources and processes are
in place to enable the vision to be achieved.
Problem solving and judgment making skills
Effective leaders have an ability to solve problems and to make objective decisions in a timely manner.
Self-knowledge
Knowing and understanding our strengths and weaknesses is important if we are to develop and grow.
Successful leaders build on their self-knowledge and encourage their teams to do the same.
Quality focus
Leaders aim to achieve their personal best and help their teams to continuously improve in all aspects of
performance. This involves setting demanding yet achievable targets, sponsoring improvement in the
organisation's processes and striving for total quality in all areas.
Leadership success
There are a number of variables that impact upon the success of the leader within an organisational
context.
Relationship with the team
Teams are made up of individuals brought together to enable the organisation to achieve its mission. It is
the role of the leader to integrate the activities of individuals, ensuring that they are aware of the
institution's priorities and that they are working towards them. If individuals are pulling in different
directions, then this will have a detrimental impact upon the organisation achieving its mission.
Leaders need to be respected by their teams. They can achieve this by building effective working
relationships and trust within their teams. This means dealing with issues of inter-team conflict and being
proactive in dealing with instances of bullying or harassment. Leaders must also lead by example.
The style of the leader
This needs to be consistent with the needs of the organisation and the needs of the team. The most
effective leadership style is an approach that is both considerate and compassionate to the workforce and
focused on achieving organisational objectives by getting the job done, to the right specification and
within the correct timescales.
Time-wasting activities are identified and discouraged so as to improve productivity

Important things to know about time management

Any busy person who wants to be effective must also be able to manage their time properly.
 Time management works well when it is treated as an integral part of the overall plans of the
organisation and each individual, rather than as an isolated and often a by-the-way activity that has to
be done as and when we find time.
 We all have exactly equal hours available to us - it is the use of these hours that makes the difference
between effective people and others. Those who always do the most important things they need to be
doing at that time, are more effective.
 Many successful people and organisations budget money for their operations and they go further by
budgeting (scheduling) their time as well.
To manage time properly you have to do the following three things:
 Identify the things that waste your time and are not productive.
 Make a list of all your tasks and prioritise the most important ones.
 Draw up a daily to-do list to make sure that all tasks are completed in time.
How to identify time wasters
Time wasters are all those things that are not essential to your core tasks. You may do them because you
are used to doing them, or because they are easier to do or because of other people and the demands
they make or problems they cause. These time wasters can either be caused by your organisation or by
yourself.
Time wasters caused by others:
 Visitors - You may have many visitors who come in, unannounced, either for work or to chat. As a
result it becomes almost impossible for you to do your work. Staff or members of the public come to
chat and you find it hard to chase them away.
 Telephone calls - You get interrupted by many phone calls from friends who want to chat or other
callers who are asking you questions that someone else should answer. Your callers remain on the
line for a long time.
 Waiting -You are frustrated by the time you spend waiting for different people such as people late for
a meeting, leaders who delay you because they are busy with other things or staff who arrive late for
appointments or work. Sometimes you depend on other people's input before you can complete a
task and you could waste time waiting if they delay. You may spend too much time in queues for
example at the bank, the post office or at the station or taxi rank.
 Meetings -You find yourself sitting in many unnecessary and unproductive meetings that take 3
hours instead of 30 minutes.
 Crises - When you have planned your work properly and you know how you will manage it, it can
suddenly be disrupted by a crisis. This tends to throw your entire schedule out.
 Transport - Driving or using public transport in urban areas during peak hours can be a nightmare,
because suddenly there is a traffic jam that can make you late for an extremely urgent and important

meeting that should take place before or after working hours. While you are waiting for the traffic to
clear up the time for your meeting is already gone.
Time wasters caused by you:
 Disorganisation - You are so disorganised that you always lose the important documents and you
seldom find what you need on your desk and you scarcely ever finish your tasks. Your desk often
looks like it has been hit by a hurricane, and at the end of your working day you carry part of your
paper mess home with the hope that you will order it. You do not keep a proper diary or to-do list and
have no idea of what is most important to do first.
 Procrastination - You leave your tasks till the very last minute and when you have to do it you find
that you are under so much pressure that you cannot meet the deadlines.
 Inability to say “No " - You feel that you cannot say "no" to requests because that is letting people
down, something that is not in your value system. You cannot say "No" because no one else can do
this task as well as you, or there is no one else to do it.
 Lack of interest - You are not doing your work because you are not interested in it, or you are afraid
of failing if you try. You may not have sufficient information about it, or you simply do not want to do it.
 Burn Out - You are exhausted and are unable to concentrate, you are very emotional and feel you
have been working and living under so much pressure. When the stress becomes too much for you
this is called “burn out."
Dealing with time wasters
Start by identifying time wasters. Try keeping a log of your time for a week, on an half-hourly basis. At the
end of the week ask yourself the question: "Was that the best use of my time?” You may be surprised to
see much of your valuable time is wasted on nonsense. You may also find that the meetings that you
attend are taking more time than they should. List all your time wasters, and then, for each of them try to
find out the cause of the problem and come up with a solution.
How to prioritise and manage your time
Here are some basic tips for a system to manage your time better:
1. List goals and set priorities for the week. List work and personal tasks – if you leave out personal
tasks like paying accounts, taking your child to the dentist, etc, you cannot plan properly and they
may end up disrupting your work.
2. Classify all tasks as A [must do on a specific day - urgent and important], B [should do as soon as
possible or C [must do sometime this week].
3. Develop a daily to-do list for each day and put down all your A's that have to be done on a specific
day. Use a form like the one at the end of this guide or write it in your diary for every day.
4. Do the most important and urgent things first. If you do not have time for your B's move them to A for
the next day. If you finish all you’re A’s for that day, start with the B’s and even the C’s. Do you’re C's
whenever you have time, but keep an eye on them so that they do not pile up at the end of the week.

5. Try to handle each task only once and finish the job before moving on.
6. When confronted by conflicting demands about which task you need to do the following three
questions are quiet helpful :
 Is it necessary to do it now?
 Am I the only one who can do it, or can it be delegated?
 What is the most efficient and quickest way to do it?
Delegate any task that you do not have time for and that someone else can handle. Make a clear request
about the nature and quality of the work you want done, set a deadline and ask for a report once the task
is complete.
For efficient time management you need the following basic tools:
 A diary and/or daily to-do list - Keep a diary of appointments and block out time for you to do the
things on your daily list.
 A weekly task list -Your weekly task list is the basis for your daily list. Add all tasks as they come up
and classify them by putting A, B or C after them so that you can add them to a daily list. Cross them
off once dealt with.

INTERPRET AND MANAGE
CONFLICTS WITHIN THE
Learning Unit2
UNIT STANDARD NUMBER : WORKPLACE

114226
LEVEL ON THE NQF : 5
CREDITS : 8
SUB FIELD : Human Resources
The person credited with this Unit Standard is able to identify and manage the resolution of personal
PURPOSE conflict between persons or parties. The main focus will be on the workplace although the same
:
principles can be used elsewhere.
• Describing the main sources of conflict
• Describing appropriate techniques to manage conflict
• Implementing a strategy to resolve conflict
• Developing the attributes of a good conflict manager
Learners accessing this qualification should be competent in mathematical Literacy and Communication at NQF
Level 4 or equivalent
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SESSION 1
Describe the main sources of conflict.
Learning Outcomes
 A list of possible sources of conflict, including perceptions and assumptions, is drawn up with
examples of where they are most likely to occur.
 Positive and negative characteristics of conflict in the workplace are discussed with examples.
 Organisational conflict modes are explained with examples.
 Conflict, which may arise in personality types, can be described, using transactional analysis.
Problems, disputes and conflict

People often use the terms problems, disputes and conflicts interchangeably, but it is useful to recognise
the gradual difference in seriousness.
As a problem is the least serious of these three. You might agree with a colleague about working
together, but there is a problem about finding time when you are both free.
If you both try hard enough, you will, probably find a solution to the problem.
A dispute arises when there is a clash between the interests, needs, or goals of two individuals or
groups. Both parties are determined to promote their own interests, even if it is at the expense of others.
Disputes can be settled through negotiation, or through compromise where both parties are prepared to
sacrifice on one issue, on condition that they secure another that is important to them. Disputes
sometimes have to be settled by inviting a third party to intervene.
A conflict is deeper and more serious than a dispute. Conflicts arise when individuals or groups believe
that their interests are incompatible, and they often take very aggressive action to protect and secure their
interests.
Conflicts relate to deep human values and needs and are often revealed in problems or disputes that
keep recurring (when one solves one problem, and another arises). Conflicts often provoke very intense
reactions in one or both parties. Despite sincere efforts, over long periods of time, both parties are unable
to settle the matter; and third parties are also often not able to help.
Activity
In your groups, provide scenarios which can be categorized as a problem, dispute and
conflict. Explain how you arrive at your answer.
This manual makes the following basic assumptions about conflict:

 Conflict will always occur in any organization.
 Conflict arises when individuals or groups have incompatible interests (interests that clash). One
party (individual or group) may feel that the situation is unfair or unjust or discriminatory. They are
unhappy about the status quo, and want to take action to change things.
 Traditionally, conflict was suppressed, but the emphasis today is on the management of conflict.
 Conflict can be managed so that it is constructive and adds to the culture of the organisation.
Stakeholders are being constructive when different parties consider a range of strategies, and
look for ways to manage conflict. But this requires real maturity – people need to be flexible in
their attitudes and in their behaviour.
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 In a conflict situation, the resources that are available are usually not adequate to satisfy the
needs of all parties.
Nature of Conflict
Conflict is a natural and necessary part of our lives.
Whether at home with our families, at work with colleagues or in negotiations between governments,
conflict pervades our relationships. The paradox of conflict is that it is both the force that can tear
relationships apart and the force that binds them together.
This dual nature of conflict makes it an important concept to study and understand.
Good conflict management is both a science and an art.
We have all learned responses to confrontation, threats, anger and unfair treatment. Some of our learned
responses are constructive, but others can escalate conflict and raise the level of danger. How we choose
to handle a confrontation is largely based upon our past experience in dealing with conflict and our
confidence in addressing it.
One can start to change destructive responses to conflict by learning to assess the total impact of
negative responses and acquiring confidence in using the tools and techniques of professional
peacemakers. Constructive conflict management is as much a science as an art. It is based on a
substantial body of theory, skills and techniques developed from decades of experience.. Acquiring a
better understanding of the conceptual tools and skills professional conflict managers use can help us
gain confidence in addressing conflict in a manner which resolves the issues and maintains or even
strengthens relationships. These skills and knowledge can help us in any social setting.
Reconciliation:
Reconciliation becomes necessary when negative conflict has occurred and relationships have been
damaged. Reconciliation is especially important in situations of high interdependence where a complete
physical or emotional barrier between parties in a conflict cannot be maintained. Reconciliation therefore
refers to the restoration of relationships to a level where cooperation and trust become possible again.
Lederach (1995) stated that reconciliation deals with three specific paradoxes:
 Reconciliation promotes an encounter between the open expression of the painful past and the
search for articulation of a long-term, interdependent future.
 Reconciliation provides a place for truth and mercy to meet; where concern for exposing what
happened and letting go in favor of a renewed relationship is validated and embraced.
 Reconciliation recognizes the need to give time and place to justice and peace, where redressing the
wrong is held together with the vision of a common, connected future.
Does conflict have to be destructive? When is conflict constructive, and when is it destructive?
Conflict can be constructive if it . . .
1. helps the parties to adapt and change
2. focuses attention on problems that may inhibit performance
3. gets the parties to re-examine their goals, policies and practices
4. energises staff by actively involving them in the life of the school
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5. brings an individual’s problems into the open
6. generates new ideas and new perspectives
7. provokes an evaluation of organisational structures.
Conflict can be destructive if . . .

1. it continues even after a decision has been reached
2. people remain enemies even when the issues change outside parties are drawn into the debate
3. one person is determined to emerge as a winner (which makes the other a loser)
ACTIVITY
What are the negative and positive aspects of conflict? How do you believe most people in
your organization think about conflict? How do most respond to conflict? Share a memory of a
conflict situation at your workplace which was resolved. How was it resolved
Functions of Conflict
What positive things have happened to you as a result of conflict? Here are some of the positive aspects
noted by Coser (1956):
 Conflict helps establish our identity and independence . Conflicts, especially at earlier stages
of your life, help you assert your personal identity as separate from the aspirations, beliefs and
behaviors of those around you.
 Intensity of conflict demonstrates the closeness and importance of relationships . Intimate
relationships require us to express opposing feelings such as love and anger. The coexistence of
these emotions in a relationship creates sharpness when conflicts arise. While the intensity of
emotions can
 threaten the relationship, if they are dealt with constructively, they also help us measure the depth
and importance of the relationship.
 Conflict can build new relationships . At times, conflict brings together people who did not
have a previous relationship. During the process of conflict and its resolution, these parties may
find out that they have common interests and then work to maintain an ongoing relationship.
 Conflict can create coalitions. Similar to building relationships, sometimes adversaries come
together to build coalitions to achieve common goals or fend off a common threat. During the
conflict, previous antagonism is suppressed to work toward these greater goals.
 Conflict serves as a safety-valve mechanism which helps to sustain relationships .
Relationships which repress disagreement or conflict grow rigid over time, making them brittle.
Exchanges of conflict, at times through the assistance of a third party, allow people to vent pent-
up hostility and reduce tension in a relationship.
 Conflict helps parties assess each other’s power and can work to redistribute power in a
system of conflict . Because there are few ways to truly measure the power of the other party,
conflicts sometimes arise to allow parties to assess one another's strength. In cases where there
is an imbalance of power, a party may seek ways to increase its internal power. This process can
often change the nature of power within the conflict system.
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 Conflict establishes and maintains group identities . Groups in conflict tend to create clearer
boundaries which help members determine who is part of the “in-group” and who is part of the
“outgroup”. In this way, conflict can help individuals understand how they are part of a certain
group and mobilize them to take action to defend the group’s interests.
 Conflicts enhance group cohesion through issue and belief clarification When a group is
threatened, its members pull together in solidarity. As they clarify issues and beliefs, renegades
and dissenters are weeded out of the group, creating a more sharply defined ideology on which
all members agree.
 Conflict creates or modifies rules, norms, laws and institutions. It is through the raising of
issues that rules, norms, laws and institutions are changed or created. Problems or frustrations
left unexpressed result in the maintaining of the status quo.
Causes of Disputes and Conflicts

Part of developing an effective intervention strategy is to know the general categories of causes of
conflict.
One model identifies five sources of conflict:
 Data or information conflict involves lack of information and misinformation, as well as differing
views on what data are relevant, the interpretation of that data and how the assessment is
performed.
 Relationship conflict results from strong emotions, stereotypes, miscommunication and
repetitive negative behaviour. It is this type of conflict which often provides fuel for disputes and
can promote destructive conflict even when the conditions to resolve the other sources of conflict
can be met.
 Value conflict arises over ideological differences or differing standards on evaluation of ideas or
behaviors. The actual or perceived differences in values do not necessarily lead to conflict. It is
only when values are imposed on groups, or groups are prevented from upholding their value
systems, that conflict arises.
 Structural conflict is caused by unequal or unfair distributions of power and resources. Time
constraints, destructive patterns of interaction and non conducive geographical or environmental
factors contribute to structural conflict.
 Interest conflict involves actual or perceived competition over interests, such as resources, the
way a dispute is to be resolved, or perceptions of trust and fairness. An analysis of the different
types of conflict the parties are dealing with helps the intervener determine strategies for effective
handling of the disputes.
ACTIVITY
Discuss examples for each of the sources of conflict
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SESSION 2
Explain appropriate techniques in conflict management.
Learning Outcomes
 The various business conflict modes are discussed with examples.
 Useful steps to be taken to manage conflict are explained with examples.
 The route, which conflicts normally follow toward resolution can be described with examples.
Conflict Management and Conflict Resolution

Some people use these terms interchangeably, but the following distinction is useful:
 a conflict thinker assumes there will always be conflict, and therefore talks about the need to find
ways to benefit from and manage conflict
 a consensus thinker assumes that conflict is an aberration and that the aim should be to remove
conflict, and therefore talks about the need to resolve conflict
Managing Conflict -How Do We Prevent Conflict?
Have clear ground rules that are understood and agreed to by all te
Pay attention to other people on your team and to their needs, wants and interests
Practice active listening; focus on de
PREVENTING CONFLICT
Be open-minded to new ideas and options and be willing

Focus on goodto change your views
relationships that build mutu
Everyone has her own personal style of conflict management, but sometimes one method is more
appropriate than another. Some things that can be done to manage conflict are:
Be Direct – This is probably the best method of all as it involves the team leader directly addressing
an issue. To be direct, a team leader must be objective and face the issue as it truly is, be
constructive if any criticism must be given, bring all aspects of the issue to the surface and ensure
that everyone feels a sense of resolution. This method is all about collaborating to find a real solution.
Bargain – This method works well when both parties know what kind of solution they want, but they
can’t come to an agreement. To bargain between two team members, a team leader must not be
affected by the outcome, must help each party to reach an agreement and must encourage give and
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take. This method is all about getting each side to compromise in order to find a solution that
somewhat works for each party.
Enforce Ground Rules – This method works best when an unpopular decision must be made or if a
team member is refusing to cooperate. To enforce the ground rules, a team leader must be sure that
the situation warrants the use of such a strong tactic, have enough power within the team and be
willing to accept and deal with any negative feelings that may develop in the team toward the team or
the team leader. This method is very competitive with one party getting exactly what she wants and
the other party getting nothing.
Retreat – This method is useful if a team leader feels she isn’t equipped to deal with the problem and
would like someone else to pick it up, or if the team requires time to cool off before addressing the
issue. To retreat, the team leader must delay long enough and know when to pick it up again or when
to pass it to someone else. This method is all about avoiding the issue and is therefore very weak and
ineffective and should be used very rarely.
De-emphasize – This method works when one party is willing to give up her own needs in order to
satisfy the needs of the other party. To de-emphasize, a team leader must feel it is appropriate for
one party to give in to the other, feel the relationship is more important than the issue and value
peace over winning. This method is all about accommodating the needs and desires of others and
should only be used when it is really necessary.
Conflict Analysis
Conflict analysis is the process of looking critically at a particular conflict to understand the causes,
context, participants, stakeholders and other aspects of the conflict. Too often, people attempt to
intervene in a conflict before understanding it, with less than positive results. A thorough conflict analysis
provides a basis for determining interventions that will have increased possibilities of success.
The following questions and dilemmas are ones that are useful to consider in a conflict analysis process.
1. Who are the parties relevant to the conflict situation?
2. What are the positions of each party in the conflict?
3. What are the needs and interests of each party? [In other words, what are they saying without
saying? What lies beyond the spoken word?]
4. What is the relative power, status and resources of each part in the conflict?
5. What are the processes they are using to pursue their interest in conflict with other?
6. Within what framework, structure or system is the conflict taking place?
7. How are decisions made and conflict resolved/transformed in the situation?
8. What external factors impact the conflict?
9. What outcome does each party expect?
10. What are the possible changes as the result of the resolution/transformation of the conflict at
following levels:
a) Personal,
SO 2;
b) Relational,
c) Structural/systems, AC 2
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d) culture/traditions, and
e) Spiritual.
Tools for Conflict Analysis
There are a number of tools that assist in analyzing conflicts. One of the most useful is conflict mapping,
which visually depicts the people, issues and relationships in a conflict. A conflict map can be used to:
• Identify all stakeholders…
• Assess stakeholders’ relationships…
• Assess power dynamics…
• Identify and assess alliances…
• Identify and carefully evaluate some possible entry points for investigation or intervention…
• Assess intervener relationships with stakeholders…
• Assess your own position regarding issues and actors…
Below is an example of how to develop a conflict map for a conflict. It is often helpful to begin with the
major parties, and the major issues, and then add in other parties, issues and relationships. ‘Party’ van
refer to individuals or groups.
Conflict Map
Party C
Party B Party D
Issue X
Issue Y
Party A
Party E
Where are you?
Party F
Outside Stakeholder
Where are you?
Here is the explanation of the way that symbols are used in making a conflict map.
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A B B
A
Connection Direction of power or influence
A A B
B
Broken relationship
Intermittent connection
A B A B
Alliance Discord
POWER
Power is an inherent, often confusing part of any human interaction, including conflict. To successfully
analyze and intervene in a conflict, the power dynamics in the situation must be understood. Some types
of power are easy to see and comprehend; others are much more difficult. Below are some of them
 Positional power is based upon the role, or position, an individual occupies in an organisation. It
is passed from one individual to another as he or she moves in and out of the role. For example,
managers have power because of their positions, not because of their personal characteristics or
social class.
 Relational power does not reside in a particular individual but is a property of social
relationships. For example, when you listen to a colleague speak and respect her opinion, you
give her power. When she listens to you and respects your opinion, you are given the power. In
relationships, power is fluid and hard to measure. It can be expanded or limited as you interact.
 Power of force refers to physical strength and coercive mechanisms (like guns). Individuals may
use their own strength, as well as weapons, armaments, armies, police and prisons to impose
their will upon others.
 Power of status comes from wealth or social standing within a society. Individuals can use their
money or their social and family ties to maintain a situation that is to their advantage or to get
what they want. For example, kings and queens are given royal power because of their family
ties.
 Power of knowledge and expertise refers to the additional credit and influence given to those in
a society with special knowledge and expertise, such as doctors, lawyers, or teachers, engineers
or mechanics. Power comes from what they know.
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 Power of a group comes from people acting together for a cause. The phrase “people-power” is
often quoted. It refers to the power of individuals when part of a group. Labor unions and mass
protest movements, for example, have power because of their numbers.
Activity
Provide examples for each of the types of power mentioned above
Levels of Intervention.
 Cooperative problem solving is an unassisted procedure which includes formal or informal

discussions between individuals or groups. With this process, parties work jointly to determine the
nature of their differences and look for creative alternatives which will allow them to meet their
needs, desires or concerns. Parties using cooperative problem solving do not need to have an
especially strong relationship but they must acknowledge a need to collaborate with one another
to resolve their differences.
 Negotiation refers to either competitive processes (positional negotiation) or cooperative efforts
(interest based negotiation). In positional negotiation, parties make offers and counter-offers
which they feel will resolve the conflict. These exchanges of offers typically start to converge on a
solution which both parties find acceptable. Success at positional negotiation is based on a
party's ability to bluff the other party about its positions of strength and weakness in order to gain
an outcome which is in their favor. Interest-based negotiation is designed for parties who have a
need to create or maintain healthy relationships. In this type of process, parties discuss the
issues which face them and express the interests, values and needs that they bring to the table.
Instead of focusing on competitive measures and winning the negotiation, parties collaborate by
looking to create solutions which maximize the meeting of their interests, values and needs
 Mediation refers to a process through which a third party provides procedural assistance to help
individuals or groups in conflict to resolve their differences. Mediation processes vary throughout
the world in form and underlying philosophy. In many Western countries, the manager is usually
an independent, impartial person who has no decision-making authority. In other societies, it may
be more important that the manager is known and trusted by the parties rather than being seen
as impartial. Mediation is a voluntary process and its success is linked to the vesting of decision-
making authority in the parties involved in the dispute. The manager structures the process in a
way which creates a safe environment for parties to discuss the conflict and find solutions which
will meet their interests.
 Facilitation is an assisted process which is similar to mediation in its objectives; however,
facilitated processes typically do not adhere to a tightly defined procedure. In this type of
proceeding, the facilitator works with parties to increase the effectiveness of their communication
and problem-solving abilities. The facilitator may be either a third party or a person within one of
the groups who is able to provide procedural assistance and to refrain from entering into the
substance of the discussion.
 Arbitration is a form of dispute resolution where a third party makes the decision on the outcome
of dispute. Typically, the parties appoint the arbitrator to render this decision. The arbitrator's
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decision is either binding or non-binding on the parties depending on the arrangement made prior
to entering the arbitration process. Non-binding arbitration is frequently used to assist parties who
are deadlocked on a certain issue. While there is no obligation for parties to accept the outcome,
the weight of the arbitrator's decision may provide the impetus for parties to reconsider their
settlement options.
 Conflict resolution is a broad term which refers to the many ways disputes are resolved. Conflict
resolution is a progression from an order based on coercion to one based on voluntarism. It
creates a relationship not characterized by hierarchy but one marked by equality, participation,
respect, mutual enrichment and growth. The term also refers to addressing the causes of conflict
and seeking to build new and lasting relationships between hostile groups.
Activity
Have you used any of these methods in working through conflict in your
organisation/community? Review conflicts you have experienced and decide if any of these
methods would assist you in resolving the conflict.
Now, as a group, select a conflict that you will use as an example as we work through
information, skills and techniques on resolving conflict.
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SESSION 3.
Describe the appropriate action plan and strategies to manage conflict.
Learning Outcomes
 Methods available to resolve conflict in terms of the Labour Relations Act are listed with examples.
 The most appropriate strategy to resolve a particular conflict is chosen with a justification for the
choice of strategy.
 The need to adopt action plans and adapt them to a particular conflict is demonstrated with
examples.
 The role of policies and procedures in place in the organisation are explained in terms of their role in
preventing and/or resolving conflicts.
Methods of Conflict Resolution

Regardless of the level of conflict, there are differing approaches to deal with the incompatibilities that
exist. Conflict can result in destructive outcomes or creative ones depending on the approach that is
taken. If we can manage conflict creatively, we can often find new solutions that are mutually satisfactory
to both parties. Sometimes this will involve a distribution of resources or power that is more equitable than
before, or in creating a larger pool of resources or forms of influence than before. Creative outcomes are
more probable when the parties are interdependent, i.e., each having some degree of independence and
autonomy from which to influence the other, rather than one party being primarily dependent on the other.
Given interdependence, three general strategies have been identified that the parties may take toward
dealing with their conflict; win-lose, lose-lose, and win-win (Blake, Shepard & Mouton, 1964).
1. The win-lose approach is all too common. People learn the behaviors of destructive conflict
early in life – competition, dominance, aggression and defense permeate many of our social
relationships from the family to the school playground. The “fixed pie” assumption is made, often
incorrectly, that what one party gains, the other loses. The strategy is thus to force the other side
to capitulate. Sometimes, this is done through socially acceptable mechanisms such as majority
vote, the authority of the leader, or the determination of a judge.
Sometimes, it involves secret strategies, threat, innuendo – whatever works is acceptable, i.e.,
the ends justify the means. There is often a strong we-they distinction accompanied by the classic
symptoms of intergroup conflict. The valued outcome is to have a victor who is superior, and a
vanquished who withdraws in shame, but who prepares very carefully for the next round. In the
long run, everyone loses.
2. The lose-lose strategy is exemplified by smoothing over conflict or by reaching the simplest of
compromises. In neither case is the creative potential of productive conflict resolution realized or
explored. Disagreement is seen as inevitable, so therefore why not split the difference or smooth
over difficulties in as painless a way as possible? Sometimes, this is indeed the reality of the
situation, and the costs are less than in the win-lose approach, at least for the loser. Each party
gets some of what it wants, and resigns itself to partial satisfaction. Neither side is aware that by
confronting the conflict fully and cooperatively they might have created a more satisfying solution.
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Or the parties may realistically use this approach to divide limited resources or to forestall a win-
lose escalation and outcome.
3. The win-win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the goals of both
parties through collaborative problem solving. The conflict is seen as a problem to be solved
rather than a war to be won. The important distinction is we (both parties) versus the problem,
rather than we (one party) versus they (the other party). This method focuses on the needs and
constraints of both parties rather than emphasizing strategies designed to conquer.
Full problem definition and analysis and development of alternatives precede consensus
decisions on mutually agreeable solutions. The parties work toward common and superordinate
goals, i.e., ones that can only be attained by both parties pulling together. There is an emphasis
on the quality of the long term relationships between the parties, rather than short term
accommodations. Communication is open and direct rather than secretive and calculating.
Threat and coercion are proscribed. The assumption is made that integrative agreements are
possible given the full range of resources existing in the relationship. Attitudes and behaviors are
directed toward an increase of trust and acceptance rather than an escalation of suspicion and
hostility. The win-win approach requires a very high degree of patience and skill in human
relations and problem solving.
Conflict Resolution In Terms of the Labour Relations Act
1. If there is a dispute about the interpretation or application of any provision of this Chapter,
any party to the dispute may refer the dispute in writing to-
(a) a council, if the parties to the dispute fall within the registered scope of that council; or
(b) the Commission, if no council has jurisdiction.
2. The party who refers the dispute must satisfy the council or the Commission that a copy of
the referral has been served on all the other parties to the dispute.
3. The council or the Commission must attempt to resolve the dispute through conciliation.
4. If the dispute remains unresolved, any party to the dispute may refer it to the Labour Court for
adjudication
Roles Played in Conflict situations

From the pre-negotiation stage to the negotiation and post-negotiation stages, people involved in the
intervention process play a number of roles, including):
• Explorer: Carries messages between parties and reassures them about the room for negotiation
and notes areas of common ground.
• Convener: Initiates the resolution process by encouraging parties to take part and working to
remove obstacles which impede peacemaking activities.
• Analyst: Conducts political, social or economic analysis of the conflict to assist other interveners
in determining causes of conflict and courses of action.
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• Designer: Helps parties and interveners in creating a resolution process which will appropriately
and effectively address the conflict issues.
• Communicator: Serves as the communication interface between parties involved in the process
and those outside the process, such as the media, general public or international community.
• Decoupler: Finds ways for external parties who have become involved in the conflict to
disengage while saving face and attempts to engage other external actors who can play less
biased roles in endorsing the process or encouraging parties to participate.
• Unifier: Helps with intraparty negotiations to repair divisions and assists them in creating a
common understanding of the conflict and their goals and objectives.
• Enskiller: Empowers parties with the skills required to negotiate, communicate interests, analyze
scenarios and research aspects of the conflict.
• Educator: Provides expert opinion or technical information to parties about aspects of the conflict
issues.
• Envisioner: Helps parties think about the conflict and possible solutions in new ways by using
creative option-generating processes or bringing in relevant data.
• Evaluator: Helps parties assess possible solutions and their impact on the resolution of the
conflict.
• Guarantor: Ensures that parties do not incur unacceptable costs either through involvement in
the process or if the process breaks down.
• Legitimizer: Encourages parties to accept the process by granting their moral, political or
financial approval.
• Facilitator: Assists parties in communicating to one another by creating a safe process for
discussions, framing or reframing the issues and parties' understanding of the conflict and
fostering a forum for effective listening and problem solving.
• Enhancer: Brings in resources to expand the options for settlement or reward participation in the
process.
• Enforcer: Monitors agreements and codes of conduct so that momentum for the process can be
sustained.
• Reconciler: Prepares parties for long-term relationship-building activities which are designed to
reduce patterns of negative behaviors, destructive stereotyping and miscommunication.
Cultural Aspects Influencing Conflict Resolution
Culture plays an important role in how we view conflict and how we approach it. Here are some of the
ways that culture influences the conflict resolution process:
1. Approach to conflict. What does your culture tell you about how to deal with conflict? Is the message
to avoid conflict, accommodate the other party or attempt to ‘win’ the conflict? What are the messages
you receive about compromising your position or collaborating with the other party?
2. Approach to problem-solving and agreements. How do people conceptualize problems? How does
this influence the problem-solving process? Are differing values attached to verbal and written
agreements?
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3. Relationships. How are relationships built in your culture? Are relationships in a social setting built
differently than in a business or political setting? How do people attain status in your culture, through age,
race/ethnicity, gender, knowledge, experience, wealth, etc.?
4. Time. What is the cultural impact on time as it relates to conflict? Do you deal with conflict straight
away or do you let tensions dissipate before attempting to resolve it? When parties are describing their
understanding of the conflict, do you control the amount of time they have or let them speak until they are
finished? Do you use time to put constraints on the resolution process?
5. Space. What are the cultural views on space? Do disputants like to be far apart or close together? Are
there other people around them? If so, how close are they? Where do the disputants come together to
discuss their problems? Do they meet on neutral ground or on one party’s ‘turf’? Do they prefer the setting
to be formal or informal? Is the conflict resolution setting open or closed to people not directly involved in
the conflict?
6. Impact of social structures. What are the larger social structures and institutions which influence
conflict? Are there religious, ideological or familial structures which are important? How do they tell the
disputants to act in a conflict situation?
7. Communication. Is communication direct or indirect? Are disputants using a common language? What
effect does an interpreter have on communication? Do disputants speak directly to one another or
through a third person? Which non-verbal cues or gestures are used and to what effect?
8. Interveners. What are the cultural views on intervening in conflict? Are there structures in place for
people to use to resolve conflict? Who are the interveners and what qualities do they possess (e.g., age,
gender, expertise, status, etc.)? What is the role of the intervener?
ACTIVITY
How did your cultural background influence your approach to conflict and how does it affect
your management of conflict in your workplace.
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SESSION 4
Explain the attributes of an effective conflict manager.
Learning Outcomes
 Personal attributes of a good conflict manager can be listed with examples of how each characteristic
contributes to conflict resolution.
 A skills audit is done by the learner to identify the skills he/she needs to develop to be an effective
conflict manager are identified.
 The negative attributes which should be avoided or controlled by an effective conflict manager are
listed with an explanation of the negative effect each has on the resolution of conflict.
Managers are usually faced with situations where there is a need to resolve conflict, particularly
among employees. Therefore one has to learn the habits and attitudes that help them to transform u
into a highly effective conflict resolver.
There are discreet skills and attitudes, habits if you will, that can elevate ones conflict practice to a new
level. This learning unit shares a selection of habits and attitudes that can transform a good conflict
resolver into a highly effective one. By that I mean someone who facilitates productive, meaningful
discussion between others that results in deeper self-awareness, mutual understanding and workable
solutions.
I have used the term conflict resolver intentionally to reinforce the idea that human resource professionals
and managers are instrumental in ending disputes, regardless of whether they are also managers. These
conflict management techniques are life skills that are useful in whatever setting you find yourself. With
these skills, you can create environments that are respectful, collaborative and conducive to problem-
solving. And, you'll teach your employees to be proactive, by modeling successful conflict management
behaviors.
Five Habits of Highly Effective Conflict Resolvers
1. Understand the Employee's Needs

If you are a manager of an organization, it’s natural for you to jump right in to handle conflict. When an
employee visits you to discuss a personality conflict, you assess a situation, determine the next steps and
proceed until the problem is solved. But is that helpful?
When you take charge, the employee is relieved of his or her responsibility to find a solution. That leaves
you to do the work around finding alternatives. And while you want to do what is best for this person (and
the organization), it is important to ask what the employee wants first-- whether it is to vent, brainstorm
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solutions or get some coaching. Understand what the person entering your door wants by asking
questions:
How can I be most helpful to you? What are you hoping I will do? What do you see my role as in this
matter?
2. Engage in Collaborative Listening
Collaborative Listening takes those attending and discerning skills one step further. It recognizes that in
listening each person has a job that supports the work of the other. The speaker’s job is to clearly express
his or her thoughts, feelings and goals. The listener’s job is facilitating clarity; understanding and make
the employee feel heard.
So what’s the difference? The distinction is acknowledgement. Your role is to help the employee gain a
deeper understanding of her own interests and needs; to define concepts and words in a way that
expresses her values (i.e. respect means something different to each one of us); and to make her feel
acknowledged someone sees things from her point of view.
Making an acknowledgement is tricky in corporate settings. Understandably, you want to help the
employee but are mindful of the issues of corporate liability. You can acknowledge the employee even
while safeguarding your company.
Simply put, acknowledgement does not mean agreement. It means letting the employee know that you
can see how he got to his truth. It doesn't mean taking sides with the employee or abandoning your
corporate responsibilities. Acknowledgement can be the bridge across misperceptions.
Engage in Collaborative Listening by:
Helping the employee to explore and be clear about his interests and goals
Acknowledging her perspective
 I can see how you might see it that way.
 That must be difficult for you. O I understand that you feel _______ about this.
Asking questions that probe for deeper understanding on both your parts:
 When you said x, what did you mean by that?
 If y happens, what is significant about that for you?
 What am I missing in understanding this from your perspective?
Active Listening Skills
Active listening is essential to successful conflict resolution. Here are some characteristics of listening
actively:
• Listen in an understanding and supportive way, using your whole body, not just your
ears.
• Listen for the whole message by paying attention to body language, feelings, the
meaning of what is said and what is not said.
• Do not prejudge because of previous history, dress, accent or other irrelevant
characteristics.
• Do not interrupt the other party. We can listen three to five times faster than someone
can talk.
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• If you disagree, do not become aggressive. Restate the other party's comments, present
your point of view, and return the dialogue to the other party by asking for a reaction
to your views.
(NOTE: cultural norms of different nations and societies vary greatly and thus have a
major influence on the skill of active listening)
Active Listening Techniques
1 Attending: using non-verbal indicators such as leaning forward, nodding your head, sitting in an
open, receptive posture
2) Paraphrasing: repeating in your own words what the other person has said; the restatement
should not judge in any way
3) Speaking from the self: using "I" statements, rather than speaking for others (we all think) or
speaking in the passive tense. Do not make assumptions about others, their opinions, and
feelings.
4) Clarifying: asking for further clarification or an example to illustrate often helps find clarity in
the meaning.
5) Asking: probing questions; identify and explore options and alternatives e.g., use probes -
short, open questions to dig deeper into issues. May be non-verbal such as a look that asks
"Then what/ How?” Silence can be used to encourage the speaker to continue.
6) Encouraging: asking person to “tell me more about” or give them a supportive comment like
“good idea” or “I like that approach”.
7) Reflecting: playing back the communication as you hear and feel it, e.g., “you seem to feel
very strongly about that”
8) Summarizing: giving back a review or summary of what you heard. This helps make sure the
communication is accurate and that the main ideas expressed reached you, the listener.
3. Be a Good Transmitter
Messages transmitted from one person to the next are very powerful. Sometimes people have to hear it
from the horse’s mouth. Other times, you will have to be the transmitter of good thoughts and feelings.
Pick up those gems, those positive messages that flow when employees feel safe and heard in
mediation, and present them to the other employee. Your progress will improve.
We are all human. You know how easy it is to hold a grudge, or assign blame. Sharing gems
appropriately can help each employee begin to shift their perceptions of the situation, and more
importantly, of each other. To deliver polished gems, try to:
Act soon after hearing the gem Paraphrase accurately so the words are not distorted Ask the listener if
this is new information and if changes her stance Avoid expecting the employees to visibly demonstrate a
shift in stance (it happens internally and on their timetable, not ours)
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4. Recognize Power
Power is a dominant factor in mediation that raises many questions: What is it? Who has it? How to do
you balance power? Assumptions about who is the powerful one are easy to make and sometimes
wrong. Skillful conflict resolvers recognize power dynamics in conflicts and are mindful about how to
authentically manage them. You can recognize power by being aware that:
Power is fluid and exchangeable Employees possess power over the content and their process (think of
employees concerns as the water flowing into and being held by the container) Resolvers possess power
over the mediation process (their knowledge, wisdom, experience, and commitment form the container)
Your roles as an HR professional and resolver will have a significant impact on power dynamics
5. Be Optimistic & Resilient
Agreeing to participate in mediation is an act of courage and hope. By participating, employees are
conveying their belief in value of the relationship. They are also expressing their trust in you to be
responsive to and supportive of our efforts. Employees may first communicate their anger, frustration,
suffering, righteousness, regret, not their best hopes. You can inspire them to continue by being
optimistic:
Be positive about your experiences with mediation Hold their best wishes and hopes for the future
encourage them to work towards their hopes
Be Resilient. Remember the last time you were stuck in a conflict? You probably replayed the
conversation in your mind over and over, thinking about different endings and scolding yourself.
Employees get stuck, too. In fact, employees can become so worn down and apathetic about their
conflict, especially a long-standing dispute; they would do anything to end it. Yes, even agree with each
other prematurely. Don not let them settle. Mediation is about each employee getting their interest met.
Be resilient:
Be prepared to move yourself and the employees though productive and less productive cycles of the
mediation help the employees see their movement and progress is mindful and appreciative of the hard
work you all are doing
Do and Don’ts In Conflict Resolution Process
Stage 1: Introduction
Remember that when parties arrive they are often:
• Anxious and tense,

• Suspicious of the other party and their motivations,
• Fearful of being manipulated or taken advantage of,
• Unclear about what happens in a mediation session and what to expect from the managers,
and
• Afraid that things will escalate out of control.
The purpose of the introduction stage is to deal with and allay these fears, in order that people feel
comfortable to participate in and trust the process. The beginning of the mediation session affects the
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tone of the whole discussion. People usually agree to mediate because they hope that talking
might improve things.
Getting things off on the right foot in an atmosphere of negative emotions is a critical first step in
mediating.
Getting people to agree to meet and talk is itself a major challenge which we will look at later in the
course. But for now we will assume that the ‘getting to the table’ discussions have already taken place
and the parties have agreed to meet.
Remember that the Introduction Stage is your time—the rest of the mediation belongs to the parties. It
is up to you to set the tone, be firm, direct the process. All of this will increase the confidence of the
parties that their concerns will be taken care of.
Stage 2: Description
Purpose: The conflict description stage presents an opportunity for the manager/manager to
begin to understand the perspective of each party, and to start formulating in his/her mind, the
crucial issues that need to be addressed, and a way to proceed. Even more importantly,
through communication skills such as active listening, the manager allows parties to feel that
they have been heard, and assists parties to hear each other—sometimes for the first time.
This represents a turning point in many conflicts, for parties who have not understood the
effect of their actions on others, and have not been able to express what they in turn have
been feeling.
Process
1. Each party explains the situation from their perspective while the other party
listens.
2. The manager summarize briefly and empathetically as each party finishes,
reflecting facts, feelings, interests and needs.
3. The manager may ask, or invite other parties to ask, questions to clarify various
points.
4. The manager identifies and list issues.
2.3 Stage 3: Problem-solving

Purpose: The problem-solving stage is the most challenging part of mediation, for it is now
that the first serious efforts at resolution are made. Although we propose a sequence of
activities that will give you some idea of things that might take place, there are no rules about
how to go about this stage. The key to managing the problem-solving stage are:
• People/relationship-building skills, tools that enable the parties to establish a
human bond between them. i.e. communication skills;
• Process-management skills, e.g., maintaining control, breaking impasse, and
managing the flow of communication; and
• Problem-solving skills, that is, tools for enabling the parties to discuss the
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problems that separate them in a way that is efficient and constructive, using good
timing in switching from one to the other. Thus you need to create a simple
framework for yourself, and to master the use of the key tools, to be able to use them
skillfully in real life, according to the dynamics of the conflict you face, the cultural
setting, and the parties involved.
Process: Two basic tasks occur in this stage— working with problems through rational efforts at
problem solving and negotiation, and working with people — through good listening and skill in
handling bruised feelings.
Suggested sequence
1. List issues for parties to see
2. Point out commonalities
• common frustrations,
• common commitments,
• interdependency, or
• common good intentions, even if outcome has been unsuccessful — try to find something positive to
highlight, but make sure it is believable.
3. Generate ideas to resolve the issues. It is often helpful to structure option generation by focusing
on one issue at a time; however, there are situations where it is more constructive to group similar
issues together and discuss them as a block.
• Use the conflict description format for each issue.
• Continue with standard problem-solving approach:
a. identify interests/needs,
b. ask for ideas to resolve,
c. evaluate ideas, and
d. choose and plan implementation.
4. People skills used throughout

• listen attentively,
• highlight commonalities and good intentions,
• acknowledge feelings,
• coach direct dialogue and paraphrasing,
• draw people out in caucus, and
• affirm parties and celebrate progress.
Clarifying the issues. One of the most useful contributions of managers is to clarify the issues in
conflict.
This is often first done after each party has told their side of things in conflict description, as a way of
focusing the discussion that will follow in the problem-solving stage. By clarifying the issues, the
mediation process can be improved in several ways:
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• Often parties are themselves confused about what the conflict is actually about. Party A may
think one problem is the cause Party B may think a different problem is the cause.
• Frequently parties think that their divisions are greater/more numerous than they actually
are. Clarifying the issues may help make the conflict seem more manageable. “I was
surprised when you made that list on the board.” a party once commented near the end of a
mediation session, “Before we started it seemed like we had more than three issues between
us.”
It is difficult to maintain control of the discussion if the parties have not agreed to a list of issues for
discussion. Having a written “agenda” of issues is the manager's most powerful tool in establishing an
atmosphere of impartiality and maintaining control over the discussion process. Not having a written
agenda increases the risk of parties simply bouncing from one issue to another, trading accusations
but never penetrating deeper to the underlying needs.
List the issues. One of the manager's most useful tools for maintaining control is listing issues on a
flipchart or overhead transparency at the beginning of the problem-solving stage. This provides a
visual agenda and makes it easier to keep the discussion focused. Create a list of the issues needing
work and interact with it.
Use it to list commonalities and options for resolution.
Visual lists:
• Help people feel heard so they do not need to keep driving home their point,
• Create a sense of order,
• Help parties focus on a common problem rather than on each other, and
• Can provide guidance when you need to change direction.
Remember to describe the issues impartially. Managers must at all times take care to talk about
and write issues in words that are impartial and convey no sense of judgment or taking sides.
Determine agenda order. After the parties have agreed to a list of issues, managers face a strategic
choice:
Which issue to begin with? There are a variety of ways to make this decision. Regardless of how you
make the decision, no one party should be allowed to make the decision about which issue to begin
with as this may create the impression that the managers have given up control of the process to one
side. The decision should be made by the managers or jointly with the parties.
Point out commonalities and points of agreement. People in conflict often get so caught up in the
heat of disagreement that they often lose perspective and ignore the things they actually agree upon
or share in common, or even their common history. Managers can be a moderating force by
repeatedly reminding people in conflict of these things.
Summarize negotiated agreements. As the negotiations continue, it becomes increasingly easy to
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point out agreements. The manager can now summarize the agreements that have been worked out
in the current mediation as a way of establishing a positive atmosphere. By reminding the parties of
what they have accomplished, the manager can thus discourage them from falling back into attacks
and recriminations.
Caucus. A caucus is a private meeting between the manager and only one party. To keep things
balanced, managers caucus with both parties separately. Caucus is a useful tool, since dealing with
one party at a time is simpler than with two or more in the same room. When things get tense or
difficult, caucus is one easy way to maintain a sense of control. When all else fails, caucus!
Some managers do most of their work in caucus, conducting ‘shuttle diplomacy’ between the parties.
This can, however, cause suspicion. Then too, caucus does little to empower the parties to solve their
own conflicts themselves, for the parties depend entirely on the manager to work out the differences.
Direct dialogue between parties is always preferred, but private caucus is sometimes needed to break
a deadlock or deal with emotional or confidential issues. Caucus is a powerful tool for dealing with
problems, and in volatile or sensitive disputes it may become the primary means of communication.
2.4 Stage 4: Agreement

Purpose: The purpose of the agreement stage is to concretize the outcome of the problem-solving
stage, and to ensure that any agreements reached are clear, specific, realistic and proactive.
This stage is one of the most critical phases of the mediation process. Strong temptations often exist
to relax a few minutes too soon, but this can be very costly. One common cause of failure in
mediation is that managers and parties neglect to work out the details and procedures for
implementation of agreements.
The result: days or weeks after an apparently successful settlement, renewed conflict breaks out over
the meaning of the original agreement. Sometimes this conflict can be resolved with another round of
mediation, but all too often the agreement breaks down entirely, with the parties bitterly blaming each
other for failure to keep promises. Peace may now be harder to achieve than ever. By staying on
guard to the very end, managers can greatly reduce the chance of such a scenario occurring.
Process: The agreement should state clearly WHO is agreeing to WHAT, WHERE, WHEN and
HOW.
The disputants' wording can be used whenever possible. An effective mediation agreement should:
1. Be specific
Avoid ambiguous words (e.g., ‘soon’, ‘reasonable’, ‘co-operative’, ‘frequent’) as they can mean
different things to different people. Use specific words and dates that will have the same meaning to
both parties.
2. Be clear about deadlines
State clearly all times and deadlines.
3. Be balanced
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Everyone should ‘win’ something, and agree to do/not do something. For example, “Party A agrees
that... Party B agrees that...”
4. Be realistic
Can the disputants live up to their agreement? Ideally the agreement speaks only for the disputants
themselves, i.e. actions over which they personally have control.
5. Be clear and simple
When possible, use the disputants’ language. While agreement details are very important, making
agreements too complicated can lead to misinterpretations or misunderstandings which create further
conflict.
6. Be proactive
Include provision for later review, or set up a monitoring mechanism, or agree on a procedure for
dealing with problems that may arise.
7. Be signed by everyone present
Upon completion read to the parties and get their responses. Does it cover all issues? Do they pledge
to live up to it? Should we agree on some way to review progress in the near future? Then sign and
date the agreement and give copies to both parties.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____
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Analyse leadership and related theories
Learning Unit3 in a work context
CREDITS : 8
FIELD: Business, Commerce and Management Studies
SUB FIELD : Public Administration
This Unit Standard will be useful to learners who are working within the Public Sector, Local
PURPOSE Government, commercial or community environment. It will enable learners to gain insight into the role
:
of leadership within a work context, and thus providing them with the skills and knowledge to add
value to one's job. This Unit Standard will also provide value to public officials who are involved in
integrated development planning or public sector management and administration specialists.
• Explaining the concept of leadership.
• Differentiating between leadership and management.
• Analysing and comparing leadership theories.
• Applying the different roles and qualities of leadership in a work context.
It is assumed that learners are competent in Communication at NQF Level 4.
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SESSION 1
Explain the concept of leadership.
Learning Outcomes
 Various definitions of leadership are identified and explained with examples in the workplace.
 The roles and qualities of a leader are explained using examples.
1.1. Definitions of leadership
The activity of leading a group of people or an organization, or the ability to do this.

In its essence, leadership in an organizational role involves
(1) establishing a clear vision,
(2) sharing that vision with others so that they will follow willingly,
(3) providing the information, knowledge, and methods to realize that vision, and
(4) coordinating and balancing the conflicting interests of all members or stakeholders.
A leader comes to the forefront in case of crisis, and is able to think and act in creative ways in difficult
situations. Unlike management, leadership flows from the core of a personality and cannot be taught,
although it may be learned and may be enhanced through coaching or mentoring.
What is leadership? A simple definition of leadership is that leadership is the art of motivating a group of
people to act towards achieving a common goal.
This definition of leadership, I think, captures the leadership essentials of inspiration and preparation.
Effective leadership is based upon ideas, but won't happen unless those ideas can be communicated to
others in a way that engages them
1.2. Roles and qualities of a leader

Leaders are both born and made. Managers don't become leaders overnight. Even “born” leaders don’t
start out possessing all these skills. To be a strong leader, you need to:
1. Have vision. Leaders have a clear sense of where they want to go and how they intend to get there.
They see the big picture, then create a strategic plan for achieving their goals.
2. Make decisions. Leaders aren’t afraid to make difficult or unpopular decisions because they have
confidence in themselves and in their abilities. They know that indecision wastes resources and
opportunities
3. Take risks. Leaders have the courage to act in situations where results aren’t assured. They're willing
to risk failure
4. Motivate others. Leaders can articulate their vision and ideals to others, convincing them of the value
of their ideas. They can inspire people to work toward common goals and to achieve things they never
thought they could do.
5. Build teams. Leaders create productive teams that draw the best from people. They effectively coach
teams in collaboration, consensus building, and conflict resolution.
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6. Possess self-knowledge. Leaders know their own strengths and weaknesses and are able to view
their behavior objectively. They recognize their shortcomings, open themselves to feedback, and are
willing to make changes when necessary.
7. Display integrity. Leaders must be trustworthy before others will follow them. Warren Bennis, The
Leadership Institute, University of Southern California, says qualities that establish trust are competence,
constancy, caring, candor, and congruity, which he defines as authenticity, reliability, and feeling
comfortable with oneself.
8. Pursue lifelong learning. Leaders have a desire to continually learn and grow and are open to new
ideas.
9. Communicate effectively. Leaders can convey their ideas to diverse individuals and adjust their
styles to meet the needs of the people they lead.
10. Help others succeed. Leaders empower others and go out of their way to help them achieve their full
potential, thereby benefiting the organization
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SESSION 2
Differentiate between leadership and management.
Learning Outcomes
 Leadership and management are defined and differentiated using examples.
 The roles and qualities of a leader are differentiated and compared with those of a manager in a work
context.
 The concepts of accountability and responsibility pertaining to a leader and manager are discussed
and explained in terms of advantages and disadvantages in the work place.
 The role of a leader and a manager is compared in terms of their complementary roles in the work
place.
2.1. Leadership and management
What is leadership, and what is the difference between leadership and management? In a nutshell, the
difference is:
Leadership is setting a new direction or vision for a group that they follow, ie: a leader is the spearhead
for that new direction
Management controls or directs people/resources in a group according to principles or values that have
already been established.
The difference between leadership and management can be illustrated by considering what happens
when you have one without the other.
Leadership Without Management
...sets a direction or vision that others follow, without considering too much how the new direction is going
to be achieved. Other people then have to work hard in the trail that is left behind, picking up the pieces
and making it work. Eg: in Lord of the Rings, at the council of Elrond, Frodo Baggins rescues the council
from conflict by taking responsibility for the quest of destroying the ring - but most of the management of
the group comes from others.
Management Without Leadership
...controls resources to maintain the status quo or ensure things happen according to already-established
plans. Eg: a referee manages a sports game, but does not usually provide "leadership" because there is
no new change, no new direction - the referee is controlling resources to ensure that the laws of the game
are followed and status quo is maintained.
Leadership Combined With Management
...does both - it both sets a new direction and manages the resources to achieve it. Eg: a newly elected
president or prime minister.
2.2. Roles and qualities of a leader & manager
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This table summarizes and gives a sense of the differences between being a leader and being a
manager. This is, of course, an illustrative characterization, and there is a whole spectrum between either
ends of these scales along which each role can range. And many people lead and manage at the same
time, and so may display a combination of behaviors.

Subject Leader Manager
Essence Change Stability
Focus Leading people Managing work
Have Followers Subordinates
Horizon Long-term Short-term
Seeks Vision Objectives
Approach Sets direction Plans detail
Decision Facilitates Makes
Power Personal charisma Formal authority
Appeal to Heart Head
Energy Passion Control
Culture Shapes Enacts
Dynamic Proactive Reactive
Persuasion Sell Tell
Style Transformational Transactional
Exchange Excitement for work Money for work
Likes Striving Action
Wants Achievement Results
Risk Takes Minimizes
Rules Breaks Makes
Conflict Uses Avoids
Direction New roads Existing roads
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Truth Seeks Establishes
Concern What is right Being right
Credit Gives Takes
Blame Takes Blames

Managers have subordinates
By definition, managers have subordinates - unless their title is honorary and given as a mark of seniority,
in which case the title is a misnomer and their power over others is other than formal authority.
Authoritarian, transactional style

Managers have a position of authority vested in them by the company, and their subordinates work for
them and largely do as they are told. Management style is transactional, in that the manager tells the
subordinate what to do, and the subordinate does this not because they are a blind robot, but because
they have been promised a reward (at minimum their salary) for doing so.
Work focus
Managers are paid to get things done (they are subordinates too), often within tight constraints of time
and money. They thus naturally pass on this work focus to their subordinates.
Seek comfort
An interesting research finding about managers is that they tend to come from stable home backgrounds
and led relatively normal and comfortable lives. This leads them to be relatively risk-averse and they will
seek to avoid conflict where possible. In terms of people, they generally like to run a 'happy ship'.
Leaders have followers
Leaders do not have subordinates - at least not when they are leading. Many organizational leaders do
have subordinates, but only because they are also managers. But when they want to lead, they have to
give up formal authoritarian control, because to lead is to have followers, and following is always a
voluntary activity.
Charismatic, transformational style

Telling people what to do does not inspire them to follow you. You have to appeal to them, showing how
following them will lead to their hearts' desire. They must want to follow you enough to stop what they are
doing and perhaps walk into danger and situations that they would not normally consider risking.
Leaders with a stronger charisma find it easier to attract people to their cause. As a part of their
persuasion they typically promise transformational benefits, such that their followers will not just receive
extrinsic rewards but will somehow become better people.
People focus
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Although many leaders have a charismatic style to some extent, this does not require a loud personality.
They are always good with people, and quiet styles that give credit to others (and takes blame on
themselves) are very effective at creating the loyalty that great leaders engender.
Although leaders are good with people, this does not mean they are friendly with them. In order to keep
the mystique of leadership, they often retain a degree of separation and aloofness.
This does not mean that leaders do not pay attention to tasks - in fact they are often very achievement-
focused. What they do realize, however, is the importance of enthusing others to work towards their
vision.
Seek risk
In the same study that showed managers as risk-averse, leaders appeared as risk-seeking, although they
are not blind thrill-seekers. When pursuing their vision, they consider it natural to encounter problems and
hurdles that must be overcome along the way. They are thus comfortable with risk and will see routes that
others avoid as potential opportunities for advantage and will happily break rules in order to get things
done.
A surprising number of these leaders had some form of handicap in their lives which they had to
overcome. Some had traumatic childhoods, some had problems such as dyslexia, others were shorter
than average. This perhaps taught them the independence of mind that is needed to go out on a limb and
not worry about what others are thinking about you.
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SESSION 3.
Analyse leadership theories.
Learning Outcomes
 The various theories of leadership are identified and discussed in a work context.
 Trends and developments relating to the different leadership theories are examined with examples.
 The various leadership theories are justified in terms of advantages and disadvantages.
3.1. Theories of leadership

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories
focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked
at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories
have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
1. "Great Man" Theories:
Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not
made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership
when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily
as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. Learn more about the great man theory of
leadership.
2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities
and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or
behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how
do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the
difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.
3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might
determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no
leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the
leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational
variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
5. Behavioral Theories:
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Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted
in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal
states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of
others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and
help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative
theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
7. Management Theories:
Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization
and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments.
Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded;
when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theories of transactional leadership.
8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed
between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group
members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance
of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style often
have high ethical and moral standards.
3.2. Trends and developments relating to the different leadership theories
Theory and practice are inexorably intertwined: to understand developments in leadership theory is to
fathom the nature of leadership itself. Leadership is difficult because, quintessentially, it must often focus
on the challenge of change. Change that is transformational defies easy solutions: it involves value-laden
issues; it tests strongly held loyalties; it surfaces deep-seated conflicts. But people do not resist change
per se; rather, they refuse to accept the losses that it may cause them to incur. To exercise leadership is
to invite people to make adaptive change (as distinct from technical change that concerned parties
address daily)—for this they must learn new ways and discard old habits against the promise of an
uncertain outcome. The process is intrinsically disruptive and therefore induces disequilibrium and stress.
In a globalizing world of organizations, pressures to change will only increase over the next decades.
Given the complexity of the subject, new explanations of leadership are bound to arise and should
influence how future leaders behave. Since much of leadership is about change, and the problems that
leadership endeavors to address lie with people themselves, those in positions of authority are more often
than not apt to collude and shy away from challenges. (Authority is a contract for services: for that reason,
people in positions of authority are [paradoxically] rarely authorized to exercise transformational
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leadership, whatever the job description may advertise.) It follows that leadership of the people, by the
people, for the people could conduce change better, coaxing them to clarify what is vital and what is not.
3.3. The various leadership theories are justified in terms of advantages and disadvantages
Trait Theory vs. the Great Man
Trait theory was similar to Great Man theory because they both attributed the success of the leader to
something about the leader. A great man was still required to be a successful leader—a man who was
seen to be different from his followers, who was capable of leadership because of his traits, whether
personal or physical.
Trait theory digresses from the Great Man theory in how the leader acquires his traits. The great or noble
or able man was simply born that way to be a leader. Trait theorists discovered common personality
characteristics among leaders, the capabilities for which were still inherent, but didn’t guarantee the
exercise of leadership. Another difference between Trait Theory and the Great Man Theory was the
discovery that in successful leadership, certain traits were connected to certain environments. A specific
personality characteristic worked better in one situation than another. A situation, like change or crisis,
could demand a leader with complementary characteristics.
As Weber predicted, we didn’t like the “iron cage” of bureaucracy that we constructed for ourselves.
(Wren 298) Bureaucracy was like a wearing a straight jacket for both leadership and organizations.
Leadership theory was progressing from being solely about the leader to incorporating the importance of
the follower. Modern revolutions in physics and philosophy jarred theorists into a new and uncertain realm
of relationship between the leader and the follower.
Behavior Theory vs. Trait Theory

Behavioral theories, like Trait theories, place importance on the characteristics and abilities of the leader.
The difference is that Behavior theory includes the follower. This makes every leadership situation slightly
different, and depending on the situation, task behavior, relationship behavior, or a combination of the two
can be applied. This shows a shift away from the scientific approach, because the changing factors of the
environment determine how best to lead. Theories at this time are concerned with the motivations,
willingness, and preferences of the worker, as well as how the traits of the leader match the situation.
Behavioral Theory vs. Process Theory

Relationship is important to both Behavioral and Process theories. Both theories focus on the importance
of the follower and the interaction between the leader and follower. Process theory has elevated the role
of follower, even going so far as to place the leader in a servant—or facilitator position—relative to his or
her followers. The move toward less control and more trust on the part of the leader, attends to the well
being, and even betterment, of all involved. Attention to collective goals, social justice, and sustainability
are common threads in all of the Process theories, mirroring the desire of younger generations to reclaim
a sense of community and connectedness. This is an exciting time to study leadership theory because of
the discoveries in science and the resulting change.
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SESSION 4
Apply the different roles and qualities of leadership in a work context.
Learning Outcomes
 The roles and qualities within leadership contexts are analysed with examples.
 The leadership style of selected leaders are analysed in order to determine its effect in a context.
 The term role-model is analysed in order to establish its effect on the work context.
 A leadership theory is selected and applied in own work context.
 Leadership roles, qualities and abilities are analysed in order to formulate own leadership
development strategy.
4.1. Leadership styles

From Mahatma Gandhi to Winston Churchill to Martin Luther King, there are as many leadership styles as
there are leaders. Fortunately, businesspeople and psychologists have developed useful and simple
ways to describe the main styles of leadership, and these can help aspiring leaders understand which
styles they should use.
So, whether you manage a team at work, captain a sports team, or lead a major corporation, which
approach is best? Consciously, or subconsciously, you'll probably use some of the leadership styles in
this article at some point. Understanding these styles and their impact can help you develop your own,
personal leadership style – and help you become a more effective leader.
Popular Leadership Styles

The leadership theories and styles discussed so far fit within formal theoretical frameworks. However,
many more terms are used to describe leadership styles, even if these don't fit within a particular system.
It's worth understanding these!
1. Autocratic leadership
Autocratic leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where leaders have absolute power
over their workers or team. Staff and team members have little opportunity to make suggestions, even if
these would be in the team's or the organization's best interest.
Most people tend to resent being treated like this. Therefore, autocratic leadership often leads to high
levels of absenteeism and staff turnover. However, for some routine and unskilled jobs, the style can
remain effective because the advantages of control may outweigh the disadvantages.
2. Bureaucratic leadership
Bureaucratic leaders work "by the book." They follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their staff follows
procedures precisely. This is a very appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks (such as
working with machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights) or where large sums of money
are involved (such as handling cash).
3. Charismatic leadership
A charismatic leadership style can seem similar to transformational leadership, because these leaders
inspire lots of enthusiasm in their teams and are very energetic in driving others forward. However,
charismatic leaders can tend to believe more in themselves than in their teams, and this creates a risk
that a project, or even an entire organization, might collapse if the leader leaves. In the eyes of the
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followers, success is directly connected to the presence of the charismatic leader. As such, charismatic
leadership carries great responsibility, and it needs a long-term commitment from the leader.
4. Democratic leadership or participative leadership
Although democratic leaders make the final decisions, they invite other members of the team to contribute
to the decision-making process. This not only increases job satisfaction by involving team members, but it
also helps to develop people's skills. Team members feel in control of their own destiny, so they're
motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward.
Because participation takes time, this approach can take longer, but often the end result is better. The
approach can be most suitable when working as a team is essential, and when quality is more important
than speed to market, or productivity.
5. Laissez-faire leadership
This French phrase means "leave it be," and it's used to describe leaders who leave their team members
to work on their own. It can be effective if the leader monitors what's being achieved and communicates
this back to the team regularly. Most often, laissez-faire leadership is effective when individual team
members are very experienced and skilled self-starters. Unfortunately, this type of leadership can also
occur when managers don't apply sufficient control.
6. People-oriented leadership or relations-oriented leadership
This is the opposite of task-oriented leadership. With people-oriented leadership, leaders are totally
focused on organizing, supporting, and developing the people in their teams. It's a participative style, and
it tends to encourage good teamwork and creative collaboration.
In practice, most leaders use both task-oriented and people-oriented styles of leadership.
7. Servant leadership
This term, created by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s, describes a leader who is often not formally
recognized as such. When someone, at any level within an organization, leads simply by meeting the
needs of the team, he or she is described as a "servant leader."
In many ways, servant leadership is a form of democratic leadership, because the whole team tends to be
involved in decision making.
Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest that it's an important way to move ahead in a world
where values are increasingly important, and where servant leaders achieve power on the basis of their
values and ideals. Others believe that in competitive leadership situations, people who practice servant
leadership can find themselves left behind by leaders using other leadership styles.
8. Task-Oriented leadership
Highly task-oriented leaders focus only on getting the job done, and they can be quite autocratic. They
actively define the work and the roles required, put structures in place, plan, organize, and monitor.
However, because task-oriented leaders don't tend to think much about the well-being of their teams, this
approach can suffer many of the flaws of autocratic leadership, with difficulties in motivating and retaining
staff.
9. Transactional leadership
This style of leadership starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader totally when
they accept a job. The "transaction" is usually the organization paying the team members in return for
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their effort and compliance. The leader has a right to "punish" team members if their work doesn't meet
the pre-determined standard.
Team members can do little to improve their job satisfaction under transactional leadership. The leader
could give team members some control of their income/reward by using incentives that encourage even
higher standards or greater productivity. Alternatively, a transactional leader could practice "management
by exception" – rather than rewarding better work, the leader could take corrective action if the required
standards are not met.
Transactional leadership is really a type of management, not a true leadership style, because the focus is
on short-term tasks. It has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work, however it can be
effective in other situations.
10. Transformational leadership
As we discussed earlier, people with this leadership style are true leaders who inspire their teams
constantly with a shared vision of the future. While this leader's enthusiasm is often passed onto the
team, he or she can need to be supported by "detail people." That's why, in many organizations, both
transactional and transformational leadership are needed. The transactional leaders (or managers)
ensure that routine work is done reliably, while the transformational leaders look after initiatives that add
new value
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Manage diversity in the workplace
Learning Unit4
CREDITS : 14
SUB FIELD : Generic Management
A person credited with this Unit Standard is able to demonstrate an understanding of diversity among
PURPOSE people and in particular in a specific workforce, an appreciation of the role and positive impact of such
:
diversity, and how best to manage a diverse workforce in South Africa.
In particular, on completion of this Unit Standard, the learner is able to:
• Recognise diversity, stereotyping and phobias relating to diversity
• Understand in which ways various individuals and groups are, or have been, negatively
disadvantaged due to discrimination
• Discuss how society and communities react to diversity
• Promote equality among different people by embracing differences
• Comprehend cultural and other differences among people
• Relate diversity directly to the South African context
• Refer to the South African Constitution and Bill of Human Rights in relation to diversity and
discrimination
• Discuss diversity in terms of the history of the country
• Relate Employment Equity (EE) to diversity
• Explain various concepts and principles relating to Organisational Transformation and Change
Management (OT&CM)
Learners should be competent in: • Computer Literacy at NQF Level 3 • Mathematical Literacy at NQF Level 4 •
Communication at NQF Level 4
SESSION 1.
Demonstrate why managing diversity is important in the South African workplace
Learning Outcomes
 An analysis is presented of the trends and gaps relating to organisational practice in terms of
managing race, gender and disability, as examples of diversity.
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 A written assessment is made of the benefits to staff and organisations in South Africa of effective
diversity management.
Managing diversity, multiculturalism, affirmative action and equal employment opportunity are words in
common currency in a newly democratic South Africa as they are in most democratic countries of the
world. However, in South Africa, as elsewhere in the world, these concepts are frequently confused, often
misunderstood and, in some instances, form the theoretical backdrop to practical programmes of dubious
efficacy at best and which may be counterproductive at worst. Distinguishes between these concepts.
Concentrates on managing diversity and how this process is often hampered by an over-emphasis on
"national culture" at the expense of broader individual identity and power relations. Analyses how power
relations impact on perceptions of "culture", and ultimately on the motivation, performance and
development of "historically disadvantaged" employees. Describes how this framework of understanding
has informed the development of a managing diversity skills training workshop which has been run
successfully in corporate and not-for-profit organizations alike.
Managing diversity, multiculturalism, affirmative action and equal employment opportunity are words in
common currency in a newly democratic South Africa as they are in most democratic countries of the
world. However, although these concepts are now being articulated by government, business and trade
unions alike, for many years they were the sole preserve of those organizations subscribing to the various
codes of conduct (such as the Sullivan Principles) as well as enlightened employers resisting apartheid
oppression. Thus, although the debate about these concepts is just beginning in earnest, academic
research and practical experience was gained during the time of the apartheid regime which, in turn, is
informing the implementation of affirmative action and managing diversity programmes in a new era.
This experience is made all the more important by the fact that affirmative action and the management of
diversity in South Africa do not constitute tools to facilitate the entry of minorities into the mainstream of
organizational life. In South Africa, for many years, the majority of the population has been denied access
to education, jobs and opportunities through a process of rigorous discrimination.
Some observers argue that black and female advancement and empowerment will now take place
naturally and that an inexorable drift towards equality of opportunity is inevitable. Given both the
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experience of other African countries, such as Zimbabwe and Namibia, as well as statistics relating to
social mobility from other countries of the world this scenario is highly unlikely. It is, nevertheless, crucial
to the stability of the country that a committed effort towards non-racialism, non-sexism and increased
democracy and participation is made and is seen, by the majority population, to be made.
The expectations the majority of South Africa's population have of the government of national unity are
such that the effective management of diversity and the redistribution of power, wealth and opportunity
have to take place. South Africa, unlike some other countries of the world, has no choice but to manage
workforce diversity and to manage it effectively; the future prosperity and stability of the country, and
possibly the region, depend on it.
Given this urgency, it is surprising how few committed efforts to managing diversity and affirmative action
have been made. Many organizations pay lip-service to the need for affirmative action and managing
diversity, yet few appear to have incorporated these kinds of objectives into either their strategic planning
process or reward systems. Although the government has committed itself to legislation in its
Reconstruction and Development Programme, it would appear that confusion about terminology as well
as the scope of such programmes hinders current discussions between government, business and trade
unionists for broader definitions of affirmative action in particular).
Such discussions are also hindered by the vested interests of non-unionized and, particularly, managerial
employees as well as the lack of a consultative culture, particularly with respect to the management/trade
union relationship.
Many organizations, to this day, look for quick fix solutions to their management of diversity challenge;
such solutions frequently take the form of workshops or interventions which are not incorporated into
overall strategic and human resource management processes. Other organizations are playing the
numbers game and are underestimating the extent to which effective affirmative action requires
fundamental changes to organizational culture and the way in which people are managed. Still others, like
some authors and practitioners in other countries, confuse concepts such as affirmative action and
managing diversity and appear to believe that the latter can be undertaken to the exclusion of the former.
Having distinguished between these concepts, this contribution goes on to concentrate on managing
diversity and how this process may be hampered by an over-emphasis on cultural differences at the
expense of both broader individual identity and power relations. Having dissected how power relations
impact on perceptions of culture and ultimately on the motivation, performance and development of
historically disadvantaged employees, a description is provided of how this understanding has informed
the development of a managing diversity skills training workshop which has been run successfully in
corporate and not-for-profit organizations alike.
Some definitions
Affirmative action and its relationship to concepts such as equality and equal opportunity are matters of
serious intellectual and practical concern to legal specialists, economists, philosophers, sociologists and
employers in many countries of the world. The debate concerning the definition, justification, impact and
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consequences of affirmative action is ongoing, complex and beyond the scope of this paper. Suffice it to
say that, for the purposes of this discussion, affirmative action is defined as the process of creating
greater equality of opportunity; it is temporary and flexible and not in accordance with rigid quotas; it is
compatible with the concept of qualification and it does not unnecessarily trample on the reasonable
expectations of competent white men. According to this definition, affirmative action is the process of
creating equal employment opportunity (employment equity), which is the desired outcome. Affirmative
action, moreover, is not merely a process of recruiting greater numbers of historically disadvantaged
employees: it is part and parcel of a holistic system of human resource management and development
and impacts on all of the processes, policies and procedures relating to the selection, recruitment,
induction, development, promotion and severance of people. Research and practical implementation of
affirmative action programmes (as defined above) in South Africa, suggest that, for affirmative action to
be effective, the following critical success factors need to be in place.
Employee development as a strategic issue

Employee development as a strategic issue means the extent to which people development in general
and black (African, coloured/Asian), female and disabled advancement in particular, are seen as key
strategic issues for the organization. Further, it means the extent to which managers are measured and
rewarded in terms of their performance in this area. Top management commitment to employee
development should be evidenced in the actions and comments of top management, as well as in their
regular review of departments; and their alignment of this area with other key strategic objectives.
The management of people as a strategic issue also includes the extent to which workforce plans,
succession plans and career plans exist.
Staffing
This refers to the way in which people are matched to jobs; whether they are recruited from the outside or
whether they are developed, transferred or promoted from within.
It involves a critical analysis of current selection and recruitment procedures, criteria for entry into jobs,
selection tools and organizational culture. Such an analysis should lead to attempts to overcome
unfairness and blockages, to remove glass ceilings and to eradicate both tokenism and resistance.
Strategic and workforce analysis may also lead an organization to the conclusion that it is necessary to
ameliorate the under-utilization of qualified members of excluded groups at entry level or in promotions.
Organizational culture and the role of line management in the development of people
This refers to the extent to which the development of employees in general occurs in the organization.
The importance of this issue rests on the assumption that the creation and maintenance of standards
(whether in terms of quality or output, etc.) relies in large measure on well-trained staff who are
responsible for the development of those who report to them. Development should not be perceived,
however, in racial or gender terms. Development is rather characterized by:
 the determination of individual development needs;
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 the drawing up of individual development plans based on the competences required for effective
job performance and on the overall workforce plan;
 the attendance of relevant off-the-job training and development courses which meet individual
training needs;
 line managers playing a key role in on-the-job coaching and the development of staff.
This process applies equally to all staff, irrespective of race, gender or level.
"Organizational culture" refers to the importance that is attached to the development of people and the
norms, values and beliefs that reinforce or discourage people development in general and the
advancement of the historically disadvantaged in particular. An organizational culture that supports
people development is characterized by the following:
1 positive expectations of individuals and their competence;
2 open, honest and constructive feedback on performance;
3 evaluation of performance based on results achieved in terms of short and long term objectives;
• No discrimination based on race, gender or disability;
• The development of people is a key result area for managers and performance in this area is
measured and rewarded/sanctioned in a meaningful way;
• Managers understand the process of development and their roles in this process;
• Managers have the necessary skills to perform the role effectively;
• On-the-job coaching is an effective and primary means of people development.
The role of the human resources function

The role of the human resources function is to support line management ownership of the people
development process by providing, inter alia, appropriate systems and advice to line management. This
does not mean that the role of human resources is a passive one; the function should be proactive in
identifying and diagnosing problems, proposing solutions and influencing line managers in the strategic
direction that the organization has chosen. This implies that the human resources function needs to be
staffed with people who:
• Are positively and actively committed to the development and advancement of all people,
particularly disadvantaged groups;
• Have a high degree of credibility among the managers and staff, for whom they provide a service;
• Can provide practical and realistic solutions to problems and issues raised by their clients, without
sacrificing professional excellence;
• Operate from an integrated perspective of all aspects of the human resources function, although
they may be expert in one particular area.
Affirmative action strategies, moreover, vary from organization to organization and are based on an
audit of the organization in terms of workforce composition, policies and procedures (see for example,
and the perceptions of all levels of employees of the organization's performance in relation to the critical
success factors (Human, 1993).
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Experience suggests that affirmative action strategies should be developed in consultation with trade
unions and non-unionized employees and should be regularly monitored and evaluated. In a country such
as South Africa, affirmative action involves not only the recruitment, development, promotion and
retention of qualified individuals from historically disadvantaged groups; it also involves the development
of those with the potential to become qualified either within the organizational setting or through
educational and community projects.
In the discussion thus far, a distinction has been drawn between affirmative action (the process) and
employment equity (the result). It is accepted that this distinction may not be so clearly drawn in other
countries (such as Canada) where the terms affirmative action (so defined) and employment equity would
appear to be synonymous.
A major distinction which this paper wishes to draw is not between affirmative action and employment
equity; it is between affirmative action/employment equity and managing diversity. It would appear that
the terms affirmative action/employment equity both encompass, and are encompassed by, the concept
of managing diversity.
To take an example: affirmative action in South Africa is part of the process of managing the country's
diversity. However, at the same time, and as part of an organization's affirmative action strategy,
employees in general, and line managers in particular, are required to be competent in managing
diversity. This paradox is probably a fact of life in most countries of the world; managing diversity at one
level incorporates affirmative action and yet, at the particular level, is one of the competences required for
the effective implementation of affirmative action programmes.
Understood as a competence required by employees in general, and line managers in particular,

managing diversity is crucial for the effective management and development of people. A line manager
who is prejudiced against people from a specific racial group, for example, is unlikely to manage those
people effectively and to recognize and encourage their particular strengths and talents. Managing
diversity, at this level, thus concerns the management of people irrespective of race, gender, ethnic
background, religion, disability, sexual orientation and so on. Many so-called managing diversity
programmes not only confuse the relationship between managing diversity and affirmative action and
employment equity, but also confuse managing diversity with managing culture. The argument presented
below suggests that it is counterproductive to equate managing diversity with managing culture for a
number of reasons. First, the conceptualizations of culture provided in such programmes tend to be
unduly fixed and inflexible. Second, national or ethnic culture tends to be stressed at the expense of other
social variables. Third, such programmes often understate the importance of the relationship between
perceptions of culture and power and how this relationship impacts performance through the transmission
of expectancy communications. Finally, an understanding of this relationship is rarely translated into a
need for individuals to look at their own articulation with these concepts and at the need for change from
within. These points are discussed in greater detail below.
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The argument begins with a critical discussion of some of the work on culture and goes on to discuss how
some such work may have a negative impact on the management of diversity on a practical level and in
some organizational settings.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity in Workplace

Diversity in the workplace encompasses a range of elements. Differences in national origin, primary
language, religion, social status and age can benefit or harm organizations. Managing diversity
effectively is the key to leveraging the advantages and minimizing the disadvantages of diversity in the
workplace.
Diverse Experience
Co-workers with diverse cultural backgrounds bring unique experiences and perceptions to the table in
groups and work teams. Pooling the diverse knowledge and skills of culturally distinct workers together
can benefit companies by strengthening teams' productivity and responsiveness to changing conditions.
Each employee in a diverse workplace possesses unique strengths and weaknesses derived from their
culture in addition to their individuality. When managed properly, diversity in the workplace can leverage
the strengths and complement the weaknesses of each worker to make the impact of the workforce
greater than the sum of its parts.
Learning and Growth
Another advantage of workplace diversity is the opportunity for employees' personal growth. Being
exposed to new ideas, cultures and perspectives can help individuals to reach out intellectually and gain
a clearer view of their surroundings and their place in the world. Spending time with culturally diverse co-
workers can slowly break down the subconscious barriers of ethnocentrism and xenophobia, encouraging
employees to be more well-rounded members of society.
Communication Issues
Diversity impacts workplace communication in positive and negative ways. Between co-workers, diversity
can place impediments in the way of effective communication, which can directly dampen productivity and
the cohesiveness of small groups. Spending time with diverse employees can break down communication
barriers over the long-term, but first impressions and co-workers' orientation periods can be difficult to
control when cultures clash. Diversity can strengthen your company's relationships with specific customer
groups by making communication more effective. Customer service representatives can be paired up with
customers from their specific demographic, making the customer feel comfortable with the representative,
and thus with the company. A number of companies in the southwest United States, for example, prefer
to hire bi-lingual customer service reps to deal with Spanish-speaking customers in their native language.
Integration Issues
Social integration at work can only be influenced to a small degree. The formation of cliques and
exclusive social groups is a natural process that can be impossible to control at times. Because of this,
companies can experience informal divisions in their staff, creating a situation where culturally diverse
employees avoid exposure to each other during break times and after work. Although there is nothing
fundamentally wrong with this scenario, it can hinder the effectiveness of sharing knowledge, skills and
experience, thus curbing productivity growth and the effectiveness of teams.
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SESSION 2
Understand racism, sexism and other "isms" as a product of a common history
Learning Outcomes
An accurate description is presented of the learner's own identity as a product of racism, sexism and
other "isms".
The theory underlying racism/sexism is explained in writing using examples.
Racisms, Sexisms, and Other Isms

Some principal “isms”:
 Sexism
 Racism (including anti-Arabism and anti-Semitism)
 Classism
 Ableism
 Homophobia
 Ageism
In contemporary secular discussions of ethics, one type of moral issue overshadows all others: the issue
of inter-group relationships. The groups in view are denominated by race, gender, nationality, creed,
sexual preference, age, “ability” (what we used to call “handicap”), etc., and they are classified, in quasi-
Marxist terms, as oppressor groups and victim groups. The oppressor group is usually identified as white,
middle-class, Christian, heterosexual males. The issue is the unfair or unequal treatment of the victim
group by the oppressor group.
Most all other ethical questions eventually get reduced to this one. Even the abortion issue, at first glance
rather far removed from these inter-group issues, gets defined in terms of “choice.” And “choice”, in turn,
is defended on the basis of gender autonomy: restricting abortion is sexist, oppression of women by men.
The attitude of the oppressor group toward the victim group is variously described as racist, sexist, age-
ist, weight-ist, homophobic, and so on. These attitudes are seen to be at the root of all social and
ethical problems.
Issues of such great concern to people should be discussed, not only with sensitivity, but also with care
and precision. Unfortunately, most treatments of them are burdened by ambiguity, confusion of distinct
issues, and the substitution of rhetoric for argument. There are many things that can be meant by racism,
sexism, etc., and many practices are condemned as racist or sexist without much careful thought.
Sexism is defined as ' A devaluation towards women, and sexism causes problems for women'. This is an
understatement in terms of a definition; because women have been have serious problems for as long as
history has been written.
There is more violence against women then there is against men. In 2005, 1,181 women were murdered
my an intimate partner. That is about 3 women per day, killed by someone who loved them. Or someone
who said they loved them. However, women are experiencing much more harm then just being killed.
Women are also experiencing dehumanization.
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Most of the women in advertisements are thin, beautiful, and dressed sexually revealing. Women can be
shown lying down, reclining in a chair and many other things.
Then there is a problem of pornography. The problem of pornography in the United States is generating
about 14 billion dollars per year, and that is due to the legal pornography. Women have also been told,
that their body is the most important thing they have.
So women have been spending money for breast implants, liposuction, and many other surgeries to make
themselves beautiful. There are also a large number of beauty pageants in the United States, not on Miss
America, Miss U.S. A, but also Prom Time, and even Toddlers in Tiaras. There is an actual beauty
contest in China called Miss Plastic Surgery, which started in 2004. This contest is open to women from
all nations, but only if they have had plastic surgery.
Not only do women have plastic surgery, they have health problems which include Anorexia, as well as
bulimia, both of which can be long term illnesses. When women have Anorexia the basically starve
themselves today. No matter how much weight they lose, they still think they are 'too fat'. Karen
Carpenter , the leader singer of The Carpenter's s a famous musical group died of Anorexia, at the age of
32
Another problem against women is prostitution. Prostitution, pornography and sex trafficking aren't
separable in the real world. There are young women from other countries who are promised jobs in the
United States, but when the arrive they are forced into prostitution. They are held hostage and are
beaten, starved and forced into submission. When they are finally afraid to do anything but obey their
'Master', then they become prostitutes. Sometimes prostitutes are young girls who have run away from
homes where they have been abused, some are women who are addicted to drugs and are not receiving
any help except from the man, or pimp who had promised to help them. Once this man starts to 'help' her,
he starts to abuse her. The abuse is so severe the prostitute would rather sell her body then receive the
abuse for not selling her body.
There are many other problems women are facing in the world today; this hub has only focused on a few.
There are also many other problems millions of people face just because of the color of the skin, the
place where they were born, their sexual orientation. I am just wondering, how many more 'isms' are there
in the world today and why?

What does “racism” mean, and what are its manifestations? Let us consider some
possibilities, taken from current discussions.
1. Racism is often equated with hatred, so it may be defined as “hating people because of their race or
color.” Hatred, of course, is something inward. We should be quick to recognize it in ourselves, slow to
accuse others of it. Unfortunately, in the current discussion, the reverse is often true. People quickly
accuse others of racial hatred, but they almost never admit such hatred in themselves. That is one thing
that goes wrong in current discussions of race.
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Certainly it is sinful, and irrational, to hate someone merely because of ancestry or skin color. A person
cannot help who his ancestors were, and ancestry alone never makes a person worthy of hatred.
I do not doubt that such irrational racial hatred exists, but I suspect it is more rare than many ethical
writers and news commentators suppose. Most of the time, what we call “racial hatred” is really
something more subtle, and with a greater claim, at least, to rationality. I explore those possibilities below.
2. One distinct form of “racial hatred” is hating members of a particular race because of perceived wrongs
done by that racial group. This is not racial hatred pure and simple. Here the hatred is not directed toward
people merely because of their ancestry, but because of unreconciled grievances. African Americans
often continue to resent whites because of the history of slavery and segregation. Whites often resent
blacks because of the high incidence of crime, illegitimacy, and drug use in their communities, and
because of the rhetoric of some black leaders who blame these problems on white society. The problem
in either case is not ancestry or skin color as such; the problem is behavior.
With simple racial hatred (#1, above), the solution is simply biblical repentance. In this case, finding
solutions is more difficult. Of course, we must certainly, as in the previous case, set aside our hatred. For
one thing, it is not fair to blame an entire race for the activities of some of its members, especially when
those activities were done in the past, by members of earlier generations.
Some have said that although it is illegitimate for an oppressor-group to hate or resent an oppressed
group, the reverse is legitimate. But we should reject that argument. If there is anything wrong with
racism, sexism, and the like, it is that people are hated or discriminated against or judged, not for what
they have done, but solely on the basis of their membership in a group. If that moral principle is correct, it
must be applied universally. It is wrong for any racial group to hate any other racial group as a group,
regardless of past grievances.
But, in addition to putting aside our hatreds, we need also to work toward reconciliation of the grievances.
In relations between American blacks and whites, that is not easy. When slavery ended, slave owners
should have been required to make double restitution to those who were kidnapped and/or held against
their will, and actual kidnappers should have paid the appropriate legal penalties. But today, the slave
traders and slave owners are long gone. Failure to deal adequately with their sin has created difficult
situations and personal resentments that are still with us today. But how can we now deal with them?
Some today have, perhaps, indirectly benefited from slavery and segregation, making them in some
special sense liable for the current racial disparities. But it would be extremely difficult to identify those
people and prove their liability with legal force. Some economists believe that both slavery and
segregation resulted in net economic losses for whites, in which case nobody really benefited from
slavery and segregation.
Some might suggest a national racial summit, with representatives of both whites and blacks negotiating
a settlement. But this suggestion faces formidable difficulties. Who would represent each group, and how
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would such an agreement be enforced? And would it lead to reconciliation, or would the inevitable
inequities produce all the more resentment?
Others would suggest programs of affirmative action to counter the lingering effects of past injustice.
Certainly it is a good thing when corporations voluntarily make special efforts to hire people from minority
communities, or when schools and colleges seek applicants among minority groups. But racial quotas,
and, even worse, race-norming (lowering standards for particular racial groups) lead to resentments,
unfair treatment of those in non-victim groups, deterioration of quality in education and industry, and
stigmatization of those benefiting from such programs.
The lingering hatreds and resentments are not likely to be overcome by any social or political policy.
Consideration of such intractable problems should lead us to turn all the more to God’s grace in Christ,
which alone can produce forgiving hearts. In the final analysis, only the forgiveness of Christ can heal
these wounds.
3. But “racism” does not always refer to hatred. Sometimes the term is applied to certain beliefs, such as
the belief that one race is inferior to another, either generally, or in some particular way.
The belief that one race is generally inferior to another is plainly irrational. Considering all the different
abilities and disabilities, all the different virtues and vices, existing in the human race, it is not even clear
what would be meant by saying that one human being is “generally superior” to another, let alone saying
that one race is generally superior or inferior. And even if we could agree on what a superior race would
look like, how could that superiority ever be measured or verified?
Sometimes these discussions focus on whether members of one race are, on the average, more
“intelligent” than another. But intelligence is an extremely complicated matter. There are many different
kinds. Anyone who is skilled at anything can be called “intelligent.” That includes quarterbacks, boxers,
and musicians, as well as rocket scientists. IQ and other “intelligence” tests do not measure intelligence
as such, but only certain kinds of intelligence relevant to academic success.
Sometimes “superiority” in such discussions refers to moral superiority. But Scripture consigns all
mankind to the status of sinners before God. The argument of Rom. 1-3 is that all races, Jews and
Gentiles, are equally guilty before God, hopeless apart from divine grace. Paul rebukes those Jews who
believed that they had a higher standing with God because of their ancestry.
And the biblical teaching about the differences of supernatural gifts in the body of Christ (Rom. 12, 1 Cor.
12) suggests a similar way of looking at the natural gifts in the human race in general. No individual, no
race, has all possible human abilities. And the “lesser” abilities are just as necessary to the whole society
as are the “greater.” Indeed, those that are most widely acclaimed may be less valuable in the sight of
God.
4. However, it is not wrong, in my view, to believe that some races generally excel others in some
particular respects. One coach at a Midwestern college was fired because he asserted that black athletes
are, on the average, better sprinters and jumpers than whites. His superiors claimed that his remarks
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were racist. In my view that was an injustice. The coach’s views, in this case, were very probably true,
and he should have had freedom to express them.
Earlier I said that it is very unliklely that one race is “generally” superior to another in any meaningful
sense. But it is just as unlikely that all races are equal in every particular ability. The diversity of gifts I
mentioned above would suggest that neither individuals nor races or nations are equal in every human
ability or skill.
But in contemporary secular discussions it is considered heresy to assert that people of one race or
nationality are superior to others, even in some specific respect. Even scientists who conduct studies of
genetic influences upon, e.g., IQ, are often dismissed as racist. That is, in my view, a wrong use of
“racist.” However it may benefit the self-esteem of particular groups, the assumption that everyone is
equal in every way is false and certainly detrimental to the progress of science. Clearly there are genetic
factors influencing human abilities and disabilities, and scientists should be free to study these.
We should remember, however, that these kinds of racial superiorities and inferiorities should not be held
against individuals. I have no doubt that proportionately there are more blacks than whites with the ability
to play basketball in the NBA. But the case of Larry Bird is sufficient to refute the notion that only blacks
should be allowed to compete. Perhaps there are even some whites who can compete with the best
blacks in sprinting and jumping. Competition should be open to all, within reason, and we should be
willing to be surprised at finding exceptions to our generalities.
Similarly I have no doubt that, on the whole, men make better lumberjacks than women. But it is quite
possible that some women may be better than some men at this kind of work. So even if there are group-
based superiorities or inferiorities, we should not use them to justify prejudice against individuals.
5. Another kind of belief sometimes called racist is the belief that disproportionate numbers of people in a
particular racial group are guilty of some kind of wrongdoing. Earlier we discussed belief in the “moral
superiority” of one group over another. Here I am interested in something somewhat different. The
present question is an empirical one. It is not a question of overall moral superiority, but of specific
practices. For example, it is quite evident that among people living in the US illegally, a disproportionate
number are Latino. Americans prominent in the Mafia are mainly of Sicilian ancestry. The defendants at
the Nuremberg trials were predominantly German. The proportion of illegitimate births is
disproportionately high in the black community. And clearly the slave owners were predominantly white,
as are most white-collar criminals in our time.
Scripture does not dispute the fact that certain kinds of sins abound in certain national groups and result
in the judgment of those nations. The Canaanites worshiped idols, and their culture degenerated into the
worst forms of wickedness. Israel was not better than the Canaanites; but at one point of history, the
iniquity of the Canaanites was judged to be full.
People are often judged as racist for holding such empirical beliefs. Yet ironically, pleas for more border
security are often attacked as “anti-Hispanic,” and cries for stiffer penalties against violent crime are often
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stigmatized as “anti-black.” Some attack the very phrase “law and order” as a “code-word for racism.”
Thus the victim-groups themselves recognize their own disproportionate involvement in some of the
problems of society.
It is time for greater honesty about these matters, even when that honesty requires us to reflect critically
upon ourselves and our own people. Black spokesman Jesse Jackson, in a moment of candor, some
years ago recounted an incident during a walk along city streets: he heard someone approaching from
behind, and he actually felt relieved to discover that the people approaching were white.
It is not wrong to recognize these realities for what they are. We must not use them as excuses for racial
prejudices. It should not be assumed that all Mexican-Americans are here illegally, any more than that all
Italian-Americans are connected with the Mafia. But we should in humility, recognize the sins
characteristic of our own groups and exhort one another to repent of them. It is, of course, easier and
more credible for us to deal with the sins of our own races and nationalities rather than with the sins of
other races and nationalities.
6. Other beliefs sometimes called racist include beliefs about what should be done in response to racial
problems. Some examples:
(a) Belief that racial intermarriage is wrong. The Old Testament, of course, forbade Israelites to marry
people of other nations. But this was a religious, not an ethnic requirement. Israel itself was a “mixed
multitude,” including not only the physical sons of Jacob, but also many Egyptians, Midianites, even
Canaanites such as Rahab. Anyone who confessed the God of Israel (and who, if male, underwent
circumcision) was an acceptable candidate for marriage.
I know of no biblical principle which discourages interracial marriage as such. Surely, people entering
such unions should be prepared to accept the social consequences of their decision without illusion,
though I believe that prejudice against such unions has rather drastically declined in recent years.
(b) Belief that races should be separate. Certainly Scripture does not require the physical separation of
races, or the kind of apartheid once enforced in the Union of South Africa. If no biblical principle excludes
racial intermarriage, then certainly Scripture does not require separation of races.
There are, to be sure, places in the world where antagonism is so intense that separation of ethnic groups
may be the only workable solution for the present. As of this writing, I know of no other solution for the
situation in Bosnia, in Central Africa, in Palestine, or in the areas of Armenia and Azerbaijan. To advocate
racial separation in these areas should not be condemned as racist. But we should never regard such
separation as an end in itself, or a final solution.
Does Scripture place before us the goal of an “integrated society?” Yes, certainly, in the sense of a
society in which love and respect exist between races. Yes, in the sense of the dream of Martin Luther
King, in which people are judged by their character rather than by the color of their skin. But I do not
believe there will ever be, or should be, in this world, a society in which racial differences are abolished,
or in which people do not prefer to associate with people like themselves. That is the subject of section.
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(c) Politically incorrect views, such as opposition to bilingualism, restrictions on welfare and immigration,
etc. These are complicated political and social questions. It should not be assumed that holding such
views amounts to hatred of minorities or even opposition to their best interests.
7. The term racism, as we’ve seen, can be used to designate certain kinds of hatreds and beliefs,
emotions and thoughts. But it also refers to actions, choices. Emotions, thoughts, actions: existential,
normative, situational.
One action frequently called racist is associating with people of one’s own race or nationality, rather than
others. Later we will address more formal kinds of “discrimination.” Here, we will consider our natural
tendency to want to be with people like ourselves. I have called this tendency natural, because I believe
that most all of us have it to some degree. We find it easier to talk to people who share our culture, who
best understand us, who are least likely to become hostile, who are more likely to become good friends.
Those people are more often found among those of similar ethic and cultural background.
Is this tendency sinful? Not generally so, in my opinion. It was God who placed human beings in families,
so that our most intimate associations are generally those with which we are closest genetically. Usually
we turn to our own cultural group to find spouses and close friends. There is a level of mutual
understanding and appreciation within ethnic and culture groups than among them. With your own
people, it is usually easier to let your hair down, to joke, to cry, even to worship. With people very different
from yourself, you often feel that you are “walking on eggs.” You are never quite sure when something
you say or do will be found offensive, so you tend not to intrude too far into the emotional space of the
other group. It is no accident that blacks refer to one another as “soul brothers.” It is not that people
outside one’s ethnic group have no souls, but it sometimes seems like that. The outsiders seem stiff and
formal, or their language of friendship seems incomprehensible. You do what you need to do, and then
you run home to your home base.
It is important to understand that it is this natural human phenomenon, rather than “racism” in the
objectionable senses discussed earlier, which results in much of the informal racial and cultural
segregation in our society. Why is it, for example, that blacks and whites worship in separate churches?
For the most part, I think it is not because white Christians hate black Christians, or vice versa. Nor is it
because they bear continued grudges or believe in the superiority of their own group, though some of
these motives may at times be present. Churches tend to belong predominantly to one race or another,
because worship is one of those times in which it is important to understand one another on an intimate
level. The church is like a family; indeed it is the family of God. Much of its ministry involves
communication; and communication is almost always better within ethnic limits. Blacks and whites tend to
speak different languages in worship, a difference evident in their choice of music and of preaching style.
Much has been said about how Sunday at 11:00 A. M. is the “most segregated hour of the week.” But can
it be doubted that both blacks and whites prefer to worship with people of their own race? Would black
Christians willingly give up their black churches to become, say, 20% minorities within white churches?
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Such “integrated” churches might try hard to include gospel music and black-style preaching occasionally;
but it would never be quite the same.
The phenomenon is not limited to differences between whites and blacks. In the US, there are churches
of people that are predominantly of Dutch ancestry, as well as German, Scandinavian, Korean, Chinese,
Mexican, etc. Each of these ethnic churches is somewhat distinct in style and emphasis. In the general
culture, as immigrants’ families have learned English, these ethnic differences have become less
important. But in the churches they persist, and they persist because many people want to keep them.
But doesn’t the gospel break down racial barriers, bringing people of every kindred, tongue, tribe, and
nation into one great new family? Certainly it broke through the barriers between Jew and Gentile, so that
the uncircumcised could have full fellowship with God in Christ. And surely the various ethnic groups
within the church are to love one another and to accept one another as joint heirs of God’s grace.
On the other hand, there is no suggestion in the New Testament that every house church must have
representation of both Jews and Gentiles. In many localities, such equality would have been unlikely. And
as the church moves throughout the world, congregations are segregated by language differences.
Nothing in Scripture suggests that this is wrong.
I therefore defend “freedom of association” within some limits. I don’t believe that we are obligated to seek
friends of all ethnic groups on an egalitarian basis. Nor do I believe that it is wrong for a church to be 90%
Dutch, or 80% African American, or 95% Anglo. However, I wish to make a couple qualifications:
(a) Evangelism: Church growth literature often advocates the “homogeneous unit principle,” which is that
churches should reach out primarily to people in society who are like themselves, ethnically, culturally,
and economically. This literature points out, as I have pointed out above, that it is much easier to
communicate the gospel within cultural groups than across them. The conclusion, then, is that cross-
cultural evangelism is largely a waste of time, and that the church’s efforts should be more sharply
focused on those with whom they can more effectively communicate.
There is much truth in this principle. Certainly speakers of German can be more effective evangelists
among Germans than non-speakers of the language. If I am incapable of learning German, it would
probably not be wise for me to dedicate my life to the evangelization of the German people. Other cultural
trappings: music, dress, foods, etc., can be seen as extensions of language, used more effectively by
cultural natives.
But we cannot forget that conversion is God’s work, a supernatural event, in which God’s grace can
overcome the inadequacies of our presentation. And Scripture teaches that in our own proclamation the
gospel is to be offered freely, to all. This does not mean that we should be careless about the quality of
our communication. But we need to display God’s love for people of all backgrounds, lest our churches be
confused with ethnic clubs.
For example: an Anglo church may have many Spanish speaking neighbors, but may have few members
able to communicate well with them. I don’t believe that they should barge into the Hispanic
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neighborhoods and bombard them with English gibberish. But they ought to find some way to
demonstrate their love and concern for their salvation. Perhaps they should seek partnership with a
Spanish speaking congregation, providing resources, teaching, and encouragement where needed.
After all has been said in favor of freedom of association, we must recognize that unless some Christians
are willing to press the cultural envelope, to get beyond the comforts of our own community, to take risks
to bring the gospel to other cultures, races, and nations, we will never fulfill Jesus’ Great Commission. I
don’t believe that every Christian is called to cross-cultural witness; but all of us are called to support the
overall ministry of the church. And make no mistake: that ministry is cross-cultural and cross-racial.
(b) Welcome: Churches do not have to seek a certain quota of every ethnic or national group in their
vicinity. But they must welcome everyone.
Some years ago, Christianity Today, whose readership is predominantly white, asked a number of African
American Christians what they most wanted to say to their white brothers and sisters in Christ.
The article intrigued me, because I was not at all sure what they would say. Would they demand greater
proportionate membership and leadership in white churches? Religious “affirmative action?” Would they
demand that white churches endorse Jesse Jackson’s political agenda?
Not at all. What the black Christians seemed most concerned about was lack of welcome from white
churches. One told of how his family moved into a new neighborhood and visited a predominantly white
church. The pastor visited later that week, and made the suggestion that the family “might feel more
comfortable” at a predominantly black church, some distance away. The black Christian took some
offense that the pastor had not welcomed them to the white church and sought their involvement there.
I suspect that the white pastor had the best of intentions. Knowing that, as I have said, people tend to
prefer worship with others like themselves, the pastor probably thought that the black family would prefer
to worship in a black church, and he sought to serve them by giving them information about a black
church in the area.
Nevertheless, his attempt to help was taken as a slight. One may criticize the black Christian for imputing
evil motives to the pastor without justification. On the other hand, history imposes on white Christians the
obligation to be extra-sensitive with blacks on matters of race.
The point here is not to assess blame with any precision, but to underscore to white readers the
importance of welcoming everyone to our churches. Our primary response to anyone coming to our
church should be strongly positive. Yes, it may be that in time black visitors will seek out black churches
and Hispanics will seek out Hispanic churches. We cannot condemn this. But in the meantime they
should know that they have a home with us, a Christian family that really loves them. And if the black
family decides to join our white church, we should be delighted. While Scripture does not require multi-
culturalism or multi-ethnicity in every congregation, we should be joyful when it happens. Because when
the church becomes multi-ethnic (I) it becomes an emblem of God’s worldwide kingdom; (ii) it gives the
church new gifts, the better to reach out to a broader diversity of people.
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And if we can encourage such multi-cultural growth by varying somewhat our language of worship and
style of ministry, we should certainly do so.
8. The next type of action we shall consider is discrimination, that is excluding people from jobs, housing,
or public accommodations because of race. In the discussion earlier, I pointed out that whatever
intellectual or moral disparities there may be among the races should not be held against individuals.
Both Scripture and American legal tradition call us to consider people innocent until proved guilty. There
are also economic considerations, though these are, of course, less weighty: when businesses exclude
people from employment, or even as customers, because of race, they cut themselves off from important
markets, usually to the detriment of their profit.
Non-discrimination, therefore, should be the general rule. But again some qualifications ought to be
made:
(a) Is it wrong to have a family business? To have a business in which all the employees are members of
one household and therefore, most likely, of one ethnic background? What about a business run by a
group of friends, who are all of the same ethnic ancestry? Or are we obligated to conduct a search to fill
each job in which members of all ethnic groups have equal opportunity to be hired? I do not believe that
Scripture requires that level of equality. Nor, certainly, do I believe that government should force all
businesses to be equal opportunity employers in that sense. (And if people want to start a Christian
business, they should not be forced to hire Muslims.)
As I argued above, there is a natural human tendency to associate with people like oneself, and Scripture
never rebukes that tendency in itself. Of course, limiting employees to one’s own family and friends may
be economically disadvantageous: such a policy may prevent you from getting the best employees. But in
some cases that disadvantage may be overcome by other factors, such as a better sense of unity, a
better esprit de corps. To do this is not necessarily to hate those outside one’s group, or to believe they
are inferior. It is simply to prefer association with those most like oneself.
By extension: it is often valuable for people to be educated in schools of one race or one gender. There
has never been any proof that racial or gender diversity is a major positive factor in education. Such
schools are not right for everybody, but it is not apparent to me that it is morally wrong to establish them.
(b) What of a cab driver who is asked to take a passenger into a dangerous part of a city, in which there
has been a rash of cab robberies involving murders of drivers? Let us say that the driver is white and the
dangerous part of town is predominantly black. If he refuses to go there, is he guilty of racism? Or is he
merely making a rational judgment, protecting his own safety?
We can see how the presence of sin in our world complicates moral decisions. In this case, the driver is
not discriminating against blacks as such. He is discriminating against some people, who may, to be sure,
be innocent, because of the additional factor of likely violence. Jesse Jackson’s comments cited earlier
are to the same effect: in some situations our normal human fear of violence may have a racial context.
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There are reasons why we should sometimes take the risk of entering a dangerous situation, as in
carrying out the Great Commission; but I don’t believe that we are always obligated to do so. Certainly the
goal of providing equal cab service to all parts of the city is desirable; but drivers should not be expected
to risk their lives in order to bring that about. If the lack of service inconveniences people of certain
neighborhoods, that should motivate them to seek better law enforcement and to cooperate more fully
with police and civic leaders.
Fear is not always a bad thing. But we need frequently to take stock of our fears to assess their
rationality. It would be wrong to use the above kind of example to justify a general policy of racial
discrimination, even though much such discrimination may be motivated by an analogous kind of fear. We
should support law enforcement to eliminate the justifications of such fears. Where doubt remains, we
should stretch ourselves as much as possible, by God’s grace, to give others the benefit of that doubt.
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SESSION 3
Explain how discrimination and prejudices are experienced by all South African as part of
daily life.
Learning Outcomes
 An outline is prepared of the legislation under which persons of different races and circumstance
were forced to live in South Africa during the "Apartheid years".
 A presentation is made of the effect of Apartheid on the economic and social life of South Africans
with examples.
 The societal and organisational factors impacting on different groups of South Africans as a result of
prejudice are explained in writing with examples.
 An audit is done of policies and practices in a selected company that reflect institutionalised societal
phenomena.
The legislation under which persons of different races and circumstance were forced to live in
South Africa during the "apartheid years.
In terms of the Population Registration Act of 1950, all South Africans were classified for legal
purposes according to the racial categories of white, black, and colored, with the Indian population group
constituting a distinct section within the colored community. The racist laws of apartheid South Africa
never attempted to define race as such and applied different criteria so as to be able to allocate racial
classifications to all its citizens. Being "white" depended on a person's appearance and general
acceptance by other members of the white community, whereas being Native/Bantu/black/African
depended on a person's belonging to an aboriginal race or tribe of Africa. A "colored person" was defined
as someone who was neither white nor black. It is perhaps interesting to note that although Chinese
persons were classified as colored, Japanese persons were classified as white.
Based on this classification, apartheid was particularly noted for the totalitarian interference of the state in
the private sphere of peoples' day-to-day lives. In apartheid South Africa, the state prescribed, with race
as the prime criterion, whom one could marry, where one could reside and own property, what schools
and universities one would be allowed to attend, and which jobs were reserved for one. The state dictated
to sports clubs whom they could admit as members, and against whom they were permitted to compete.
The sick had to be conveyed in racially exclusive ambulances, could receive blood transfusions only from
donors of their own racial groups, and could qualify for treatment only in racially defined hospitals. The
state even regulated, with race as the prime criterion, who would be allowed to attend church services in
some regions, and where one could be buried.
The implementation of segregation in pre-1994 South Africa was designed to secure the political
dominance and the economic and social privileges of the white population group. When the Union of
South Africa was established in 1910, political rights in the provinces of Natal, the Orange Free State, and
Transvaal were almost exclusively confined to whites. Indians had been disfranchised by the British
colonial authorities of Natal in 1896, but those who at that time were already registered voters retained
their right to vote for life. When the 1948 elections were held, only two Indians were still on the voter rolls.
In the Cape of Good Hope, Africans and coloreds had (qualified) franchise rights, and those rights were
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afforded entrenched protection in the Constitution of the Union of South Africa; however, Cape of Good
Hope African voters were disfranchised by the legislature under United Party rule in 1936, and Cape
coloreds were deprived of their voting rights by the legislature under National Party rule in 1956. The
South African Constitution of 1983 reinstated political rights for coloreds and Indians, but did so on a
racist basis. It created segregated legislative chambers for the colored and Indian population groups,
elected by the colored and Indian voters (respectively). The constitution was carefully crafted to afford
dominance to the white chamber of Parliament in all matters, including those over which the coloreds and
Indians supposedly had primary jurisdiction. Because of the constitution's racist design and the political
dominance of whites it upheld, only small percentages of the colored and Indian communities exercised
their newly acquired political rights.
As prescribed by the Bantu Land Act of 1913 and the Bantu Trust and Land Act of 1936, portions of
South Africa were demarcated for exclusive occupation by Africans. Although the African communities
comprised approximately 80 percent of the South African population, the land allocated for their
occupation constituted no more than 13 percent of the territory comprising the South African state. In
1951 the South African government appointed a commission instructed by the governor-general "to
conduct an exhaustive enquiry into and report on a comprehensive scheme for the rehabilitation of the
Native Areas with a view to developing within them a social structure in keeping with the culture of the
Native, and based on effective socioeconomic planning." The commission, chaired by Frederick
Tomlinson, professor of Agricultural Economy at the University of Pretoria, submitted its report to
Parliament in 1954. It among other things calculated the costs of extending the African homelands and of
creating economic incentives that might prompt Africans to remain in, return to, or settle in their respective
ethnic homelands. The government rejected those recommendations as being too costly and instead
embarked on a policy of separating the races by means of legal coercion. H. F. Verwoerd (1901966),
commonly regarded as the architect of apartheid, transformed the Tomlinson recommendations into a
policy that promoted the political "independence" of the black homelands, demarcated on an ethnic (tribal)
basis. In due course eight black self-governing territories were proclaimed: Bophuthatswana, Ciskei,
Lebowa, Transkei, Venda, Gazankulu, Qwaqwa, and kwaZulu. Four opted for independence: Transkei in
1976, Bophuthatswana in 1977, Venda in 1979, and Ciskei in 1981. In the UN, South Africa claimed that
the policy of separate development was congruent with the right of its population groups to self-
determination as proclaimed in international law. Not so, responded the UN: The right to self-
determination presupposes participation of the people in the legislative and executive structures of the
state that determine their fate, whereas the independence of the black homelands was imposed on the
peoples of those territories without their consent. Further, the black homelands were never accepted as
independent political entities by the international community of states.
The movement of Africans to and within the main employment centers of the country was regulated by the
Blacks (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act of 1945. Africans required special permission to enter and to
remain within an urban area and had to carry a reference book at all times that would indicate their right
to be at a particular place within the countryhe so-called dom pass (dommeaning stupid). As part of the
Group Areas Act of 1966 (which consolidated earlier similar legislation), separate residential areas were
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designated for occupation by whites, Africans, coloreds, and Indians within the towns and cities of the
country.
The South African exploitation of the African population group, and to a lesser extent the Indian and
colored communities, was carried out in such a way as to preserve the privileged political, economic, and
social status of white South Africans in a racially defined elitist oligarchy. Educational facilities, residential
areas, and job opportunities reserved for persons of color were considerably inferior to those at the
disposal of the dominant white community in quality and in degree of availability. The group areas
reserved for occupation by members of a particular population groups other than whites were almost
invariably far removed from the business districts and employment centers, and the residential areas
reserved for Africans and coloreds were conspicuously inferior, as far as locality, infrastructure, and
aesthetic appeal were concerned. When Verwoerd, Minister of Bantu Affairs at the time, introduced in
Parliament the Bantu Education Act of 1953, he sought to justify the inferior education of blacks by
invoking the system of job reservation imposed on the black community as part of the apartheid system:
The effect of Apartheid on the economic and social life of South Africans
Apartheid, in all its manifestations, impinged on every aspect of the daily lives of African South Africans.
Racial segregation, job reservation, restrictions on mobility, and the provision of inferior education and
health care were just some of the more obvious aspects of that system.
However, recent histories have argued persuasively that apartheid was not a singular, coherent and
hegemonic ideology, but an amalgam of policies forged out of conflict and compromise within the white
ruling classes. Consequently, serious internal contradictions existed between different policy arenas.
In groups discuss and make a presentation of the effect of Apartheid on the

economic and social life of South Africans with examples.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____
The societal and organisational factors impacting on different groups of South Africans as a
result of prejudice.
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Hierarchy of Prejudice
Because the concept of hate crime is so new to South Africa and race politics remain particularly volatile,
it is difficult to assess whether racial hate crime will be more or less contested than other forms of
classified prejudice. This is an important research question, which needs future exploration.
South African prejudice hierarchies

A South African 'prejudice configuration' will not necessarily evolve in the same way as international
trends. This is because the concept of hate crime in South Africa has not had to unfold and adapt to
'newer' forms of prejudice over time. Instead, the notion can be imported wholesale as a category
comprised of both older and newer manifestations of prejudice. On the one hand, this suggests the
possibility for a 'prejudice flat line', as opposed to the 'prejudice hierarchy' that has evolved internationally,
i.e. a typology system where all forms of prejudice are afforded 'equal' status.
On the other hand, given South Africa's particularly racialised past, it could result in an inversion of the
international norm where racially motivated prejudice is highly contested as a concept within the society,
whereas other forms of prejudice may not receive as much attention (just because they are rendered
invisible, does not mean that they are accepted, though). Another possibility is that awareness about
South Africa's apartheid history and the wrongs of the past could result in people being more, rather than
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less, willing to recognise race-based violence (Valji, editing comments, 2003a). In this case, the South
African trend might reflect the international norm.
International norm/one possibility for South Africa
Posssible South African response
Or else, all forms of prejudice could merely be received at higher, lower or similar levels of
debate/contestation as their international counterparts. These are important points for comparison within
the international context and they need to be investigated.
The complexity of prejudice threatens to render any classification systems of hate crime too restrictive
and narrow in defining, and thereby addressing, victims. It runs the risk of 'leaving victims out'. At the
same time, however, this very complexity and the expansive quality of hatred also threaten to create a
'catch-all' category for accommodating anyone who does not fit into other legal categories. Too much
definitional flexibility could undermine the political utility of, and social message against, crimes of
prejudice if the category is so big as to become meaningless. It could also detract from understanding the
dynamics, causes and characteristics specific to particular manifestations of prejudice. As Bjorgo & Witte
(1994) suggest, '[o]ne difficulty with the concept of hate crime is that it tends to widen the scope so much
that the specific features of racist violence may get neglected' (Bjorgo & Witte, 1994, p.15). Practically,
this could impact on the development of intervention and prevention programmes if they are solely
designed around the unspecific notion of prejudice. The challenge, therefore, is to find a balance – from
research, legal and intervention perspectives - between the qualities of specific forms of hate crime and
the more generic category of prejudice.
The historically expansive nature of the category hate crime raises the key questions:
 Who constitutes a victim, and
 How is victim-status determined?
These questions suggest that hate crime is a political concept that cannot be divorced from the socio-
political climate in which it emerges and is sustained. In the South African context, the changing legal and
political nature of prejudice is particularly noticeable over the period of transition from apartheid to
democracy. This is not only at a level of racial politics and identity. As Gear (in personal communication)
observes, some of those who were designated 'criminals' in the past, for example through the category of
homosexuality, are today potential 'victims' of prejudice. Through this legal shift from criminal to victim,
particular social groupings are currently afforded specific constitutional protection.
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While the (internationally-defined) category of hate crime has expanded to accommodate new victims
over time, there has been little interrogation of experiences within and between the different victim-
categories. Instead, hate crime victims are represented monolithically, as a uniform group, at least within
the law. Moody (2000) terms this a 'problem of assumed symmetry' between victims of hatred (p.4). She
suggests that it emerges from an assumption that prejudice is experienced equally and in a qualitatively
similar way between victims from different victim-groupings. Focusing on racially motivated hate crime,
she notes that 'there is an assumption of symmetry between the experience of different racial groupings
who suffer racist crime' (p.4). For her, this assumption is faulty:
Yet we all know that racist crime committed [in the United Kingdom] against black and ethnic minority
victims by whites causes more pain, is more damaging to the health of their communities and is more
likely to undermine social harmony on a national scale than when the victim is white.
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SESSION 4
Actively promote a culture of equality between people of different races, classes, sexual
preference and gender
Learning Outcomes
 An analysis is presented in writing of the key elements of equality.
 A presentation is made of how equality is dealt with in organization.
 Recommendations of how equality can be achieved in an organisation are developed and presented
to management.
Equality is about ‘creating a fairer society, where everyone can participate and has the opportunity to
fulfill their potential’. By eliminating prejudice and discrimination, the NHS can deliver services that are
personal, fair and diverse and a society that is healthier and happier. For the NHS, this means making it
more accountable to the patients it serves and tackling discrimination in the work place.
For example, occupational segregation. Women make up almost 75% of the NHS workforce but
are concentrated in the lower-paid occupational areas: nursing, allied health professionals (AHPs),
administrative workers and ancillary workers (DH, 2005). People from black and minority ethnic
groups comprise 39.1% of hospital medical staff yet they comprise only 22.1% of all hospital
medical consultants (DH, 2005).
In relation to patient care, research published in the British Medical Journal (2008) has shown that people
aged 50 and over, but especially the old and frail, are not receiving basic standards of healthcare. Experts
found shortfalls in the quality of care offered by the NHS and private providers to patients with conditions
such as osteoarthritis, incontinence and osteoporosis.
Imagine a World of Total Equality.....

Imagine what the world would be like if there was total equality and everyone felt comfortable with
precisely what they had. The theme of some of the most important documents in world history, equality, is
an issue that can baffle even the most intelligent and peace seeking people. In the article “Equality, Moral
and Social” author, Stanley I. Benn quotes Thomas Jefferson by saying “all men are created equal”
(Benn). Since its birth during the construction of the Declaration of Independence this phrase has came to
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be known as the immortal declaration. By quoting Jefferson in this way Benn allows his readers,
especially those less analytical ones, to open their minds to what equality has came to be in our modern
era and also allows readers to question themselves about their state of equality whether it be socially or
morally based.
My Point on Equality
Benn starts his article with a very simple yet effective analogy that saying that A and B may be correct but
it is incorrect to inappropriately assume this without first comparing the objects and persons that are being
deemed as equal (Benn). Benn then continues his use of analogies by saying that in mathematics two
objects might be equal in some regards or variables but they differ greatly in others. Since the phrase “all
men are created equal” was coined we have been trying to establish equality in every relevant aspect of
our lives. Some of the most controversial equality fields have been race, gender, and age. It is easy to
see that by using these analogies Benn is trying to touch on the readers logos by using these simple yet
very effective analogies. By touching on the logos, or logical, side of things Benn gives his readers the
opportunity to easily outline his article and know that he isn't simply going to argue that equality is difficult
to accomplish but that we have to understand the different elements of equality.
The first aspect of equality that Benn talks about in his article is the history and evolution of equality. He
gives several examples using famous figures such as Aristotle and Plato. He explains that Plato preached
the equality of sexes in society and that Aristotle emphasized the freedom of all citizens. Although
Aristotle claimed the freedom of all citizens Benn does a great job at explaining that Aristotle still believed
that some men were simply slaves by nature (Benn). The next point that he details in his article deals with
those readers who are familiar with the Bible and its religious teachings. Benn compares a quote from the
book of Galatians, “Ye are all one in Christ Jesus” to the Augustinian doctrine of election that states that
men are equal only if they are sin free based on the select few that God extended his mercy to. By
showing the religious aspect of equality Benn allows readers to see that equality is even something that is
necessary on an eternal or godly scale.
The second element that Been focuses on is how society has viewed equality since as early as the
seventeenth century. He explains Colonel Rainborough's quote, “the poorest he that is in England hath a
life to live as the greatest he” (Benn). The use of this quote adds credibility to the article and helps
viewers understand that equality is something that has been expressed early on regardless of the fact
that a country like England who was so strict about its hierarchy. By explaining the history of equality
Benn shows clearly that some elements of our lives and laws must develop with time and experience.
“The notion of universal equality as an ideal is difficult to pin down” (Benn). This quote is a perfect
example of Benn's position on equality. During the article Benn points uses the term egalitarians which
means people that believe that all humans are equal in fundamental and social forms. He explains that
many egalitarians have argued that regardless of someone's social status they still possess the virtue that
allows them to stand equal to those who may possess more physical benefits. In regards to the physical
benefits Benn explains that what someone has is not the determining factor in what determines if
something is equal.
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Benn's most powerful point in the article is that equality can only be determined if the factors or variables
are the same in some relevant form. Going back to Benn's first paragraph it is clear to see that his entire
point on equality has to come down to making sure that we are basing our ideas on areas of equality that
can be broken down to show that there is some similar factor. A good example of this is the presidential
candidates because even though two candidates are from the same party it does not mean that they are
equal. It can be equally shown that they are equal in the sense that they are both arguing for either the
Democratic or Republican parties. The reason that Benn goes into great detail about the variables of
equality is because there is not a way to completely deal with equality without having a specific class that
each type of equality can be assigned to.
Near the end of the article Benn says “Equality very rarely means treating everyone alike, usually it
means getting rid of one system of distinctions and replacing it with another” (Benn). A great example of
Benn's point is shown in the field of education. If a student is very intelligent then it is only right to give
him/her what they can handle because as humans we are always striving to be better. On the contrary it
is only right that a less capable student is given the opportunity to participate in a class that more
specifically caters to his/her needs. The focus here is not that the less capable student cannot participate
in the higher level class but that each student has equal rights in regards to getting an education that
suites them. Benn also does an excellent job at exploring the monetary side of things as well when he
mentions the ability for students to pay for their education. The United States in specific have made it a
priority to offer education equally to those who can and cannot afford the full costs. Scholarships are
another way that students have been given an equal opportunity based on their motivation and drive to
make it to the college of their choice.
Through Plato, Aristotle, Colonel Rainborough, The Bible, and those very driven egalitarians Benn has
been able to effectively show, like was mentioned earlier, that equality is based upon common terms. He
shows throughout his article that equality is necessary in order for a society to thrive but that if equality is
taken too far then it can essentially harm the society. If a society tries too hard to make everything equal
then it would require that each citizen got the same amount of money, physical benefits, medicinal
necessities, and many other things that define today's ideas of equality. If this were to happen then those
that excel in higher opportunity situations would argue against equality for the reason that they worked
hard to get where they are at just to have it revoked because of pure equality.
While Benn only had a limited number of pages to explain his ideas of equality and why it is so important
that we understand it he does a very good job at showing his readers the different sides of equality. He
paraphrases a quote by Sandford A. Lakoff by saying “The greater the equality of consideration, the
greater the differentiation in treatment” (Benn). The way that Benn suggests that we deal with equality is
by making sure that the community is doing everything in its power to eliminate differentiation in
treatment.
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SESSION 5
List the solutions that may be available for people to overcome problems experienced
with group identity, stereotyping, discrimination, exclusion and other cultural differences.
Learning Outcomes
 Trends are identified and documented in an organization are identified and documented in a written
report with respect to issues relating to discrimination, equity and diversity.
 Possible solutions to problems resulting from prejudice in an organization are devised and presented
to management in a written report.
What is equality and diversity?

Although sometimes used interchangeably, the terms ‘equality’ and ‘diversity’ are not the same.
Equality is about ‘creating a fairer society, where everyone can participate and has the opportunity to
fulfill their potential’. By eliminating prejudice and discrimination, the NHS can deliver services that are
personal, fair and diverse and a society that is healthier and happier. For the NHS, this means making it
more accountable to the patients it serves and tackling discrimination in the work place.
For example, occupational segregation. Women make up almost 75% of the NHS workforce but
are concentrated in the lower-paid occupational areas: nursing, allied health professionals (AHPs),
administrative workers and ancillary workers (DH, 2005). People from black and minority ethnic
groups comprise 39.1% of hospital medical staff yet they comprise only 22.1% of all hospital
medical consultants (DH, 2005).
In relation to patient care, research published in the British Medical Journal (2008) has shown that people
aged 50 and over, but especially the old and frail, are not receiving basic standards of healthcare. Experts
found shortfalls in the quality of care offered by the NHS and private providers to patients with conditions
such as osteoarthritis, incontinence and osteoporosis.
An equalities approach understands that who we are, based on social categories such as gender, race,
disability, age, social class, sexuality and religion – will impact on our life experiences.
Diversity literally means difference. When it is used as a contrast or addition to equality, it is about
recognising individual as well as group differences, treating people as individuals, and placing positive
value on diversity in the community and in the workforce.
Historically, employers and services have ignored certain differences such as background, personality
and work style However, individual and group diversity needs to be considered in order to ensure that
everybody‘s needs and requirements are understood and responded to within employment practice and
service design and delivery.
One way in which organisations have responded to the issue of diversity in recent years has been the
development of flexibility in working practices and services. For example, an employer may allow an
employee to work a flexible working pattern to accommodate child care arrangements, or a GP surgery
may offer surgeries at the weekends to accommodate those who work full time during the week.
These approaches recognise that in order to provide accessible services and to ensure we promote
inclusive working environments organisations may need to respond differently to both individuals and to
groups.
A holistic approach means making a commitment to equality through the recognition of diversity.
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Why is equality and diversity important?
Equality and diversity is becoming more important in all aspects of our lives and work for a number of
reasons:
 We live in an increasingly diverse society and need to be able to respond appropriately and
sensitively to this diversity. Learners in the healthcare setting will reflect this diversity around
gender, race and ethnicity, disability, religion, sexuality, class and age.
 Your organisation believes that successful implementation of equality and diversity in all aspects
of work ensures that colleagues, staff and students are valued, motivated and treated fairly.
 We have an equality and human rights legal framework covering employment practices and
service delivery and qe need to ensure we work within this and avoid discrimination.
Discrimination
Discrimination is treating someone unfairly because they belong to a particular group of people.
Discrimination is unlawful, it undermines relationships, diminishes the experience of university life, and
won’t be tolerated at UTS. All campus participants have a responsibility to contribute to the achievement
of a productive, safe and equitable study and work environment by avoiding practices that lead to,
support or condone discrimination.
Other organisations are committed to eliminating discrimination on the basis of:
 sex
 race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, ethno-religious background
 marital status
 pregnancy or potential pregnancy
 family and carer responsibilities
 disability (includes physical, intellectual, psychiatric, sensory, neurological or learning disabilities,
and illnesses such as HIV/AIDS)
 homosexuality
 transgender status
 age
 political conviction
 religious belief
It is not discriminatory to dislike someone who is different to you. However, it would be discriminatory if,
because of that difference, you treated the person unfairly or expressed your dislike. By recognising the
distinction between how you feel and how you behave, you can avoid acting in ways that are
discriminatory.
While many of us unwittingly use discriminatory language at times, it is important to recognise how
language is used to discriminate so we can make any needed adjustments to our speech.
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Analyse the role that emotional
intelligence plays in leadership
LEANING UNIT5

CREDITS : 8
This Unit Standard will be useful to learners who are working within the Public Sector, Local
PURPOSE Government, commercial or community environment. It will enable learners to apply knowledge, skills
:
and insight in leadership as part of their job. This standard will also add value to public officials
involved in integrated development planning, public sector management or administration specialities.
 Explain the concept of emotional intelligence and how this impacts on leadership.
 Analysing the relationship between emotional intelligence and self-awareness in relation to
leadership.
 Analysing the relationship between emotional intelligence and self-management in relation to
leadership.
 Analysing the relationship between emotional intelligence and social awareness in relation to
leadership.
 Applying techniques for responding to situations in an emotionally intelligent manner.
It is assumed that learners are competent in Communication at NQF Level 4.
SESSION 1
Explain the role of emotional intelligence and how it impacts on leadership.
Learning Outcomes
 The concept of emotional intelligence is explained with examples.
 The role and concept of self-esteem is analysed in terms of its relationship to emotional intelligence.
 The concepts and roles of self-confidence and assertiveness is analysed in relation to leadership.
 The role of emotional intelligence is discussed in terms of its impact on leadership.
 The concept locus of control is explained in relation to its impact on leadership.
 Attitudes are analysed in relation to responses in various leadership situations.
Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a skill or ability in the case of the trait EI model, a
self-perceived ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of
others, and of groups. Various models and definitions have been proposed of
which the ability and trait EI models are the most widely accepted in the
scientific literature. Criticisms have centered on whether the construct is a real
intelligence and whether it has incremental validity over IQ and the Big Five
personality dimensions.
The
Importance or role of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is sometimes described as more important than IQ, since EQ helps us to
understand our life, our values better. Psychologists have established through various tests and scientific
evaluations that having better Emotional Intelligence is a must for making healthy choices in every
aspects of life.
Emotional Intelligence, or EQ for short, is a group of traits or abilities which relate to the emotional sides
of life.
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There are five components of EQ:
1. Knowing our own emotions: Emotions are termed as powerful reactions. It means to say that
everyone should be aware of his emotions. However, this is not the case. It has been proved that
some are highly aware of their emotional side of life, and others are perfectly oblivious to their
emotions. It has some serious implications for day-to-day life. If one is not aware of his emotions
how can one make a judgment like whom to marry, whom to date with, or which car to buy.
Second, it has been observed that when one is not has any inkling about one’s emotions then
they are found to be low in expressiveness. Expressiveness means showing your expressions
through facial expressions, body language, and other gestures. Lack of expressiveness hurts in
terms of interpersonal relationships since, other people will find it tough to decipher the inner
world of that person. Hence, being aware of one’s emotions is a must.
2. Managing your own emotions: In day-to-day life, often we try to manage our emotions. It is like
regulating the nature, intensity and expression of concerned emotions. For example, if we don’t
get expected grade in the examination, we try to remain calm before our parents, nevertheless,
the emotions running behind our face is not good. Managing emotions is very much important for
your mental health and for keeping your interaction with others efficient.
3. Motivating ourselves: To get something special in our life, one thing that matters most is self
motivation. Motivating oneself to work hard and be on right direction is one of the main aspects of
Emotional Intelligence. Being high in this can give surprising results for any individual.
4. Recognizing and influencing others’ emotions: This relates to the ability to understand others
exactly. It is to recognize their mood and the emotions that they had at any point of time. As life
experience says, this ability is very much valuable in practical settings. For example,
understanding others’ mood and emotions exactly can say us whether it is the right time or not to
ask for a favor.
5. Handling relationship: Handling relationship is the most important point of strong interpersonal
relationship. We have seen many people who handle relationship very well and in the process
become successful. On the other hand, some people make a total mess of their interpersonal
relationship. This is the basic difference between having good EQ and not. A person with high EQ
will always handle relationship in optimum way.
Role in leadership
Empathy.
Whilst this needs no scientific explanation, its role in effective management probably needs clarification.
After all, few bosses get praised or rewarded for empathy; it seems a bit out of place in the harsh realities
of the business world. To be sure, it’s not empathy in the traditional sense (“I feel your pain”). Goleman
explains it as regarding employees feelings as an input in the decision making process. Yes that’s right,
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feelings! It’s not the attempt to keep everyone happy but rather an attempt at fairness, particularly
important in a merger or acquisition process where the least employees can hope for is to be treated fairly
and kept informed throughout. Empathy is peering at the world through someone else’s eyes. This often
requires a bit of deductive skill as, especially in Asia, feelings don’t often make it on to the agenda in
strategy sessions.
At the very least empathy is an acknowledgement of how others feel or will feel by a change or challenge,
this wins respect and loyalty in a time of few certainties.
The ability to empathize is especially important in team based activities where politics and personal
agendas are all at play. A strong leader must be able to recognize and acknowledge the various personal
drivers at play in a team dynamic in order to deal with them effectively, or even harness them and move
forward.
In more recent research (HBR Sept 20081) in the field of social neuroscience the role of empathy in the
making of a good leader was further re-enforced. The most fundamental discovery in behavioral
neuroscience of late is that of mirror neurons which act as a neural Wi-Fi that connects us into the
collective subconscious of those around us. These neurons, spread throughout our brain, can actively
reproduce emotions that we consciously or unconsciously detect in others. This immediately creates a
shared or vicarious social experience.
Social Skills
This is the culmination of the other aspects of EI. Its effects are well recognized and well praised. Socially
skilled managers are able to lead teams effectively, influence individuals and build network contacts
beyond their immediate peers. What is often seen as unproductive socializing in the workplace can often
bear fruitful results in unexpected ways at unexpected times. It’s intuitive that leaders need to manage
relationships effectively and finely tuned social skills allow them to put the other aspects of EI to work.
Emotional Intelligence has become a vital part of how today's leaders meet the significant challenges they
face. Emotional Intelligence can help leaders in an ever more difficult leadership role, one that fewer and
fewer people seem capable of fulfilling. And in the middle of the "Talent War", especially at the highest
levels in organizations, emotional intelligence can give developing leaders a competitive edge.
Why Emotional Intelligence Is Needed In Leadership

Emotional Intelligence does not fit the classic historical models of leadership. The latter are usually
associated with great figures of military history and conjure up charismatic and sometimes despotic
images. However, people often use the same language for leadership today - bold, brave and tough with
a strong sense of purpose and resolve. However, this does not fit today's needs, because:
 Today’s workforce does not accept the autocratic style often adopted by leaders following
historical models of leadership.
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 Leadership has had to evolve to match a growing sense of democracy and independence in the
workforce
 Employees now have far more options and choices than the foot soldiers of yesterday
How to Use Emotional Intelligence in Developing Leadership
There are now a number of models and questionnaires aimed at measuring Emotional Intelligence, often
based on self-report questionnaires. However, this approach has obvious limitations in identifying levels
of self-awareness - how can you be aware of what you are not aware of!
So, whilst questionnaires can play a part, better approaches also involve:
 Experiential exercises
 360 feedback processes. These provide much more effective and comprehensive ways of
identifying possible strengths and weaknesses in Emotional Intelligence terms. When the self-
assessment and 360 is undertaken online, and results processed by someone independent, it
assures confidentiality to the extent that achieves a much higher level of honesty in the feedback
and assessment. This approach challenges complacency and can enable people to grow and
develop.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a term in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own
worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent", "I am worthy") and emotions
such as triumph, despair, pride and shame[citation needed]: some would distinguish how 'the self-concept
is what we think about the self; self-esteem, the positive or negative evaluation of the self, is how we feel
about it'.
Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe I am a good writer
and I feel happy about that") or have global extent (for example, "I believe I am a bad person, and feel
bad about myself in general"). Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality
characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist.
Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth, self-regard, self-respect, and self-

integrity. According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, "self-love" is "the
instinct or desire to promote one's well-being"; while La Rochefoucauld considered 'that amour-propre
(self-regard) is the mainspring of all human activities'.
Positive self esteem

People with a healthy level of self-esteem:
 Firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding
opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.
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 Are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgment,
and not feeling guilty when others don't like their choice.
 Do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could
happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present
intensely.
 Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask
others for help when they need it.
 Consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting
differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.
 Take for granted that they are an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those
with whom they have a friendship.
 Resist manipulation; collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.
 Admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those
drives to others only when they choose.
 Are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.
 Are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim
no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.
Importance
Abraham Maslow states that no psychological health is possible unless the essential core of the person is
fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by her or his self. Self-esteem allows people
to face life with more confidence, benevolence and optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and self-
actualize. It allows oneself to be more ambitious, but not with respect to possessions or success, but with
respect to what one can experience emotionally, creatively and spiritually. To develop self-esteem is to
widen the capacity to be happy; self-esteem allows people to be convinced they deserve happiness.
Understanding this is fundamental, and universally beneficial, since the development of positive self-
esteem increases the capacity to treat other people with respect, benevolence and goodwill, thus favoring
rich interpersonal relationships and avoiding destructive ones. For Erich Fromm, love of others and love
of ourselves are not alternatives. On the contrary, an attitude of love toward themselves will be found in
all those who are capable of loving others.
Self-esteem allows creativity at the workplace, and is a specially critical condition for teaching
professions.
José-Vicente Bonet reminds us that the importance of self-esteem is obvious when one realizes that the
opposite of it is not the esteem of others, but self-rejection, a characteristic of that state of great
unhappiness that we call “depression”. As Freud put it, the depressive has suffered 'an extraordinary
diminution in his self-regard, an impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale....He has lost his self-
respect'.
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The Yogyakarta Principles, a document on international human rights law addresses the discriminatory
attitude toward LGBT peoples that makes their self-esteem low to be subject to human rights violation
including human trafficking.and World Health Organization recommends in "Preventing Suicide" published
in 2000 that strengthening students' self-esteem is important to protect children and adolescents against
mental distress and despondency, enabling them to cope adequately with difficult and stressful life
situations.
Self-esteem & Emotional Intelligence

The new, revolutionary approach to developing high self-esteem and understanding and managing your
emotions
Emotions
Everything starts with emotions. Every thought, every choice, every decision and every action we take is
motivated by emotions. The quality of our lives is dependent upon our emotions. Regardless of how little
or how much we have materially our emotions determine how much enjoyment and satisfaction we
experience.
For many of us emotions are things that happen to us; they are mysterious and out of our control. And
then there is emotional intelligence. Some people have what we might call high emotional intelligence.
They are able to deal with unpleasant emotions very quickly turning negatives into positives. These
people would also rather make choices and decisions while in resourceful states of mind, so they have
strategies – whether they are consciously aware of them or not – that they use to generate pleasant and
resourceful emotions. Where many people are convinced that they are at the mercy of their emotional
habits like anger, depression, jealousy and low self-esteem, to name a few, those people with high
emotional intelligence have learned to both treat their emotions as allies and change them when
necessary to enjoy life more of the time. These strategies can be learned and applied in our own lives.
If you have had enough of being at the mercy of unpleasant and un-resourceful emotions you are ready to
develop your emotional intelligence for greater success, better relationships and a lot more enjoyment
and fun.
By Developing Emotional Intelligence (DEI) you can;
 respond to the messages in emotions; what they are telling you about a situation or something
you are thinking about
 reduce the time you experience unpleasant or unresourceful emotions by motivating yourself to
move quickly towards pleasant or resourceful emotions
 choose the emotions you want appropriate to situations
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 prepare for future situations with resourceful states of mind/emotions - examples include; public
speaking, work, relating to children and teenagers, sports, learning contexts, and crucial decision
making in business and personal matters
Developing Emotional Intelligence can also help with the following emotional habits:
Laziness
 Disinterest in learningShyness
 Hopelessness
 Depression
 Fear
 Anxiety
 Guilt
 Loneliness
 Low self-esteem
 Eating disorders – obesity, bulimia, anorexia…
 Problems with body image
 Bullying – being bullied
Staying in less than satisfying or even abusive relationships

Anger, hostility and violence
Alcohol and drug dependence
Thoughts of suicide
Emotional Intelligence is the key to improving the ways you relate to your family, friends, business and
work associates and other significant people in your life.Emotional Intelligence is also an important part of
physical health and wellbeing, and could playa vital role in increasing longevity. Emotional Intelligence
can enhance learning, creativity and productivity. Emotional Intelligence is essential for choosing personal
goals and then working towards them. Emotional Intelligence is essential for the development of high self-
esteem. And yes, you can Develop Emotional Intelligence… by changing old emotional habits.
Self Confidence for Good Leadership Skills

Leaders have many qualities that they employ, not least of all is self-confidence, while using their natural
instincts to achieve. Leaders often think logically throughout their learning and teaching process. However
true commanders realize that logic does not always make sense. For instance, logic to leaders is
understood as a science, which deals with principals, criteria, and validation of the inferences of reasons
and demonstrations. Thus, a leader is aware that many scientists using logic made serious mistakes
down through history. Therefore, logic to a true leader is having the self-confidence for finding, uncovering
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and verifying the facts for themselves, and as the leader hunts the facts he or she will not express these
facts to others until he proves beyond doubt that a fact exists.
Leaders are complex individuals, yet easily understood. The problem is most people want to belittle
pathfinders, since they fail to understand them. Leaders to some people are like the old prejudice thinking
patterns, i.e. the person is an outcast. This is something a leader does not tolerate or will adhere to the
belief. In other words, a true leader moves all prejudices out of his way. This provides a clear mind.
 Leaders give credit to others rather than take credit for self often. In other words, a leader will
attribute his efforts to other people. One example is seen when we see a mother giving credit to
her husband for a good deed she has completed.
 Leaders show self-confidence and open-mindedness. This makes a leader self-reliant, trustful,
full of convictions, clear minded, confiding, certain, assured and cocksure. This shows proof of
instinct usage, since the leader is self-confident in his ability and powers within. It also shows that
a person is fully developed and has connection with inner self.
 The world has many types of front-runners. Some of the chiefs include true leaders, floor leaders,
leaders of oppositions, loss leaders, majority leaders, minority leaders, squadron leaders, world
leaders and so forth.
 Trail-blazers include conductors, military leaders, world leaders and the like. While a floor leader
is less developed that full leaders, the floor leaders delegate for the world chiefs and the like. An
example of a floor leader is considered in members of legislative bodies, which are chosen by
organization members. The chiefs at the top delegate the floor leaders to handle many tasks
while overseeing the floor leaders.
 The bigwigs of opposition, for example our British Legislatives body given a specific status in
salary, governments, and official titles, often use their self-confidence to play vital parts in
organizing the house and business.
 The term "Loss leaders" is confusing, since this is not a person leading, rather a loss leader is a
product sold as loss to attract customers. In other words, this is a leader strategy to enhance
business.
 The US Senate is an example of the majority pace-makers; likewise, a minority leader legislates
over the minority. An example of a squadron leader is seen in the British air force where the
leader ranks jointly with majors. The leader is a commissioned party.
 While there are many types of chiefs, not all chiefs are true leaders. Some magnates defy their
instincts and use wrongful thoughts to gain from leadership. This is not a true leader, rather a
follower. A true leader will be self-confident and will not steal, lie, cheat, kill, argue, fight, etc.
Rather a true leader considers everyone at each decision he makes.
Assertive Leadership Skills
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Assertiveness is an integral part of effective communication. A good leader can confidently state personal
and group needs in an effective manner. Knowing how and when to assert oneself can be difficult. Below
are tips on assertive behavior.
Types of Assertive Behavior
 Basic –a sample expression of standing up for one ’s beliefs, feelings or opinions.
 Empathic –expressing feelings or beliefs, while relating sensitively to another person.
 Escalating –beginning with a basic assertion and progressing your feelings and ideas if the
individual is unresponsive to your expressions.
 Confrontive –the other person ’s words conflict with your ideas and beliefs
Assertiveness
 May be confused with aggressive behavior, however, assertion does not involve hurting the other
person physically or emotionally.
 Aims at equalizing the balance of power, not “winning the battle” by putting down the other person
or rendering her/him helpless.
 Allows you to express your legitimate wants, needs, feelings, and ideas and creates honest
relationships with others.
 Gives other individuals a right to respond to your assertiveness with their own wants, needs,
feelings, and ideas.
 May involve negotiating a new solution with another individual. Assertiveness does not imply I
win/you lose.
 Concerns not only what you say but also how you say it.
 Includes asking directly for something you want.
 Can be learned and maintained by constant practice.
Traits that Reduce Your Assertiveness and Leadership Effectiveness

 Arbitrariness
 Arrogance
 Indecisiveness
 Lack of frankness and sincerity
 Failure to dele gate responsibility
 Failure to show appreciation or give credit
 Failure to see another person ’s point of view
 Bias; letting emotions rule
 Failure to use gestures and facial expressions
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Discuss in groups: The role of emotional intelligence in terms of its
impact on leadership.
Exercises
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Locus of control
Locus of control is a theory in personality psychology referring to the extent to which individuals believe
that they can control events that affect them. Understanding of the concept was developed by Julian B.
Rotter in 1954, and has since become an important aspect of personality studies.
One's "locus" (Latin for "place" or "location") can either be internal (meaning the person believes that they
control their life) or external (meaning they believe that their environment, some higher power, or other
people control their decisions and their life).
Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe that events result primarily from their own behavior
and actions. Those with a high external locus of control believe that powerful others, fate, or chance
primarily determine events.
Those with a high internal locus of control have better control of their behavior, tend to exhibit more
political behaviors, and are more likely to attempt to influence other people than those with a high external
(or low internal respectively) locus of control. Those with a high internal locus of control are more likely to
assume that their efforts will be successful. They are more active in seeking information and knowledge
concerning their situation.
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How would you relate the locus of control to leadership?
Exercises
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Group discussion: Attitudes are analyzed in relation to resources in

various leadership situations.
Exercises
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SESSION 2
Analyse the relationship between emotional intelligence and self-awareness in relation to
leadership.
Learning Outcomes
 The role of self-awareness in leadership is defined and analysed with examples.
 The role of self-awareness is discussed and techniques for enhancing self-awareness are identified
and applied in order to enhance leadership ability.
 The ability to deal constructively with reality is developed in order to enhance leadership potential.
 The role of feedback is discussed and analysed in relation to developing and enhancing self-
awareness.
Emotional intelligence and self-awareness in relation to leadership

The following are key indicators of self-awareness.
 Self-confidence
 Realistic self-assessment
 Self-deprecating sense of humor
Self-awareness is the basis for the other components of emotional intelligence. It refers to a person's
capacity for being aware of how they are feeling. In general, more self-awareness allows a person to
more effectively guide their own lives and behaviors
Being aware of emotions requires reflection. If one learns to pause, to focus inward, and to seek one's
emotions, one can become more aware of them. You might begin asking yourself several times during a
normal day, "What am I feeling now?" If you question yourself frequently for a week, you will probably be
able to notice what you feel more readily. Then the challenge--one accepted by people with high
emotional intelligence--is to manage those emotions in a more positive way. People who develop a high
emotional intelligence do not yield to their emotions easily--rather they seek to manage them.
Emotional awareness: Recognizing ones emotions and their effects. People with this competence:
 Know which emotions they are feeling and why
 Recognize how their feelings affect their performance
 Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals
Accurate self-assessment: Knowing ones strengths and limits. People with this competence are:
 Aware of their strengths and weaknesses
 Reflective, learning from experience
 Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and self-development
 Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about themselves
Self-confidence: Sureness about ones self-worth and capabilities. People with this competence:
 Present themselves with self-assurance; have "presence"
 Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is right
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 Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and pressures
What distinguishes truly great leaders from those who are just mediocre is their level of Emotional
Intelligence.
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Enhancing Leadership Potential
How you look to develop leadership qualities will depend on whether you are looking at the subject from
the perspective of an organisation or an individual. The former is driven by need, the latter by talent.
Organisations need leaders who will support the organisational culture and aims. For them, therefore,
leadership development involves:
 Identifying the leadership characteristics and/or profile of people who will enhance organisational
performance
 Selecting/recruiting individuals whose character, skills and potential closely match that profile
 Developing the particular skills/abilities within those individuals so they can fulfil their leadership
potential within the organisation
For example, leadership in the emergency services requires strong executive and management skills.
However, if you, as an individual, are seeking to develop into a position of leadership then you need to
build on your own natural talents - trying to be a type of leader that is unnatural for you can lead to stress,
executive burnout and poor performance. That is, you need to:
 Discover your natural leadership style and qualities
 Develop those qualities into tangible skills
 Find a role or organisation that matches your leadership talents, where what you have to offer will
be valued
For example, leadership in a sports team requires physical fitness, sporting prowess and the ability to
lead by example.
What makes a good leader depends on the organisational context. Developing leadership potential
involves matching individual talents with organisational need, and building skills that both enhance
performance and play to individual strengths.
The role of feedback inleadership
Feedback is an important for of personal and professional development.Create an environment, or

culture, of feedback by being open to and role-modeling giving and receiving feedback to others.Establish
a formal benchmark on receiving feedback using an anonymous tool, such as the 360° Partnering
Quotient Assessment. Feedback isnot a “special” event. Incorporate it into your day-to-day activities…
make it a part of your daily interaction.Ask questions to prompt people into providing you with
feedback.Remember the 3X’s Rule. Do not over-react to feedback until you’ve had an opportunity to
process the information.
Set goals around the feedback you’ve identified as important to you and then ask others how you’re
progressing.
 Choose one to three goals

 Develop an action plan for desired change
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 Dialogue with direct reports about areas for improvement along with the action plan
 Ask direct reports for help in changing behavior
 Follow up with direct reports to check progress and receive further feedback
Steps for Improving Feedback in the Workplace
What can be done to increase the level of feedback passed back and forth in the workplace? I
recommend taking the following six steps.
1. Establish a culture of feedback
Leadership must take responsibility to role-model healthy and effective methods of providing feedback.
Employees and partners observe how leaders behave and mimic that behavior. Sound simplistic ? It’s
not.
Many studies of both the animal kingdom and people show that when leaders exhibit a quality, others
imitate that quality hoping to find favor with the “boss.” IBM’s moniker “Big Blue” didn’t come from the
color of the logo but from the color of the suits founder Thomas Watson Sr. wore to work everyday . . . as
did any aspiring manager.
2. Incorporate feedback into routine activities
Almost every business today has tried some form of open-session feedback forums. Brown-bag lunches
and skip-level meetings are just a few techniques. They often last for a month or several months, but over
time, they tend to run their course and vanish like steam on a freezing day. Why ? People tend to either
lose interest or are too busy to participate in these more formal activities. Nevertheless, as managers
interact with employees in day-to-day routines, they should collect and provide feedback regularly. Any
personalized comment reinforcing or constructively offering alternatives to actions is attention showered
on employees. People respond well to attention, even if it’s an alternative suggestion to what they are
doing.
3. Ask questions
Rather than wait for feedback to be offered, an effective leader asks questions, thereby opening the door
to receive feedback. “How is the development going ?” “How is your relationship with department X’s
team ?” “Do you have the resources you need to complete the project on time?” “Am I providing enough,
the right, and timely information you need ?”
Asking such questions sets the example and opens the door for responses. It also creates a great
opportunity for a leader to practice effective feedback behaviors
4. Engage the 3X rule
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Feedback often says more about the giver than about you, the receiver. This phenomenon occurs
because feedback provides insights into the issues the feedback-giver has with you, and those issues
often reside within the giver and have nothing at all to do with you. That is why I always invoke the three-
times rule.
The first time I hear a piece of feedback; I thank the giver and tuck it away in my memory. The second
time I hear the same piece of feedback from a different source, I listen a lot closer to what the person is
saying. If I hear the same piece of feedback from a third party, I must decide if I am going to act on that
feedback or not. This technique provides people with permission to not re-act immediately to feedback
with a knee-jerk, defensive reaction, but gives them time to process the information they’ve received and
determine for themselves its relevancy.
5. Starting a Culture of Feedback
One of the most effective techniques in gathering feedback is initiating a formal feedback process to
develop a baseline for development. The process might start with an anonymous feedback data-collection
system, such as the 360° Partnering Quotient Assessment offered by Partnership Continuum, Inc.
The assessment allows an individual to gather input from teams, peers, bosses, and partners or can be
tailored to collect data from customers, suppliers, and community members as well as internal sources,
richly broadening the impact and importance of the feedback. Using a safe and secure methodology, the
assessment allows raters the freedom to provide honest and candid feedback. From that point, the
assessed individual can determine what areas of improvement he or she would like to tackle. It is
important however, to close the communication loop by setting goals around the feedback and continuing
to ask for feedback on progress.
6. Set Goals and Ask for Feedback
Dean DeGroot, a Partnership Continuum consultant and licensed psychologist, cites a study by Keilty,
Goldsmith & Company, documenting “The Impact of Direct Report Feedback and Follow-up on
Leadership Effectiveness.” The study validated the hypothesis that leaders who frequently ask direct
reports for feedback about their progress on development goals are 95 percent more likely to be
perceived as actually making progress on those goals.
The study involved over 8000 respondents from some of the largest US Corporations. Feedback works:
when you inform people that you learned something new and are now going to try new actions, they tend
to rate improvements in these new areas.
For instance, in this study, each leader was encouraged to :-
 Choose one to three goals
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 Develop an action plan for desired change
 Dialogue with direct reports about areas for improvement along with the action plan
 Ask direct reports for help in changing behavior
 Follow up with direct reports to check progress and receive further feedback
Several months after these dialogues, direct reports were surveyed, with the following questions:
 How effective was the leader in reaching the goal ?

 To what degree did the manager follow up on the initial dialogue about plans for improvement?
For those managers who responded and did a little follow up, two-thirds of the leaders were viewed as
more effective; those who did some follow up were 89 percent more effective; and those who did frequent
follow up were 95 percent more effective.
Feedback not only enables managers to appear more effective, research conducted at several
universities indicates that when people believe they are more effective, their level of competencies
increases. Feedback is an important form of personal and professional development that when utilized,
can increase your effectiveness in all aspects of your life.
Developing self awareness
Self-awareness includes recognition of our personality, our strengths and weaknesses, our likes
and dislikes. Developing self-awareness can help us to recognise when we are stressed or under
pressure. It is also often a prerequisite for effective communication and interpersonal relations, as
well as for developing empathy for others
Developing self awareness is about knowing exactly when emotional turmoil begins within you. It is about
becoming sensitive to the obvious symptoms - such as a knot in your stomach, restlessness, or tightness
in your chest. Conscious awareness of those symptoms will prevent your animal instincts from capturing
the viewpoint of your mind. Typically, raw fear can take over, within half a second. The fearful perspective
will dig in and be backed by all the resources available to your mind and redirect your thoughts and
actions. Self awareness can stop that knee jerk process in its tracks and bring your common sense back
in control - bring you back your peace of mind.
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SESSION 3
Analyse the relationship between emotional intelligence and self-management in relation to
leadership.
Learning Outcomes
 The role of self-management in leadership is defined and analysed with examples.
 The role of self-management is explained and techniques for enhancing self-management are
identified and applied in order to enhance leadership ability.
 The ability to deal constructively with reality is developed in order to enhance leadership potential.
 Emotions are categorised into clusters and an indication is given of the non-verbal signals that can
reveal the presence of emotions.
 The impact of stress is examined in the context of emotional intelligence and techniques identified for
managing stress for optimal interactions and performance.
Self-management
Self-management means different things in different fields:
 In business, education, and psychology, self-management refers to methods, skills, and
strategies by which individuals can effectively direct their own activities toward the achievement
of objectives, and includes goal setting, decision making, focusing, planning, scheduling, task
tracking, self-evaluation, self-intervention, self-development, etc. Also known as executive
processes (in the context of the processes of execution).
 In the field of computer science, self-management refers to the process by which computer
systems will (one day) manage their own operation without human intervention. Self-Management
technologies are expected to pervade the next generation of network management systems.
 In the field of medicine and health care, self-management means the interventions, training, and
skills by which patients with a chronic condition, disability, or disease can effectively take care of
themselves and learn how to do so. Personal care applied to outpatients. See also self care.
 In condominiums and housing co-operatives, it refers to apartment buildings or housing
complexes that are run directly by the owners themselves, either through a committee structure,
or through a Board of Directors that has management as well as executive functions.
 In political economy, economics and sociology, self-management may refer to a Self-managed
economy, a type of socialist economic system that is based on various forms of collaborative,
decentralized, inclusive decision-making and relative workplace autonomy in economic
enterprises and the government.
Self-management may also refer to:
 Workers' self-management - a form of workplace decision-making in which the employees
themselves agree on choices (for issues like customer care, general production methods,
scheduling, division of labor etc.) instead of the traditional supervisor telling workers what to do,
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how to do it and where to do it. This was the official development strategy of Socialist Federative
Republic of Yugoslavia. Workers self-management was promoted on all levels in society
Discuss in groups: Relate self-management to emotional intelligence.
Exercises
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Emotions
Emotion is a complex psycho physiological experience of an individual's state of mind as interacting with
biochemical (internal) and environmental (external) influences. In humans, emotion fundamentally
involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience." Emotion is associated
with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. Motivations direct and energize
behavior, while emotions provide the affective component to motivation, positive or negative.
No definitive taxonomy of emotions exists, though numerous taxonomies have been proposed. Some
categorizations include:
 "Cognitive" versus "non-cognitive" emotions
 Instinctual emotions (from the amygdala), versus cognitive emotions (from the prefrontal cortex).
 Categorization based on duration: Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (for example,
surprise), whereas others can last years (for example, love).
A related distinction is between the emotion and the results of the emotion, principally behaviors and
emotional expressions. People often behave in certain ways as a direct result of their emotional state,
such as crying, fighting or fleeing. If one can have the emotion without a corresponding behavior, then we
may consider the behavior not to be essential to the emotion
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Classification
There are basic and complex categories, where some basic emotions can be modified in some way to
form complex emotions (for example, Paul Ekman). In one model, the complex emotions could arise from
cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, analogous to the way
primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional
experience. For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt.
Robert Plutchik proposed a three-dimensional "circumplex model" which describes the relations among
emotions. This model is similar to a color wheel. The vertical dimension represents intensity, and the
circle represents degrees of similarity among the emotions. He posited eight primary emotion dimensions
arranged as four pairs of opposites. Some have also
argued for the existence of meta-emotions which are
emotions about emotions.
Another important means of distinguishing emotions
concerns their occurrence in time. Some emotions occur
over a period of seconds (for example, surprise), whereas
others can last years (for example, love). The latter could
be regarded as a long term tendency to have an emotion
regarding a certain object rather than an emotion proper
(though this is disputed). A distinction is then made between emotion episodes and emotional
dispositions. Dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be
generally disposed to experience certain emotions, though about different objects. For example an
irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some
theorists (for example, Klaus Scherer, 2005) place emotions within a more general category of "affective
states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain,
motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.
The neural correlates of hate have been investigated with an fMRI procedure. In this experiment, people
had their brains scanned while viewing pictures of people they hated. The results showed increased
activity in the medial frontal gyrus, right putamen, bilaterally in the premotor cortex, in the frontal pole, and
bilaterally in the medial insula of the human brain. The researchers concluded that there is a distinct
pattern of brain activity that occurs when people are experiencing hatred.
A list of emotions attempts to account for various aspects of human experience, and may be part of an
effort to classify emotions.
Basic emotion Basic opposite
Joy Sadness
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Trust Disgust
Fear Anger
Surprise Anticipation
Sadness Joy
Disgust Trust
Anger Fear
Anticipation Surprise
Human Feelings (The results of Emotions) Feelings Opposite
Optimism Anticipation + Joy Disappointment
Love Joy + Trust Remorse
Submission Trust + Fear Contempt
Awe Fear + Surprise Aggression
Disappointment Surprise + Sadness Optimism
Remorse Sadness + Disgust Love
Contempt Disgust + Anger Submission
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Aggression Anger + Anticipation Awe
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Implications of Stress on Performance
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What Is Stress?
Stress is a feeling that's created when we react to particular
events. It's the body's way of rising to a challenge and preparing to
meet a tough situation with focus, strength, stamina, and
heightened alertness.
The events that provoke stress are called stressors, and they
cover a whole range of situations — everything from outright physical danger to making a class
presentation or taking a semester's worth of your toughest subject.
The human body responds to stressors by activating the nervous system and specific hormones. The
hypothalamus signals the adrenal glands to produce more of the hormones adrenaline and cortisol and
release them into the bloodstream. These hormones speed up heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure,
and metabolism. Blood vessels open wider to let more blood flow to large muscle groups, putting our
muscles on alert. Pupils dilate to improve vision. The liver releases some of its stored glucose to increase
the body's energy. And sweat is produced to cool the body. All of these physical changes prepare a
person to react quickly and effectively to handle the pressure of the moment.
This natural reaction is known as the stress response. Working properly, the body's stress response
enhances a person's ability to perform well under pressure. But the stress response can also cause
problems when it overreacts or fails to turn off and reset itself properly.
Good Stress and Bad Stress
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The stress response (also called the fight or flight response) is critical during emergency situations, such
as when a driver has to slam on the brakes to avoid an accident. It can also be activated in a milder form
at a time when the pressure's on but there's no actual danger — like stepping up to take the foul shot that
could win the game, getting ready to go to a big dance, or sitting down for a final exam. A little of this
stress can help keep you on your toes, ready to rise to a challenge. And the nervous system quickly
returns to its normal state, standing by to respond again when needed.
But stress doesn't always happen in response to things that are immediate or that are over quickly.
Ongoing or long-term events, like coping with a divorce or moving to a new neighborhood or school, can
cause stress, too.
Long-term stressful situations can produce a lasting, low-level stress that's hard on people. The nervous
system senses continued pressure and may remain slightly activated and continue to pump out extra
stress hormones over an extended period. This can wear out the body's reserves, leave a person feeling
depleted or overwhelmed, weaken the body's immune system, and cause other problems.
Stress is the inability to cope with a perceived threat to one’s mental, physical, emotional and spiritual
well-being, which can affect one’s physical health. ™
Stress is our perception of situations or circumstances in our environment.
These perceptions of stress are rooted in our feelings of fear and anger. These feelings can be expressed
as impatience, frustration, envy, hostility, depression, doubt, anxiety, guilt or worry.
Internal Causes:
 Stress can come from anxious worrying about events beyond your control
 Hurried approach to life.
 From relationship problems caused by your behaviour
 Self-perception- When yourself worth is based on anything outside yourself by the opinion of
others by material things
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SESSION 4
Analyse the relationship between emotional intelligence and social awareness in relation to
leadership.
Learning Outcomes
 The role of emotional intelligence in handling relationships with others is discussed with examples
from a leadership perspective.
 The importance of being sensitive in demonstrating social awareness is explained with examples.
 The role of emotional intelligence in building and maintaining levels of trust is discussed with
examples.
 Techniques for managing feedback to others in an emotionally intelligent manner are identified and
explained using examples.
 The impact of emotional intelligence in dealing with varying social contexts is outlined and analysed
with examples.
 The importance of overcoming preconceived notions when dealing with social issues and problems is
discussed with examples.
Emotional Intelligence and how you can improve your Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is a concept focused on how effectively people work with others. These Emotional
Intelligence skills are unique from a person’s technical skills and cognitive abilities. Multiple studies have
shown that Emotional Intelligence competencies often account for the difference between star performers
and average performers, particularly in positions of leadership.
The Emotional Intelligence model developed by Daniel Goleman and others identifies 4 components:
1. Self Awareness
2. Self Management
3. Social Awareness
4. Relationship Management
The first component of Emotional Intelligence is Self Awareness, or having a clear understanding of one’s
emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives and capabilities. On the surface there’s really nothing new about
this concept – it’s been touted for thousands of years. But it’s a critical skill and it’s overlooked by many
people. In the SOCIAL STYLE Model and Style training programs, Self-Awareness is taught as “Know
Yourself.” Participating in Style training and completing a SOCIAL STYLE Profile develop Self-
Awareness.
The second component of Emotional Intelligence is Self Management, or what author Goleman says
frees us from being prisoners to our emotions. Without understanding what we’re feeling, we can’t control
our feelings and this leaves us at the mercy of our emotions. SOCIAL STYLE programs teach participants
to “Control Yourself”, identifying specific ways to manage Style-influenced behaviors.
The third component of Emotional Intelligence is Social Awareness, or empathy. It’s the ability to read
another person’s facial expressions, voice and other non-verbal signals in order to understand that
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person’s emotions. This is especially important for leaders because by staying attuned to how people are
feeling, they can say and do what is most appropriate. The foundation of SOCIAL STYLE is the ability to
recognize verbal and non-verbal behaviors of others and understand what they tell you about that person.
In fact, independent research has shown that SOCIAL STYLE is easier to learn and apply than other
interpersonal skills models.
The fourth component of Emotional Intelligence is Relationship Management, where the 3 previous skills
all come together. This is the most visible aspect of a person, and in particular leaders. This is where you
see skills like conflict management, team building, and influencing others. Leaders with good skills in the
first three areas of Emotional Intelligence will usually be effective at managing relationships because
they’re attuned to their own emotions and this means that they’ll approach relationships from a position of
authenticity. It’s not just being friendly, but it’s what Goleman calls “friendliness with a purpose”:
motivating people in the direction you desire. These people are very good at developing networks, not
necessarily because they’re highly sociable, but rather because they understand that nothing gets done
alone and they’re skilled at being able to work with others.
There is both a logical connection and a measurable link between Emotional Intelligence and the SOCIAL
STYLE model by TRACOM. SOCIAL STYLE is an interpersonal model that teaches this concept as “Do
Something For Others” and provides clear recommendations to better manage relationships with people
of different Styles in a variety of common workplace situations. SOCIAL STYLE can be taught and put
into place to then improve Emotional Intelligence.
Researchers at Colorado State University recently completed a study that compared the Versatility
component of TRACOM's SOCIAL STYLE Model to two distinct measures of Emotional Intelligence. The
research showed a significant relationship between SOCIAL STYLE and Emotional Intelligence. The
takeaway from this research is that by developing Versatility and SOCIAL STYLE skills, people can
increase Emotional Intelligence.
Feedback
What is it?
Feedback is some form of input on your work; it could come from supervisors, co-workers, or others you
interact with. In some contexts it can be quite formal, but I think it can take many forms – it can be
something as simple as a short verbal comment.
Why does it matter?
It seems pretty intuitive that receiving feedback gives a person a clearer idea of how well they are doing
the work and how they might improve. Obviously in some cases, it is pretty straightforward if you’ve done
a task or not, but in much work there is some room for choice in how or what you do. While I personally
think volunteers need to be ready to do the work without needing a regular pat on the back, it is human
nature to appreciate it when your work is acknowledged – and brief feedback is one way of showing this.
What’s so tricky about it?
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Many organizations that seek volunteers and actually need them are in that position specifically because
they are busy.
They may see providing feedback as hand-holding and just want the volunteers to get on with the work. It
is also feasible that they are grateful for whatever help they can get and don’t feel comfortable telling
someone how to improve…this is less than productive though, especially if the person shares the
organization’s long-term goal and wants to get things done well.
What to do about it?
If you’re volunteering in order to gain experience, or know that you want clear feedback, be upfront about
this. If you want something from the organization, it’s fair to let them know ahead of time. Also be
prepared to ask specific questions. If you are genuinely open to the “to be improved” type of feedback, let
them know, and be receptive if they give it. Realize that providing you with feedback will not be their main
goal and you may get less than you’d like - but when you get it thank the giver and let them know it was
useful.
Preconceived notions
Preconceived notions are ideas or beliefs that a person forms, before actually encountering someone or
something, or before learning of any evidence about them/it.
"Preconceived" (definition from dictionary.com) means, "to form a conception or opinion of beforehand, as
before seeing evidence or as a result of a previously held prejudice." "Notions" means ideas or beliefs.
For example, a popular preconceived notion is the idea that gay people are likely to molest children.
Because it seems like it could possibly be true (if you follow the logic that if someone engages in one
abnormal sexual behavior, they are likely to engage in any and all abnormal sexual behaviors), and
because of the long history of anti-gay sentiment throughout human history, many people believe that gay
people are likely to molest children. Even though they have not done any research on the available
evidence (which, by the way, conclusively proves that homosexuality and pedophilia are two completely
different things, and that most gay people do NOT in fact molest children) and even though they don't
even know any gay people personally, they assume it must be true. Thus, it is a preconceived notion.
How would you overcome Preconceived notions in dealing with social

issues? Discuss.
Exercises
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SESSION 5
Apply techniques for responding to situations in an emotionally intelligent manner.
Learning Outcomes
 Emotional skills for coping with varying situations are discussed and applied in a leadership context.
 The implications and consequences of applying emotional intelligence is explained with reference to
motivation, conflict management and creating a positive environment.
 Behavioural skills for coping with different scenario's in an emotionally intelligent manner are
identified, discussed and applied to a leadership context.
 Self-analysis is conducted to determine own emotional intelligence abilities.
 Self-analysis is conducted to determine levels of emotional intelligence in given situations.
 Strengths, talents and weaknesses are identified and the necessary actions taken to minimise
weaknesses and enhance strengths and talents.
How to Manage Emotions in the Workplace
At work, you're faced with difficult challenges, tight time constraints, and trying relationships. While
managing everything on your to-do list and everyone you deal with, emotions can easily flare up and
situations can become tense. Do you have the tools needed to maintain steady self-control in the face of
confrontation, conflict, and change?
It is all too easy for situations to become emotionally charged in the workplace. One cross word, bad
mood, or mishandled situation can damage a relationship deeply. The instability and uncertainty
surrounding businesses today only increases the pressure you feel to perform at your peak. And, as
ongoing changes take their toll on you, it's easy to feel overwhelmed, overworked, and completely
stressed out.
Think about the situations in which you've found yourself feeling flustered and frustrated. Maybe
you've witnessed others experience emotional outbreaks at work.
 Have you ever dealt with an issue, either personal or professional, by taking your frustrations out
on someone in the workplace — even though it had nothing do with him or her?
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 Do you feel like there's too much to do and not enough time or resources to do it … and you
might snap at the next request that comes your way?
 Have you avoided confronting an employee or coworker because you're unsure of the best way to
deal with the situation should it become emotional?
 Do you hide your emotions at work for fear of "losing it"?
 Do you let your emotions go and feel you can pick up the pieces after the fact?
 Do you work with others who have emotional outbursts at the office and need a better outlet for
dealing with emotionally charged situations?
If you are familiar with any of the situations listed above, you need to register for this life-changing one-
hour audio conference. With the tips and techniques provided, you'll learn how to remain calm and
clearheaded in any situation — and stay positive and productive even when the chaos is overwhelming.
You'll be able to implement what you learn immediately, and see positive changes in your work life as
soon as you return to your desk.
Emotions in the workplace can have a negative impact on productivity, teamwork, and creativity — while
increasing the stress and pressure you feel each day. What would your workday look like if you knew how
to respond to situations with a level head, minimize conflict among your team members, and manage your
days in this unpredictable work environment?
You can take control of the emotions that have sabotaged you in the past and respond to tough situations
with poise and confidence. Attend this powerful audio conference and learn the strategies needed to
transform yourself, your professional relationships, and your life!
You will eventually learn to:
 Understand emotions in the workplace

o How to weed through the vast array of emotions — and separate the good from the bad
o Anger signals that are often mistaken for something else
 Maintain emotional balance and stay in control
o 3 approaches to emotional situations and possible outcomes for each
o Tips to help you keep your cool when you're about to explode
o Recovery techniques (and damage control) to help earn back your credibility after you've
"lost it"
o Physical symptoms that provide clues indicating you need to take a break
 Handle emotionally-charged situations
o Techniques for responding to other people's outbursts
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o How to identify and understand others' "hot button" issues
o 4 steps for creating a positive outcome from an emotionally charged situation
Who will benefit?

Managers, supervisors, team leaders, administrative professionals, and every member of your
organization who wants to manage emotions — both their own and those of others!
Knowing much about emotional and social intelligence doesn’t give you social-emotional skills over night.
Of course, learning begins with knowledge, but only by practice can we transform our knowledge into an
active and efficient tool. To become a social and emotional skilled person is a tough task but, if you want
to bring success into your life, you have to: be self-conscious, be very motivated, be able of self-
regulation, be able to motivate others and be able of empathy. Even if we like it or not, our feelings
conduct our behavior, but not in a rational, coherent and perceptible way.
We all are made of a combination of strengths and weaknesses. The point is how to develop your
strengths and minimize your weaknesses, so that these traits make your life and others lives better.
Emotional intelligence is the psychological faculty that provides you with social-emotional skills. It has five
components that can be translated into five essential social-emotional aptitudes:
 Self-regulation – to be capable to conduct ourselves and to control our
emotional state;
 Self-consciousness – to recognize and understand our feelings;
 Motivation – management of feelings in order to achieve our
objectives;
 Empathy – identifying and decoding the feelings of others;
 Social Abilities – being able to relate and influence others.
1. Self-regulation represents our capacity to conduct and control our emotional state. The key is not to
give up in the face of your negative emotions. One way is to postpone immediate satisfaction and
attenuate impulsivity; only so you can take advantage over your tendency to get immediate satisfaction
(immediate satisfaction isn’t bad in itself, only that satisfaction that bring bad consequences on the long
run). There is no better psychological trait than that of resisting your impulses. This is the base of
emotional self-control, taking into account that emotions are in fact impulses. It is the capacity of resisting
to the impulse of bad action.
2. Self-consciousness represents the self-perception at the emotional level or the capacity to identify
your emotions and their effects. Being self-conscious you are able to identify connections between what
you feel and what you think, what you talk and what you do. Also you can recognize the way your
emotions affect your performance and productivity. The incapacity to observe and understand your true
feelings may make you a prey for others.
We often have false and unrealistic perceptions about ourselves; usually we fall into one of these
extremes: either we are too upset on ourselves, or we are too proud of ourselves. The best practice is to
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accept your inner feelings, not to deny them, but this doesn’t mean you don’t have to control and change
them when they are destructive for you and others. The aim is to feel at peace with you and others!
3. Motivation. You have to be aware of the power of your emotions on the way to achieve a goal and to
put them at work in this process. Emotional involvement in what you are doing is what fuels your
motivation. To be motivated mean to be very involved in what you are doing and keep trying even if the
situation seems to be against your attempts, to try to achieve your goals when there are a lot of difficulties
and hindrances. The best practice is to see an obstacle as a provocation and failure as a learning
situation (but make sure not to make the same mistake again). Very important is to consider your failure
not only as a consequence of your own capacity to achieve goals (internal factors), but firstly as an effect
of contextual conditions or external factors.
4. Empathy. There are four essential aspects of the empathy, in other words you have:
 to be sensitive or delicate with others and understand them;
 to take care of others’ needs and well being;
 to encourage others’ progress;
 to be concerned about social and political matters.
5. Social abilities. The ability to initiate and keep relationships represents the art to handle your own and
others’ emotions (there are competences in relationships management that can be learned). Social
abilities empower us to begin and keep positive relationships, to be accepted and integrated in groups, to
act efficiently as crew members, to influence others’ attitudes, opinions and behaviors, to lead others
Self analysis
Self analysis means an evaluation of one's own thoughts and behaviors.
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An example of self analysis is the reading and application of a psychology textbook by a sister to figure
out why she has been acting very hostile lately to a sibling.
In order to grow to be successful, one must be able to know oneself. However, ‘knowing’ doesn’t imply
knowing oneself from the outside. That will not suffice. Every individual has an intrinsic personality, an
inner soul and a mind that is inherent with which he or she should be able to connect. Most of us fail to do
so and hence are often subjugated and controlled by others, perhaps even they take over our entire lives.
Hence, it is very important for any individual to keep oneself aware of one’s strengths and weaknesses
better than anybody else. For this reason, personal development becomes mandatory and, while
developing one’s personal-self and managing his own individual ‘character and behavior,’ necessitates
the following:
 Self-analysis
 Self-assessment
 Self-supervision
Although the above three factors may seem to go hand-in-hand, they are notably unique concepts. Of
them, self-analysis is the first and the most necessary step to knowing one’s inner soul and mind i.e.
Personality Development. Unless this has been fully achieved, there is no provision for self-assessment
or self-supervision i.e. Personality Management.
Self-analysis is the initial stage to self-supervision and self-assessment. It is the course of exploring one’s
persona, emotions and conduct. It is the process that involves connecting to one’s own subliminal and
cognizant mind. There are various tools to execute self-analysis, such as:
 Approach and Attitude Check
 Identifying and tackling positive emotions and negative emotions
 Observe personal behavior at all times and places
 Analyze strengths and weaknesses of your personality
 Take others’ opinions as to what they think of your personality in general
One of the leading maneuvers to start with, is to guide an individual towards an awareness of his or her
belief system. As knowing one’s own value plays a major role in decision-making and building personal
relations with others, it becomes central to acknowledge one’s own value system. Knowing your own
values could be a beginning for becoming more thoughtful and appreciative, and in understanding others.
A regularized process involving all the above will help an individual get closer to his or her inner soul and
mind. One should keep track of one’s strengths and weaknesses every so often which will help realize
and guide one to work on what needs to amended or permanently removed and develop one’s talent and
abilities.
In any other case, it becomes difficult to strike a balance in life. Most of the people seem strangers to
themselves. It so happens that most of the time we get to know our real selves from others. This should
be considered an opportunity to realize and start connecting immediately to one’s own subconscious mind
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and soul. In order to strike a perfect balance between one’s personal and professional life, self-
supervision acts as a major motivating tool.
Adding to this, self-assessment helps reveal a person’s character and behavioral nature. This often
involves answering a series of questions honestly. These answers are judged based on a scoring system
and determining how well people would fit in within any environment. This concludes all behavioral
patterns and enables an individual to identify, realize and enhance his or her own persona.
In a nut shell, developing and managing one’s own personality addresses the problems and issues
encountered both at home and work. Self-analysis, assessment and supervision help an individual get
closer to his or her personality and repair what needs to be amended in order to face success.
Conflict management
There are different strategies for managing conflict and each individual has a personal conflict-handling
style. It is possible to change our conflict-handling styles by learning new and more effective ways of
managing conflicts. Responses to conflict depend on the individual’s goals and the importance of the
relationship. Listed below are five strategies that could be used in conflict.
Style Useful when Consequences Characteristics
Competition There is physical threat, Power play, loss of Dominating,

(forcing or the goal is more relationship, resentment. abusive,
aggressive) important than the arrogant, bossy,
relationship. yelling.
Avoidance There is a danger to Feeling hurt, Indecisive,

(withdrawal) your safety. misunderstood apologetic,
submissive,
timid.
Accommodation The relationship is more No solution, possible Submissive,

(smoothing) important than your goal resentment later. agreeable,
quiet.
Compromising If there is limited time, Possible anger later, can Direct, good
(going half/half) and things you don’t maintain relationship. listening,
mind giving up everyone gives a
little
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Joint Problem There is time, along Satisfactory long term Good listening,
Solving term solution is required solution, improved creative,
(cooperation) and the relationship is relationship. accepting, honest
important. and open.
Conflict Management Tools

In order to manage conflict effectively we need special tools. These tools include good communication
skills, using group problem solving processes, behaving assertively and working co-operatively together.
Effective Consider the following ineffective communication:

Communication
• Be clear on what you wish to communicate.
• Explain completely and concisely.
• Ensure than the other person or party understands you.
• Work at understanding them.
• Listen carefully to the other person, pay attention to his responses to your
messages.
• Try not to get emotional.
• Ensure that the receiver has heard your message as you intended and check
that you really heard what the other person was trying to say.
Appropriate ♦Non-assertive behavior includes not expressing your own feelings, needs, ideas
Assertiveness and ignoring your own rights. It is very unhealthy as it results in resentment
building up.
♦Aggressive behavior is exactly the opposite and involves trying to be dominant;

even to humiliate other sand bullying them to your way of thinking.
♦Positive assertive behavior involves expressing your feelings, needs and ideas
and standing up for your rights in a way that does not violate the rights of
others.
Outcomes of Conflict
Outcomes Description
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Lose-Lose Both parties feel that they have lost, animosity follows and generally speaking, the conflict
is not resolved.
Lose-Win One party is unassertive and allows the other party to win, despite the cost to them.
Win-Lose One party forces a solution on another leaving them feeling dejected and defeated.
Win-Win Both parties feel that they have won. This can be achieved through compromise and
collaboration.
Take one of the conflicts you identified earlier and describe how to resolve the situation to
achieve each outcome.
Conflict Resolution 1. Know you goals, wants and needs.
2. Build on areas of common agreement
3. Be assertive not aggressive.
4. Empathise with the other person’s views and feelings.
5. Be honest about making mistakes or feeling uncertain.
Methods of Conflict Resolution
The following steps can be followed to complete the Collaborative Problem Solving Outline:
Step Action
1 Admit a conflict exists.
2 Confront the problem.
3 Brainstorm possible options.
4 Select the best possible option.
5 Put a plan of action in motion.
6 Feedback and review.
The following steps can be followed to complete the Three Step Conflict Resolution
Procedure:
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Step Action
1 Complete a Conflict Analysis Map:
• Define the issue in a short statement.
• Name the parties involved.
• List the needs and fear for each person.
2 Design solution options.
3 Negotiate with third-party negotiation mediation, if necessary.
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Manage the development and
performance of human capital in the
Learning Unit6
public sector
CREDITS : 12
Learners working towards this standard will be working within a Public Sector environment,
PURPOSE specialising in Public Finance Management and Administration, where the acquisition of competence
: against this standard will add value to one's job. This standard will also add value to public officials
who are seeking to develop a career pathway towards becoming an accomplished public finance
management and administration specialist.
 Demonstrating an understanding of human resources principles and legislation and its
applications to the public sector
 Compiling human resources plan
 Managing performance of individuals within a team
 Recruiting and selecting staff
 Managing the training and development of individuals within a team

 Learners accessing this Unit Standard must be in possession of a Further Education and Training Certificate or
equivalent qualification.
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LEARNING UNIT 1:
DEMONSTRATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN RESOURCES PRINCIPLES AND LEGISLATION
AND ITS APPLICATIONS TO THE PUBLIC SECTOR.
This learning unit is link to SAQA registered Unit Standard:

US ID US Title Level Credits
Link: 119336 Manage the development and performance of human capital in 5 12
the public sector.
Learning Outcome 1: The importance of the human resources function is explained.
Learning Outcome 2: All legislation relating to human resources management is reviewed and
explained in relation to public sector human resources requirement.
Learning Outcome 3: Public service training and management development policies are
explained and applied.
Learning Outcome 4: Public service disciplinary codes and practices are explained and applied
where relevant.
Learning Outcome 5: The link between human resource management and integrated
development plans are explained.
1.1. The importance of the human resources function
The HR function is typically responsible for drafting and implementing employee codes of conduct. As
such, HR managers hold the pen on the principles contained in the employee codes. Since a number of
recent high profile corporate frauds, boards of directors have become very concerned about the ethical
culture within their organizations, looking for 100% sign-off on and compliance with codes of conduct
whicharticulate their ethical values.
Human resource managers are well positioned to play an instrumental role in helping their organization
achieve its goals of becoming a socially and environmentally responsible firm – one which reduces its
negative and enhances its positive impacts on society and the environment. Further, human resource
(HR) professionals in organizations that perceive successful corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a
key driver of their financial performance, can be influential in realizing on that objective.
HR can facilitate the development of processes and systems; however, employee engagement is
ultimately a shared responsibility. The more the HR practitioner can understand their leverage with
respect to CSR, the greater their ability to pass these insights along to their business partners towards the
Over the last few years, employees have become more and more aware of their rights within organisations. Huge
organization’s objectives in integrating CSR throughout their operations and business model.
amounts of money have been paid out to employees and small businesses are now realising the importance of managing
employees within the boundaries of legislation and good practise.
1.2. Legislation relating to human resources management
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There are very clear and stringent guidelines which need to be adhered
to in South Africa when dealing with staff and labour issues. These acts
should be studies and understood by all employers to ensure they are
complying with the regulations outlined. These include:
 Basic Conditions of Employment Act
This Act outlines what is and is not considered acceptable relating to the
1. The purpose of this Act is to advance economic development and social justice by fulfilling the primary
objects of this Act which are-
a. to give effect to and regulate the right to fair labour practices conferred by section 23(1) of the
Constitution-
i. by establishing and enforcing basic conditions of employment; and
ii. by regulating the variation of basic conditions of employment;
b. to give effect to obligations incurred by the Republic as a member state of the International Labour
Organisation.
conditions of employment for an individual.
 Labour Relations Act
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The purpose of this Act¹ is to advance economic development, social justice, labour peace and the
democratisation of the workplace by fulfilling the primary objects of this Act, which are-
1. to give effect to and regulate the fundamental rights conferred by section 27 of the Constitution;²
2. to give effect to obligations incurred by the Republic as a member state of the International Labour
Organisation;
3. to provide a framework within which employees and their trade unions, employers and employers'
organisations can-
i. collectively bargain to determine wages, terms and conditions of employment and other matters of
mutual interest; and
ii. formulate industrial policy; and
4. to promote-
i. orderly collective bargaining;
ii. collective bargaining at sectoral level;
iii. employee participation in decision-making in the workplace; and
iv. the effective resolution of labour disputes.
 Employment Equity Act
Purpose of this Act.--The purpose of this Act is to achieve equity in the workplace by--
a. promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the elimination of unfair
discrimination; and
b. Implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages in employment experienced by
designated groups, in order to ensure their equitable representation in all occupational categories and
levels in the workforce.
 Skills Development Act
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2. Purposes of Act.--(1) The purposes of this Act are--
(a) to develop the skills of the South African workforce--
i. to improve the quality of life of workers, their prospects of work and labour mobility;
ii. to improve productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of employers;
iii. to promote self-employment; and
iv. to improve the delivery of social services;

(b) to increase the levels of investment in education and training in the labour market and to improve the return
on that investment;
(c) to encourage employers--
i. to use the workplace as an active learning environment;
ii. to provide employees with the opportunities to acquire new skills;
iii. to provide opportunities for new entrants to the labour market to gain work experience; and
iv. to employ persons who find it difficult to be employed;

(d) to encourage workers to participate in learnership and other training programmes;
(e) to improve the employment prospects of persons previously disadvantaged by unfair discrimination and to
redress those disadvantages through training and education;
( f ) to ensure the quality of education and training in and for the workplace;
(g) to assist--
i. work-seekers to find work;
ii. retrenched workers to re-enter the labour market;
iii. employers to find qualified employees; and

(h) to provide and regulate employment services.
Copies of all the Acts are available on the department of labour and the department of trade and industry
web sites. www.dti.gov.za and www.dol.gov.za
1.3. Public service training and management development policies

Any framework for reshaping attitudes of government officials must involve staff training and
development. Traditionally, training programmes have had a skills based focus, but recent trends in
customer-oriented civil service require an attitudinal- focused training. This has led to the need for a
pragmatic approach to training and development so as to develop the capacity of public servants for
improved service delivery. The government has to invest in public servants in order to:
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 Equip managers with the necessary skills to handle new responsibilities;
 Develop skills for customer oriented civil service;
 Improve the standards of service delivery; and
 Adapt to new technologies and new working techniques, methods and process.
The Public Service, despite its limitations and constraints, still remains the only acceptable instrument for
the implementation of government policy, and is therefore critical for the realization of government goals
and development objectives.
The public sector must create an appropriate and conducive environment for the efficient and effective
performance of other sectors such as the private sector, NGOs and civil society. The public service plays
a central role in enabling the achievement of development goals. Governments should therefore
continuously seek new and better ways to build service institutions that have the capacity to champion
and advance the course of development.
Efforts at capacity building involve investments in human capital, institution building and process
improvement. The broad objectives of the various initiatives should be the development of human and
material resources to analyze, plan, implement and monitor programmes, which have a positive impact on
national development. These efforts should be initiated to create the framework for theidentification and
analysis of problems and the formulation and implementation of solutions to enhance sustainable human
development.
The purpose of human resource capacity building efforts are to raise the level of performance of the
public sector to cope with the rising and ever-changing demands of the economy and the population.
Departmental training and development policies and strategies
The Department of Public Works as well as the SANDF indicated that training needs, identified through
career management programmes, are incorporated in departmental training programmes. Resulting
fromcareer management programmes, training programmes and courses are arranged to equip personnel
for their current posts as well as higher posts and to ultimately address the needs of the department. The
SAPS, on the other hand, indicated that it is left entirely to management to arrange for the necessary
training from needs identified through career management programmes
1.4. Public service disciplinary codes and practices
The Disciplinary Code and Procedures for the Public Service provide the framework within which
departments must manage the discipline of their employees. Whilst the Code provides examples of
sanctions to be imposed, the discretion to decide on sanctions ultimately rests with presiding officers and
the departments that they represent. There is a real risk that the sanctions imposed by presiding officers
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may vary not only between departments but also within departments themselves.
The Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (LRA) provides the overarching legislative framework for the
management of discipline in the private and public sector. Employers and employees in the Public
Service are accordingly bound by the provisions of the LRA and any relevant disciplinary codes and
procedures which may be collectively bargained through the Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining
Council (PSCBC). Public Service employees are also bound by legislation governing public servants
specifically. Where an employer develops its own disciplinary policy and procedure these are to be read
with the Code of Good Practice in the LRA, and any specific disciplinary codes and procedures developed
by a department.
The management of discipline in the Public Service is regulated by the following legislative and regulatory
framework:
Table 1: Laws that regulate disciplinary procedure in the Public Service
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Key Principles Underlying the Disciplinary Procedure in the Public Service
Resolution 1 of 2003 of the Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council recognises the following
principles:
 Discipline is a corrective measure and not a punitive one.
 Discipline must be applied in a prompt, fair, consistent and progressive manner.
 Discipline is a management function.
 A disciplinary code is necessary for the efficient delivery of service and the fair treatment of public
servants, and ensures that employees:
o have a fair hearing in a formal and informal setting;
o are timeously informed of the allegations of misconduct made against them;
o receive written reasons for a decision taken; and
o have the right to appeal against any decision.
 The disciplinary procedure should be held in the place of work of an employee and be
understandable to all employees.
 If an employee commits misconduct that is also a criminal offence, both procedures shall
continue separately.
Disciplinary proceedings do not replace or seek to imitate court proceedings.
o The Disciplinary Code and Procedures constitutes a framework within which departmental policies
may be developed provided that such policies do not deviate from the provisions of the framework.
The principles of substantive fairness as articulated in the Code of Good Practice of the LRA are
reiterated in the Disciplinary Code and Procedure. The requirement of consistency in the application of
rules falls within the ambit of substantive fairness. The consistency of sanctions is a key tenet of the
principle of fair labour practice, with the Code of Good Practice in the LRA stating that an employer
should apply the penalty of dismissal consistently with the way in which it has been applied to the same
transgressions and other employees in the past, and consistently as between two or more employees
who participate in the misconduct under consideration.
Review of departmental policies and practices

As in the case of the Disciplinary Code and Procedure, Departmental policies and procedures where they
exist were found to be adequate. However, it is of major concern that these policies and procedures do
not exist in many departments. Departmental policies and procedures on the disciplinary process should
be developed and implemented as a matter of urgency. In addressing the issue of consistency
departments may develop a matrix of cases of misconduct and the sanctions applicable to them, together
with extenuating and aggravating circumstances which could be considered as a guide by the presiding
officers.
1.5. The link between human resource management and integrated development plans
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Six principles of integrated planning
At the heart of integrated planning are the six guiding principles. These principles form the basis on which
planning activities and processes are to be developed and implemented.
Integrated planning calendar

Based on the Six Principles of Integrated Planning, the Public Service Human Resources Management
Agency can develop an integrated planning calendar. The Calendar illustrates a four-phase approach to
aligning human resources and business lines to achieve integrated planning. It also provides approximate
timeframes for each of the four phases.
Five-step approach to determining and building for current and future needs
A five-step approach to determining and building for current and future needs was also developed to
guide organizations in their efforts to implement integrated planning. The Integrated Human Resources
and Business Planning Checklist is a "how to" model, and provides some important questions for
managers to consider as they develop their plans. More specifically, the five steps include:
Step 1 determining your business goals;
Step 2 analyzing your environment to see if you have the right mix and complement to meet your current
and future needs;
Step 3 assessing the gaps in your workforce - what are you missing from a human resources perspective
in order for you to achieve your goals;
Step 4 taking action and initiating strategies to close the gap and help obtain the required resources; and
Step 5 reviewing, monitoring and measuring whether efforts were successful.
Together, the six principles, the planning calendar, and the five-step approach outlined above form the
basis from which planning activities, tool and instruments should be derived.
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LEARNING UNIT 2:
COMPILE A HUMAN RESOURCES PLAN.

the public sector
Learning Outcome 1: A human resources plan is compiled in line with strategic objectives of
organisation, the goals and objectives of a division and in line with
legislative requirements.
Learning Outcome 2: Labour related regulations and principles are applied in the planning and
recruitment strategies of employees.
Learning Outcome 3: Public service training and management development policies are
explained and applied.
Learning Outcome 4: Human resources plan is monitored and reviewed on an ongoing basis
according to work requirements and any changing legislation and/or public
sector policies and procedures.
2.1. A human resources plan is compiled in line with strategic objectives of organisation
Human resources planning is a process that identifies current and future human resources needs for an
organization to achieve its goals. Human resources planning should serve as a link between human
resources management and the overall strategic plan of an organization. Aging worker populations in
most western countries and growing demands for qualified workers in developing economies have
underscored the importance of effective Human Resources Planning.
The planning processes of most best practice organizations not only define what will be accomplished
within a given timeframe, but also the numbers and types of human resources that will be needed to
achieve the defined business goals (e.g., number of human resources; the required competencies; when
the resources will be needed; etc.).
Competency-based management supports the integration of human resources planning with business
planning by allowing organizations to assess the current human resource capacity based on their
competencies against the capacity needed to achieve the vision, mission and business goals of the
organization. Targeted human resource strategies, plans and programs to address gaps (e.g., hiring /
staffing; learning; career development; succession management; etc.) are then designed, developed and
implemented to close the gaps.
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These strategies and programs are monitored and evaluated on a regular basis to ensure that they are
moving the organizations in the desired direction, including closing employee competency gaps, and
corrections are made as needed. This Strategic HR Planning and evaluation cycle is depicted in the
diagram below.
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Implementation Stages
The following implementation stages are suggested for mid to large organizations implementing
competencies in support of Strategic Human Resources Planning.
Stage 1
Short - Term HR Planning
o Establish a Competency Architecture and Competency Dictionary that will support Strategic Human
Resource Planning.
o For each group to be profiled, define the roles and career streams to help identify current and future
human resources needs.
o Determine how competencies will be integrated with the existing HR Planning process and systems
(e.g., Human Resource Information Management systems; other computer-based tools, for example
forecasting models).
Stage 2
o Build or revamp HR Planning tools, templates and processes to incorporate elements as
determined in Stage 1.
o Train managers and / or facilitate corporate HR Planning process.
o Continuously monitor and improve processes, tools and systems to support HR Planning
Overarching Policy, Process & Tools

Common Competency Dictionary and Architecture
Establishing a common Competency Dictionary and Architecture is fundamental for the successful
implementation of competencies throughout the organization.
Maintaining this common architecture is essential for ensuring that all human resource management
applications are fully integrated and that maximum efficiencies can be gained. It is important, therefore, to
identify an organizational group accountable for the maintenance of the Competency Dictionary and
Architecture on an ongoing basis.
Human Resource Information Management Infrastructure

In a recent review, the Gartner Group noted that CBM talent management initiatives have not necessarily
yielded the desired benefits and return on investment, for the main part because organizations have not
invested in the talent management software systems and infrastructure to facilitate full and effective
implementation. To gain maximum benefit from CBM, organizations need to have a human resources
management system and on-line tools and processes that will support many of the implementation
recommendations contained in this document.
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Governance / Accountability Structure
Organizations that have effectively implemented competencies on a corporate-wide basis have ensured
that there is an appropriate project management, governance and accountability framework in place to
support the development, maintenance and revision / updating of the competency profiles to meet
changing demands
Process Implementation Stages

The following implementation stages are suggested for mid to large organizations.
Stage 1
o Identify the infrastructure and system requirements to support full implementation (e.g., Human
Resources Information Management System; other on-line software tools needed to support
various CBM applications).
o Develop the competency profiles.
o Implement the competency profiles in a staged-way to demonstrate benefits and create buy-in
(e.g., as soon as profiles for a group are developed, implement quickly within a low-risk high-
benefit planned application for the group).
o Communicate success stories as competency profiles are implemented.
Stage 2
o Develop, revise / update competency profiles to meet changing demands.
o Monitor and evaluate applications to ensure that they are meeting organizational needs, and
adjust programs / plans, as needed, to meet evolving needs.
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Creating and Implementing a Human Resource Management Plan
Table of Contents
 Getting Started
 Needs Assessment
 Job Description
 Recruiting
 Hiring
 Templates
 Summary
 Human Resources Websites
 References
Getting Started
There is a saying in the financial planning business: "Nobody plans to fail; they just fail to plan." This
saying is no less true of human resource management planning in today's modern farming operation.
Too many producers wait until the need for employees is at a critical stage before they start their
search. Including a plan and an annual review of their human resource needs will save producers
countless hours of frustration.
Creating a human resource management plan does not have to be an onerous task, but it does take
some time and thought. The effort put into the plan will pay dividends by resulting in finding the right
people for the job. For producers planning on hiring, a human resource management plan is an
essential tool in the decision-making process. A plan will help identify areas where additional
employees may be needed as well as positions that require specific skills.
The process starts with reviewing and assessing the operation's needs for employees, followed by
developing job descriptions, recruiting workers and, finally, hiring them. Part of the job description
development stage is compiling an employee "handbook," which will include the job description and
the employer's expectations of the employee.
This Factsheet is designed to give producers a starting point for human resource management
planning for their operation, describing how to conduct needs assessments, create job descriptions,
recruit and hire employees. This Factsheet also contains a checklist and templates that will help
producers design their own HR management plan.
Needs Assessment
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Start with a review of the operation over the past year. Take into account the number of people hired
and the times of the year they were employed. Recall any difficulties that were encountered and make
note of them for the next year's planning.
The major problem most employers face is not having enough qualified employees at the right time.
In the assessment, include real and anticipated needs for the next season as well as needs arising
from any future expansion plans you may have. If you are planning to increase or decrease
production within the next five years, make recruiting and hiring plans accordingly. Determine if your
labour needs and current workforce match. A good needs assessment will provide a clear picture of
the skills and personal characteristics the operation needs in its employees.
Assess yourself as well. What are your strengths and weaknesses? What skills do you have as a
producer or business owner? What is your vision for your operation? What are your goals - both long
and short term? Take into account any external factors (e.g., market conditions) or internal factors
(e.g., succession planning). Write out your goals to get a clear picture of your farming business; you
may see things from a different perspective. The more specific you are, the better you can determine
your needs. Include a timeframe with your goals. Remember to include any personal or family goals
that will affect decisions concerning your business.
The final step in this needs assessment will be to decide whether your labour needs match your
current workforce. If they do, remain vigilant and re-assess the situation each year. If they don't, make
alterations or changes in the workforce to increase productivity and make the business profitable. The
alterations may be as simple as changing a job description or as involved as moving employees to
different positions or hiring additional staff.
Job Description
The next step in creating a human resource management plan is to write job descriptions for all the
positions on the farm, from supervisory roles to entry level positions. Preparing a job description is a
fairly easy task. Record what the job entails - the duties and skills needed and any other details. List
the minimum experience required for the position, as well as a salary range and any required
training.
Establishing a salary for a position may be the most difficult part of creating the job description. Many
employers make the mistake of initially offering too small a wage, saying that it will be adjusted
depending on how the employee "works out." A salary range is the best way to handle the wage
issue, since an experienced, capable employee will expect the top of the range, and rightly so. Good,
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experienced people will likely not even bother to apply for jobs with low starting wages.
Job descriptions are an excellent management tool and can be used for recruitment, selection and
the appraisal of employees. The job description lists the specifics of the particular occupation, clearly
stating the employee's duties. Benefits are becoming more and more important to prospective
employees. Include a list of benefits, such as housing, profit sharing and retirement plans, including
detailed descriptions and the dollar value of each benefit.
Providing accurate and honest job descriptions can go a long way towards heading off potential
problems down the road. If all parties agree on what the job entails and accept the terms, future
difficulties will be minimized. A job description will form part of the agreement with your employee. It
should be reviewed and updated annually. A sample job description form is located at the end of this
Factsheet.
Employee Handbook
The employee handbook should spell out for the employee the "rules of the game" when working at
your farm. It is very important that it is written in clear and concise terms.
Communication is the key to success when dealing with people. Talking to or instructing someone
does not guarantee that the individual understands or comprehends what is being said. People
sometimes interpret the same message in different ways. The employee handbook may be one of the
most valuable tools that you can offer your staff. It will not only serve to describe your expectations, in
plain language, but can also work in reverse. Employees will be able to write their job expectations in
the handbook, which will give you an opportunity to see if the employees understand their duties.
Tailor your handbook to your operation. It can serve as both an employment agreement and a training
document.
Include both the employee's and your regulatory responsibilities under the Occupational Health and
Safety Act, the Workplace Safety and Insurance Act, as well as the Employment Standards Act.
As an employer you also have responsibilities under the general category of payroll, including
Canada Pension Plan and Employment Insurance obligations.
Include a section on training. Employee performance depends on both their ability and how well they
are motivated. A top-performing staff member has both the skills to do the job and the motivation to
take the initiative to see the task to its conclusion. On today's modern farming operation, it is no
longer acceptable to simply ask an employee if he or she has done the job before. Be prepared to
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train new and existing workers on an ongoing basis. In the past year, the Occupational Health and
Safety Act has been legislated to cover farming operations. To provide a safe workplace, employers
should now provide formalized safety training for their farm. Record these training events in case of
an accident in the future. Training your employees reinforces your commitment to them, not only as
employees but as valuable members of your team.
Review the entire handbook with the employee to try to make sure there are no misunderstandings.
Ask your new employee for his or her input on the policies of your operation and, if needed, explain
them, whether it's a safety issue or your policy regarding sick time. Remember that what may be a
small issue in your eyes might be of greater importance to a new employee.
Recruiting
The third step in this process is to recruit, interview and hire someone. The traditional recruiting
methods include word of mouth, newspaper ads and employment agencies. An agency will screen
and refer potential workers for a fee.
Another option is posting jobs online. Websites that offer this option do not usually provide a
screening service, so the producer must review all the applications, not just those that meet the job
specifications. This is not the ideal situation for hiring employees, however it does usually generate
interest and a flow of people to your farm. Your chances of finding a good, qualified applicant are
increased by the number of people applying for the position.
Service Canada offers an electronic labour exchange service (www.electroniclabourexchange.ca).

Employers use an online checklist to build a profile of the position they have available, while
prospective employees build a profile of their skills and experience and the type of work they are
looking for. Employers get a list of "potential" matches and can contact the candidates. In many
cases, the actual job is not even posted.
Remember to tell current employees when you are recruiting; they may know of someone who would
be suited for the job. Keeping them informed will also give them a sense of being part of the
operation.
When deciding which recruitment method to use, weigh the cost in both dollars and time. If each
interview takes a lot of time, it is not cost effective to see 150 applicants for a single job advertised in
the newspaper. Using an agency that will pre-screen applicants or the electronic labour exchange will
narrow the choice down for you.
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Hiring
Hiring is a three-step process - the interview and testing, the reference check and the formal offer of
employment. This process can be modified depending on the type of job. Hiring someone for a few
days' work will not require as thorough a process as hiring for a management position.
A thorough interview should take about one hour. Make a list of questions that will test the candidate's
skills, knowledge of the job and other characteristics, such as ability to work with people, ability to
make decisions and ability to take on responsibilities. When hiring for a position of management,
concentrate your questions in the management skill area. When preparing the questions, make sure
they are open ended - they can't be answered just "yes" or "no" - to encourage the person to talk, so
you can better assess his or her abilities. Decide on a rating scale to help judge each interviewee
equally. While it may be important that the employee be able to work well with current employees, be
cautious not to let emotion play too large a part in your decision at the expense of all other factors.
The testing stage of the interview can be done during the initial meeting or in a follow-up interview.
Testing the applicants in the actual job will show how accurately their qualifications were described on
their resumes and how much additional training will be required. For example, if the applicant is
applying for a mechanic or equipment repair job, a simple test should suffice. Disconnect a part on
your tractor and see if the applicant can identify and correct the problem.
Once you've decided who to hire, check his or her references before you make a formal job offer.
Check at least two work-related references and one personal reference, if possible. If the applicant
does not have a great deal of work experience, check additional personal references.
Write out the job offer, including wages, benefits and hours of work, to avoid any misunderstandings.
The job description will be included in the employee handbook.
The actual work agreement should include:
 date
 job description
 salary and wages
 pay periods
 bonuses
 regular working days and hours
 overtime
 vacation
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 sick leave
 housing (if applicable)
 benefits (health insurance, retirement plan, accident insurance, life insurance, etc.)
 transportation or car allowance
 statement of pay deductions
 leave policy on employee-requested training
 probationary period
 provision to update information in agreement
 termination statement
 employer, employee and witness signatures
You may alter this agreement to suit your own needs, but for an agreement such as this to be
successful, it must be followed. Careful attention to the details in these agreements helps both parties
understand what is expected of them.
Templates
The templates on the next four pages can be used to develop your human resource management
plan.
HR Plan Templates
Human Resource Management Planning Checklist
This checklist is not intended to be a comprehensive list of all potential legal requirements for
employing workers. Check with your legal and financial advisors for complete requirements.
Needs assessment
Job descriptions
training/employee handbook
legislative requirements:
Occupational Health and Safety Act
Employee Standards Act
Worksplace Safety and Insurance Act
payroll:
Canada Pension Plan
Employment Insurance
benefits
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housing
wages
Recruiting
Hiring
HR Plan Templates
Needs Assessment:
Seasonal Employees Required
Type of Work Duration # of people Total hours

HR Plan Templates
Needs Assessment:
by Occupation
Occupation When needed Yearly total Weekly Hours Staff person

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HR Plan Templates
Sample Job Description Form
Job title: ________________________________________
Summary description: _____________________________
_______________________________________________
Major tasks and responsibilities: _______________ _____
___ _______ ______________ ______________________
___________ ________________ ___________________
Minor functions: _ _______________ ___________ _____
_ ________________ ____ _______ ___________ ______
Supervised by & report to:____________ ______________
_ ________________ ____________ ____________ _____
Supervise:_ _______________ _______________________
Assist with other jobs:_ ________________ ____________
_ ________________ ___________ ________ ____ _____
Qualifications & training: ___ ____________________ ___
_ ________________ ___________ ___________ ______
_ ________________ ___________ ___________ ______
Skill requirements:___________ _________ ___________
_ ________________ ___________ __________ ______
_ ________________ ___________ ____________ ______
Experience: _________ ___________ _______ ___ ______
Personal characteristics required:__ _____ _____________
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_ ________________ ___________ ________ __________
Physical requirements:__________ _______ ____________
Salary range: minimum:_____ ______ maximum:__ ______
Work hours: _____________ _______________ _________
Average hours: ___ _________ ____________ _________ _
Days off per week:_ ________________ ______ _________
Overtime: never: _______seldom: ________ often: _______
Other benefits:_ ________________ ______________ ____
________________ _______________ _________________
Work environment:_ _______________ ________ ________
_ ________________ ______________ ___________ _____
Safety responsibilties:_ ________ ________ ____ ________
_ ________________ ______________ ______ ________ _
_ ________________ _______________ _____ ________
Summary
This Factsheet will help develop your own human resource management plan and help reduce the
stress associated with hiring staff. This Factsheet is not intended to provide a comprehensive human
resource management plan, but it will provide you with the necessary tools to develop a working plan.
Human resource planning and management are often overlooked by producers when they write a
business plan for their farm. Unsatisfactory employees can result in financial losses as well as
contribute to an emotionally unhealthy work environment. Sample templates have been included for
your use.
2.2. Planning and recruitment strategies of employees; Labor related regulations and principles
Recruitment is described as “the set of activities and processes used to legally obtain a sufficient number
of qualified people at the right place and time so that the people and the organisation can select each
other in their own best short and long term interests”. In other words, the recruitment process provides the
organisation with a pool of potentially qualified job candidates from which judicious selection can be made
to fill vacancies. Successful recruitment begins with proper employment planning and forecasting. In this
phase of the staffing process, an organisation formulates plans to fill or eliminate future job openings
based on an analysis of future needs, the talent available within and outside of the organisation, and the
current and anticipated resources that can be expended to attract and retain such talent.
The Recruitment and Selection process is primarily aimed at procuring staff with the necessary
competencies, thus enabling the organisation to deliver on its strategic and operational priorities. A
significant proportion of responses pointed to staff appointments being tainted by nepotism, political
influence, biased in favour of specific racial groups and secrecy. Whether real or mere perceptions, the
Employment Equity Forum considers these factors to adversely impact on the credibility of appointment
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processes. In addition, staff appointments were generally concluded following a general/traditional
interview whilst research and human-resources-best-practices confirm traditional interviews to be
amongst the poorer predictors of job success.
The Recruitment Process

Successful recruitment involves the several processes of:
1. development of a policy on recruitment and retention and the systems that give life to the policy;
2. needs assessment to determine the current and future human resource requirements of the
organisation. If the activity is to be effective, the human resource requirements for each job
category and functional division/unit of the organisation must be assessed and a priority assigned
3. identification, within and outside the organisation, of the potential human resource pool and the
likely competition for the knowledge and skills resident within it;
4. job analysis and job evaluation to identify the individual aspects of each job and calculate its
relative worth;
5. assessment of qualifications profiles, drawn from job descriptions that identify responsibilities and
required skills, abilities, knowledge and experience;
6. determination of the organisation’s ability to pay salaries and benefits within a defined period;
7. Identification and documentation of the actual process of recruitment and selection to ensure
equity and adherence to equal opportunity and other laws.
Documenting the organisation’s policy on recruitment, the criteria to be utilised, and all the steps in the
recruiting process is as necessary in the seemingly informal setting of in house selection as it is when
selection is made from external sources. Documentation satisfies the requirement of procedural
transparency and leaves a trail that can easily be followed for audit and other purposes. Of special
importance is documentation that is in conformity with Freedom of Information legislation (where such
legislation exists), such as:
 criteria and procedures for the initial screening of applicants;
 criteria for generating long and short lists;
 criteria and procedures for the selection of interview panels;
 interview questions;
 interview scores and panellists’ comments;
 results of tests (where administered);
 results of reference checks
Recruitment strategies and processes
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Recruitment may be conducted internally through the promotion and transfer of existing personnel or
through referrals, by current staff members, of friends and family members. Where internal recruitment is
the chosen method of filling vacancies, job openings can be advertised by job posting, that is, a strategy
of placing notices on manual and electronic bulletin boards, in company newsletters and through office
memoranda. Referrals are usually word-of-mouth advertisements that are a low-cost-per-hire way of
recruiting. Internal recruitment does not always produce the number or quality of personnel needed; in
such an instance, the organisation needs to recruit from external sources, either byencouraging walk-in
applicants; advertising vacancies in newspapers, magazines and journals, and the visual and/or audio
media; using employment agencies to “head hunt”; advertising on-line via the Internet; or through job fairs
and the use of college recruitment.
Public service agencies enjoy greater exposure to scrutiny than most private sector organisations;
therefore, openness and transparency in recruitment and selection practices are crucial.
2.3. Public service training and management development policies
It has long been recognized nationally and internationally that training and development are key elements
in modernizing government through public sector reform and renewal initiatives. Such modernization has
also become a global movement, which is “unprecedented” and part of a “global management revolution”.
The use of public service training and development institutes (PSTDIs) to develop “new professionals” – a
new generation of public administrators and governmental leaders, will allow for the development of
management competencies, values and ethics, which are required to successfully carry out public service
reform and renewal initiatives . In order to support public sector reform and renewal initiatives, through
training and development, the Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management
(CAPAM) has facilitated the birth of a governance network designed to promote the work of public service
training and development institutes within Commonwealth member states. With the development of such
a global policy network, it is hoped that members will benefit from shared information and resources in
order to provide specialized training and development totheir managerial professionals, so that they can
in turn, carry out reforms to meet target objectives such as the Millennium Development Goals.
In order to recruit, train and develop the kind of professionals who could adapt to public service reforms, a
policy of continuous learning has to be adopted. Continuous learning involves training and development,
which the government should be committed to providing permanent employees with an opportunity to
create their personal learning programs and the chance to follow it with a caveat regarding the operational
requirements of their organisations.
Case study: Commonwealth PSTDIs: Critical Reflections

Public Service Training and Development Institutes across the Commonwealth share many common traits
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and directions. All are committed to providing the members of their public services with training and
learning designed to ensure that public servants within each country possess the core skills and
competencies that are required to perform their duties to nationally and internationally recognized
standards of public service merit and professionalism. We also witness an increased interest in
management promotion and leadership development designed to encourage a new generation of public
service leaders to be creative and innovative public sector managers, encouraging their subordinates to
be engaged and caring public servants, and leading by example in promoting participatory management
and teamwork. Managers are increasingly expected to be public service leaders, working together with
interested actors both within the public service and the broader civil society to promote and deliver public
services responsive to citizens and clients while, by so doing, enhancing the professional reputation of the
public service itself.
2.4. Human resources plan is monitored and reviewed

The main focus of monitoring and review is to determine to what extent the employment equity plan is
being implemented and to determine if the activities in the plan are effective. The revision of the plan is
then based on these findings.
Purpose of Monitoring, Review and Revision

The purpose of monitoring the plan is to:
 follow-up on the responsibilities and accountabilities of individuals and groups in the organization
to ensure that they are implementing the various components of the plan. (Many activities in an
employment equity plan are interlinked; success or failure for one component can affect others.);
 demonstrate that the organisation is making a reasonable effort to implement the plan, according
to the plan’s goals and timetables. ("Reasonable" is not defined in law. It will vary according to the
circumstances of an individual organization. However, it is implicit that the effort monitored here
will be consistent with the activities and timetables set out in the plan.); and
 ensure that reasonable progress in implementing the activities set out in the plan is being made.
A critical element in the performance review cycle is the collecting and delivering of effective feedback on
the staff member’s performance throughout the review period. Feedback should be comprehensive and
obtained from a range of relevant stakeholders.
Monitoring
Setting up the monitoring system
The first step in setting up the monitoring system is to decide who is responsible for this part of the
employment equity process. The overall responsibility and accountability for monitoring will rest with
senior management.
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However, staff assigned to employment equity and members of the employment equity committee, if one
exists, are likely to have the day-to-day responsibilities of ensuring monitoring occurs by playing the co-
ordination role. They ensure that an effective monitoring system has been developed and implemented,
that findings are communicated to senior management and others who require them, and that
management acts to remedy any problems that have been identified. They could also assign
responsibility to others who collect and analyse information on monitoring and evaluation.
Those who actually collect and analyse this information may work in various areas, including human
resources, systems, management, unions, the employment equity committee and employment equity
staff. The responsibilities of staff who carry out monitoring activities will include activities such as:
 designing and implementing the statistical monitoring systems that will generate the information
on changes in the representation of designated groups in various occupational categories and in
various departments of the organisation;
 determining if implementation of plan initiatives have been implemented and if not, why; and
 if appropriate individuals have been held accountable.
The monitoring system should be established in conjunction with the start-up of the employment equity
plan. During the start-up phase of employment equity programming there will be considerable emphasis
on the initiating process as well as monitoring early results. For example, in the plan, there may be a
requirement for human resources to try a new recruitment strategy. The various steps in setting up that
strategy and implementing it may be monitored to see if they are happening as planned.
Once the organisation has implemented its employment equity programming, the emphasis will shift more
to reviewing and revising. This means examining what works and what doesn’t, what longer term results
can be expected and how the organisation can improve its employment equity outcomes. For instance,
the new recruitment strategy, referred to above, may have had a short lived effect. The turn-over of those
recruited by this method may have been high. Therefore, a new approach is needed to attract and retain
staff and produce better longer term results.
Setting up the monitoring system requires thinking about all of the components of the employment equity
plan that need to be monitored, and determining the most reasonable and effective approach to doing so.
The legislated requirement to have short and long term goals means that monitoring must be timely and
ongoing. Whoever is responsible for monitoring the implementation of a specific project should monitor its
individual components and not wait until the deadline for the completion of the entire project.
If employers do not develop an effective process for monitoring their employment equity program, they
will seldom be able to thoroughly review the program later on.
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Effectiveness of the monitoring system
A good employment equity monitoring system:
 measures the extent to which the key processes/activities set out in the plan are being
implemented;
 addresses short, medium and long term goals with measurement at appropriate intervals;
 is relatively easy to maintain, once established;
 is adequately resourced;
 is integrated with other organizational audit tools where appropriate;
 feeds into accountability mechanisms;
 is meaningful to those who need to use the results;
 respects privacy;
 is flexible in terms of dealing with program changes; and
 provides an indication of individual, group and overall organizational changes at various points in
time, which may influence the implementation of the plan
Gathering information
In order to get a more complete view of the staff member’s performance it may be necessary for you to
collect information from a variety of sources. This is especially important if you do not have contact with
the staff member on a frequent basis. For example, you and the staff member may be located on
different campuses or most of the staff member’s work and direction may come from someone other than
you. This can happen, for example, in laboratory situations. It might be appropriate to talk to clients
(students, staff from other units, academics in the faculty, managers) to see how well a service is being
provided. If the staff member supervises other staff it may also be appropriate to get feedback from them.
In some cases staff may have more than one supervisor or take direction from another person or a
committee. In these cases, you will need to discuss with all parties how information on performance will
be communicated and assessed.
When gathering performance information, remember that you want to be able to give the staff member
specific performance-related feedback, using examples.
Importantly:
 Keep the feedback in context and perspective. One complaint from a client does not necessarily
mean that a staff member is not doing a good job. There may be numerous satisfied clients who
do not pass on their views to either you or the staff member
 There may be extenuating circumstances preventing the staff member from working effectively
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 Don’t judge the staff member’s overall performance by the most recent activity/project
completed. Consistently monitoring performance throughout the year will give a more balanced
picture
 You should also distinguish the individual’s contribution from that of other members in a team,
although in the case of team projects or deliverables you might also want to consider how
effectively the individual collaborates with other members of team.
 The ultimate aim for you as a supervisor is to try and get as complete a picture as possible of the
staff member’s performance in order to give a fair evaluation of performance.
Assessing performance when there is no work plan
Only in extraordinary circumstances would a work plan not be available. In rare situations performance
can be assessed against any one or a combination of the following:
 Position descriptions with emphasis on principle accountabilities identified as priorities over the
previous twelve months.
 Business and/or individual assigned priorities.
 Written or verbal expectations.
When assessing performance in relation to principal accountabilities supervisors need to be aware that
principal accountabilities may vary in terms of significance or difficulty and may be given more or less
emphasis in a particular year depending upon the business unit’s priorities. It is important to ensure a
work plan is created for the following year.
Components of a monitoring system

Monitoring the employment equity plan
The Act requires employers to monitor their employment equity plans to determine whether it is enabling
the organisation to make reasonable progress towards implementing employment equity.
The plan must include, at a minimum, the following elements and each element must be monitored:
 positive policies and practices to be instituted in the short term for hiring, training, promoting and
retaining of the designated group members and making reasonable accommodations;
 measures to eliminate barriers identified by the employment systems review;
 a timetable for the first two items;
 short-term numerical goals; and
 longer-term goals for increasing the representation of persons in designated groups.
Monitoring positive policies and practices:
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Positive policies and practices may include such things as a special recruitment program for Aboriginal
persons if they are significantly underrepresented in the organisation or a special training program for
women for senior management positions. Positive policies and practices are usually of a short-term
duration to help create an immediate increase in the representation of an underrepresented group. These
positive policies and practices need to be monitored on an ongoing basis to ensure all necessary steps
are taken to ensure their full implementation.
Each step in the implementation of such a positive policy or practice should be monitored to pinpoint at
exactly what stage problems occur. If the goal of the positive policy or practice is to increase the
representation of the designated group in question, the goals will be monitored and if they are not
reached, a close examination of this activity will occur during the review and revision of the plan.
Monitoring of the elimination of barriers:

As is true for monitoring positive policies and practices, monitoring the elimination of barriers created by
existing policies and practices is a relatively simple exercise. It involves determining if the existing policy
or practice has indeed been eliminated, modified or replaced according to the employment equity plan
and its timetable. The new policy or practice will be ongoing and part of the overall human resource
policies and practices of the organisation.
Monitoring the timetable:

 The employment equity plan sets out a timetable for policies and practices and eliminating barriers.
Monitoring includes ensuring that the activities are undertaken within the timetable set out in the plan.
 The reasons for any delay should be examined and fully justified by those responsible for the
implementation of various activities of the plan. Once the delays are explained, new deadlines should
be set and the plan should be revised accordingly.
LEARNING UNIT 3:
MANAGE PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUALS WITHIN A TEAM.

the public sector
Learning Outcome 1: The performance management system that applies to public sector finance
and administration is sourced and explained.
Learning Outcome 2: The performance management monitoring and review tools are integrated
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into overall management function.
Learning Outcome 3: Performance reviews are conducted at regular intervals with individuals and
codes of conduct relating to performance reviews are firmly established.
Learning Outcome 4: All related reports to performance reviews are documented and kept on
record.
Learning Outcome 5: Disciplinary practices are undertaken where necessary and appropriate
mechanism are utilized to ensure constructive feedback according to public
sector disciplinary practices and codes of conduct.
3.1. The performance management system that applies to public sector finance and
administration.
In terms of the Public Service Regulations of 1999 departments were required to determine their human
resource management policies and practices, and ensure that there were adequate institutional and
managerial mechanisms in place. Performance management was devolved to each executive authority
(EA), which was required to determine a system for performance management and development of
employees.
The benefits of performance measurement to stakeholders and internally were outlined, including the
improvement of accountability, strategic planning and goal setting, decision making and long term goals
and objectives. The organisation, its head, senior managers, and other employees should all be
measured. Employee performance was a continuous process, aimed at positively influencing employee
behaviour for the achievement of strategic goals. It would determine the correct activities, enhance
efficiency and understand and manage performance within an agreed framework of planned goals,
objectives, indicators and support incentives. The objective of timely submission of Pas was to ensure
that early in the financial year the executive and head of departments clarify performance expectations as
well as development needs for the year. It was critical that the HOD sign in order to cascade down other
performance agreements.
The success of the Public Service in delivering its operational and development goals depends primarily
on the efficiency and effectiveness with which public servants carry out their duties. Managing
performance is therefore a key human resource management tool to ensure that:
 Employees know what is expected of them.
 Managers know whether employee's performance is delivering the required objectives.
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 Poor performance is identified and improved.
 Good performance is recognised and rewarded.
Performance management is an ongoing process, in which the employee and employer, together, strive
constantly to improve the employee’s individual performance and his or her contribution to the
organisation’s wider objectives. Since the performance of every employee contributes to the overall
delivery of the organisation’s objectives, it follows that the performance of every employee must be
managed. The performance management procedures may vary from one group or level of employees to
another, depending on their tasks, but the following principles should underpin all performance
management procedures:
Results orientation:
The employee’s performance should be assessed on the basis of a work plan covering a specified period,
setting out clearly the his or her responsibilities and the objectives to be achieved. These objectives
should be expressed in terms of outputs to be delivered within a given timescale, and should include
personal development as well as operational objectives. The assessment process should include both a
written assessment completed at no less yearly intervals, and regular discussions at least every 6 months
to monitor progress.
Where performance has not matched the requirements in the work plan, the assessment, both written and
verbal, should be focused on identifying the reasons for this, and on reaching mutual agreement on the
steps which need to be taken to effect improvement.
Participation:
The work plan should be mutually agreed between the employee and his or her supervisor.
Openness, fairness and objectivity :
The employee must be given a copy of the written assessment. The reporting officer’s written assessment
must be reviewed by his or her own supervisor in order to ensure that reporting standards are objective
and uniform.
Setting Up a Performance Management System

Setting up a good performance management system doesn't happen overnight or by accident. You need
to consider its design and carefully plan how it will work before managers begin using it to evaluate
employees.
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A performance management system should provide employees with these four basic benefits:
1. A clear understanding of job expectations
2. Regular feedback about performance
3. Advice and steps for improving performance
4. Rewards for good performance
The goal of a performance management system is to help boost employee performance and, ultimately,
the productivity of the business. For it to be effective, a performance management system should
incorporate the following critical elements:
Updated Job Descriptions
Job descriptions should clearly describe the employee's current duties and performance expectations.
Position descriptions should be specific, clearly defining the job function, required skills, deadlines and
goals, and should delineate expectations for the employee's relations with peers and customers.
Keep job descriptions current, especially during times of organizational change. Rapid growth and
downsizing inevitably add new responsibilities and shift employees' workloads.
Performance Measures and Standards
Once you have job descriptions in place, you need to establish performance standards that describe what
constitutes below-average, average, and above-average performance. Start by thinking about the best-
and worst-case scenarios until you reach realistic standards for measuring performance.
Next, determine how you're going to measure the expectations outlined in the job description. This
requires both objective and subjective methods of assessment. In some situations it's easy to gauge
performance by looking at the numbers: for example, how many new accounts an employee brought in or
how many products an employee assembled.
Quantifying an employee's coping skills, customer service skills or attitude is much more difficult. Some
managers also have biases or poor evaluation skills. Establish clear guidelines and measures that
eliminate potential bias and prevent evaluators from subjectively determining what constitutes excellent
and unacceptable behavior.
Evaluator Training
Research shows that managers with poor communication or interpersonal skills are often the downfall of
a company's otherwise sound performance management program. All managers need training on how to
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communicate and how to conduct fair, nonjudgmental and consistent appraisals. An effective
performance management system will administer training to managers before they conduct their first
reviews.
Guidelines for Improvement
Institute basic policies to cope with employee weaknesses and poor performance. Decide if you'll provide
training or mentoring for employees exhibiting subpar performance. Set guidelines that outline how long it
should it take an employee to improve and what steps will be taken if the employee fails to show
improvement.
Employee Input
Solicit and evaluate staff suggestions for your performance management program. Incorporate employee
input into your program or system as needed.
Compensation and Rewards
When your employees perform well they should be compensated. Rewards keep morale high, generate
loyalty and foster additional improvement. But closely linking pay hikes and promotions to performance
appraisals is a contested issue. Critics say that too close a tie between performance evaluation and
compensation may be punishing or unfair to employees who don't overachieve.
Regardless of how and when you choose to compensate your employees, an above-average appraisal
deserves acknowledgment. Make sure you consistently reward employees for their hard work.
3.2. Integration of performance management monitoring and review tools with the management
function
3.3. Conducting Performance reviews and documentation of reports

You’ve invested your time, your money, and all your energy into building your company. But no company
can function for very long without a team of productive employees supporting it. It’s important not only that
your employees feel appreciated, but also that they feel they're progressing steadily in their careers.
One of the best ways to ensure this level of job satisfaction is by holding employee performance reviews
at least once a year. However, as essential as these reviews can be for the growth of the company and
the well-being of its employees, many small business owners remain uncomfortable with the entire
process.
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To make your performance reviews as productive and as painless as possible, follow these 10 tried-and-
true suggestions:
1. Be prepared. First of all, make sure you are fully prepared before sitting down with the employee.
Decide both what you're going to say and how you're going to say it.
2. Lead with the positive. It’s important to reaffirm the employee’s strengths at the beginning of the
review. Since job security is the number one concern of most people, the performance review is a
good time to tell an employee how much you value their contributions to your business.
3. Don’t be confrontational. It’s also important not to criticize the employee in general terms. The
goal is to evaluate job performance and not the person. A performance review that turns into a
gripe session misses the opportunity to raise employee morale.
4. Keep it real. Human resource professionals recommend that you avoid detailed reviews that are
too complicated and mechanistic, which can leave the employee feeling like a drone rather than a
human being.
5. Be consistent. Make sure to handle performance reviews in a consistent manner. Top
performers should hear affirmations from you regarding their exemplary efforts; weak performers
need to hear that their performance requires improvement. A simple approach to review criteria is
to evaluate work based on quantity and quality relative to the job requirements. Secondary
considerations might be employee attitude, willingness to help other personnel with their work
when appropriate, and the ability to get along with others.
6. Make it a two-way conversation. An effective performance review requires an interactive
discussion with an open agenda. Try to formulate questions that seek the employee’s ideas and
input. Remember, this will help the employee feel you value his or her opinions. The review
should also be a forum for employees to voice their concerns.
7. Address what’s important to the employee. Since job satisfaction is the most important factor
affecting an employee’s attitude (and therefore his or her level of performance and value to your
company), an effective review should delve into areas that include issues most important to that
employee.
8. Discuss work/life balance. The performance review is a good opportunity to show your concern
for the employee’s work/life balance, and to jointly discuss solutions to improve that balance. It’s
also a good time to create a plan for the employee’s career advancement and discuss what future
opportunities might exist for him or her.
9. Be a good listener. Remember to be an active listener and to pick up on your employee’s verbal
and nonverbal cues.
10. Review regularly. Reviews should be done proactively with the purpose of improving employee
morale and productivity. When you conduct them on a regular basis, you avoid reviews prompted
solely by the need to document an employee’s poor performance. This in turn can imply that the
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information is being collected as evidence to avoid litigation, should the employee ever be
terminated.
The sign of a successful performance review is an employee who leaves the meeting feeling motivated
and excited about his or her job. If the employee’s job satisfaction needs are unmet, it’s less likely they
will be motivated to focus on your goals for the company. But if an employee feels acknowledged,
appreciated, and fairly rewarded for past efforts, he or she will indeed become a valuable asset to the
future success of your company.
ESTABLISH A FAIR AND ACCURATE EMPLOYEE REVIEW SYSTEM

Conducting employee reviews is a task that many business owners and managers dread, especially if
they have yet to develop a sound system for conducting those reviews. However, a practical and well-
designed employee review system is a vital element to attract, retain, and encourage top talent in this
competitive marketplace.
Here are some tips for creating and implementing a fair, accurate, and discerning employee review
system:
1. Write it down. When creating a formal appraisal system, everything should be documented.

Specifically, your system should provide supporting documentation for any actions that may
ensue. Without a written record, the fairness and relevance of your evaluation may come into
question. Read Performance Reviews: A Guide for Managers for additional pointers on this topic.
2. Be focused and clear in your purpose. The purpose of an employee review is not to mete out
punishment or to merely avoid lawsuits. It should act as a solid and fundamental method of
communication for you and your employees; it should function as the yardstick by which you set
common goals and measure progress.
3. Keep it simple. Keep the process and the paperwork as simple as possible. A basic and
standardized evaluation form can have several advantages, such as greater uniformity among
reviews. The forms, like their function, should be direct and on point.
4. Be flexible. Conversely, rigidly maintaining a uniform system of appraisal does not work for every
employee, every time. Some employees — especially in small businesses where people tend to
wear many hats — possess unique competencies that may not be covered on your stock
evaluation. Have a system in place to commend and critique any particular or specific qualities
and accomplishments of your staff.
5. Solicit feedback. Employee feedback during the review process is as important as the review
itself. Moreover, you should let them play a hand in how the review will be conducted. Ask your
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employees ahead of time to list their strengths, weaknesses, and goals for the coming year.
During the review you can compare notes. This element of the review allows you to see not only
how your employees are meeting your goals and expectations, but also how their goals and
expectations match with yours. Also read The Benefits of Employee Self-Reviews for some
helpful advice on this topic.
6. Encourage self-evaluations. Exhorting self-evaluations also encourages the person being

evaluated. It offers your employees a chance to review the quality of their work, to highlight the
projects or responsibilities of which they are most proud, and to reflect on mistakes made and
lessons learned.
7. Set realistic standards. Let's face it, if you're the business owner, you're probably going to work
night and day to make sure your business succeeds. It would be exceptional to have employees
as committed as you, but that's unlikely. So set realistic standards for your employees. You want
to create a work environment in which your employees feel appreciated for and capable of the
work that they do.
8. Chart a path. When properly administered, performance reviews can motivate employees to

improve. These reviews can help you and your employees clearly identify their worth and value to
the business. When employees know where they are going, they're more likely to get there.
9. Define discussion topics. Important review topics to cover include: the employee's role in the
business; how well he or she performs that role; areas in which he or she needs to improve; and
identifiable goals to be attained over the coming six months or year.
10. Create a plan. Together, you and your staff should develop a list of clear, action-oriented steps to
be taken following the review. This list should detail any improvements that must be made or
skills that must be acquired in order to maintain or achieve progress.
3.4. Disciplinary practices

Discipline of employees often gives rise to employment litigation. The following general guidelines for
dealing with employees with disciplinary problems may help employers avoid litigation.
Employers should have clear disciplinary standards and evidence that employees were given notice of
such policies and procedures. These standards must be applied uniformly. The company should retain
the right to determine what discipline will be imposed in each individual situation. The disciplinary
procedure should follow four rules:
 The employee must know the nature of the problem.
 The employee must know what he or she must do to fix the problem.
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 The employee must have a reasonable period of time in which to fix the problem.
 The employee must understand the consequences of inaction.
Employers must create a discipline policy that will not limit their right to enforce appropriate disciplinary
measures. The law requires employers to match the discipline to the seriousness of the offense. The
challenge for employers is how to reconcile being consistent in the application of discipline, but still take
into consideration the specific facts which tend to make each disciplinary incident unique. Evaluate these
4 criteria when determining the most effective level of disciplinary action:
1. The severity of the offense.
2. The employee’s past performance record.
3. The employee’s length of service with the organization.
4. The organization’s past practice when dealing with this situation
Progressive Discipline
Progressive Discipline is defined as a series of disciplinary actions or steps that are progressively more
severe leading to improvement of performance or termination from employment. It is usually a set of
circumstances or warnings – three strikes and you’re out.
The primary purpose of progressive discipline is to assist your employees to understand that:
 An opportunity exists for improvement or,
 A severe performance problem may exist
Companies should consider using the progressive discipline system. The progressive discipline system
normally begins with the recruitment process and continues through orientation, training, performance
evaluations and daily supervision. A progressive discipline system consists of the following:
 A verbal warning
 A written warning
 Suspension
 Termination
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LEARNING UNIT 4:
RECRUIT AND SELECT STAFF.

the public sector
Learning Outcome 1: Recruitment plan is drawn up according to divisional needs.
Learning Outcome 2: Recruitment policies relating to internal and external recruitment are
complied with.
Learning Outcome 3: Job descriptions are drawn up and interviewing questions designed
accordingly.
Learning Outcome 4: Any assessment tools are reviewed and effectively utilized for selection
purposes.
Learning Outcome 5: Selection process is implemented according to public sector policies.
4.1. Recruitment plan

There are a number of possible reasons as to why a business may have to recruit more employees:
 Business is expanding due to:
 Increasing sales of existing products
 Developing new products
 Entering new markets
 Existing employees leaving to work with competitors or other local employers
 Existing employees leaving due to factors such as retirement, sick leave, maternity leave
 Business needs employees with new skills
 Business is relocating – and not all the existing workforce wants to move to the new location
In each of these circumstances a business will normally carry out Workforce Planning to find out how
many workers and what types of workers are required. The workforce plan will establish what vacancies
exist and managers then need to draw up a job description and job specification for each post.
A job description is a detailed explanation of the roles and responsibilities of the post advertised. Most
applicants will ask for this before applying for the job. It refers to the post available rather than the person.
A job specification is drawn up by the business and sets out the kind of qualifications, skills, experience
and personal attributes a successful candidate should possess. It is a vital tool in assessing the suitability
of job applicants and refers to the person rather than the post.
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These documents are an important part of the recruitment and selection process and provide the basis as
to where the job may be advertised and whether an applicant is suitable for the post. They also help
provide a framework for questions to be asked at an interview.
RECRUITMENT PLAN
This is sample / example of recruitment plan
1. Quantity of recruitment
• Identify number of employee / staff recruited per department
• Design a table with columns: No, department, Position, Number of employee, date got new employee,
remarks
2. Design of recruitment materials
• Testing tools for the above positions are available?
• If not, company should have plan to fulfill above materials
• Job description of the above positions are available?
3. Sources of recruitment
• You should design a table with columns: No, position, channel, budget, who follow?, remark
• You can identify recruitment sources by internal or external
• What are channels for recruitment?
• You should identify suitable channel for each position.
4. Selection plan
• Who receive CVs? and when do?
• Who review CVs? and when do?
• Who organize to check professional and skills of candidate? and when do?
• Who interview? and when do?
• Who make final decision? and when do?
You should design a table with columns: No, working contents, who follow, who support, date, remark.
5. Recruitment budget
Identify what is budget of this recruitment.
6. Notes (if any)
Sign:
Make by————–HR Manager————–CEO
Recruitment Process
1. Objectives of recruitment process
The recruitment process has the following objectives:
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• To ensure that the recruitment is as per the company expectations. (e.g time, skills, etc.,)
• To attract sufficient applications from potential candidates with the required skills, qualities, experience,
and competencies deemed as being necessary to the job.
• To develop and maintain processes which will assist in ensuring the appointment of the most suitable
candidate.
2. Recruitment Process
2.1. Getting Recruitment Request

Need to hire a resource can be due to any of the following instances:
• Non-availability of existing resource to fulfill a new requirement.
• Replace an existing resource
• Vacancy created due to the resignation of a existing resource
• Recruitment as backup resource
• Other reasons as deemed fit by the CEO and Senior Management
A recruitment request has the job specifications detailing the job title, mandatory skills, desired skills,
responsibilities, location, start date, and approximate end date of the assignment.
2.2. Make recruitment plan

Based on recruitment requests, HR dept make recruitment plan and send to Director for approval.
Recruitment plan, including the:
• Number of employees need to recruit.
• Job descriptions.
• Recruitment Sources.
• Checking Plan for candidates.
• Budget of recruitment …
2.3 Researching of workforce market

HR dept need to regularly study the labor market to determine the recruitment channels appropriate to
each audience.
The following factors need to be considered when studying the labor market
• Ability to provide.
• Time to provide fast or slow.
• Cost.
• Suitable audiences.
Based on the requirements of recruitment, HR should propose suitable channels.
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2.4 Contact recruitment agencies
Based on the channel recruitment approved, HR dept conduct to contact recruitment channels to:
• Determining costs.
• Determining when recruitment ads are posted.
• Conducting procedures with recruitment agents such as contracts and payment.
2.5 Issue recruitment ads

HR dept should:
• Design recruitment ads.
• In some cases, it must be sent to director for approval.
• Post information to recruiting agents or post to free recruitment channels.
• HR manger should check the information which was posted to ensure conformity with the requirements
set out.
2.6 Take care of candidates

Candidates often call or email to inquire information of recruitment, and HR dept need to build up
information channels to answer the requirements of candidates.
2.7 Receiving CVs from candidates

After receiving CVs, HR dept perform the next step in the process of selecting candidate
4.2. Recruitment policies relating to internal and external recruitment
INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL RECRUITMENT

The Internal Recruitment is the most favourite source of candidates in the stable and developed
companies. The Internal Recruitment needs a strong support from other HR Processes, because the
unmanaged internal recruitment process can lead to disappointed managers and employees in the
organization. The Succession Planning and strong and consistent Performance Management are needed
to ensure the success of the internal recruitment.
The internal recruitment can offer the chance to change the job position to anyone in the organization,
but the efficient internal recruitment process needs a strong help from other processes to provide
managers with the additional information to work with. In case of the unknown additional information, the
internal recruitment process can not offer much of the value added. The internal job candidate should be
known to the organization and the HRM Function should provide the hiring manager with the information
about the background information.
The internal recruitment process has to be driven by strict and agreed HR Rules and HR Policies as
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the unclear rules for the process can bring a lot of tension inside the organization as the best employees
can be easily stolen among different units and different managers. This issue looks pretty simple to solve,
but the reality can bring difficult issues and conflicts among the management team and can affect the
performance of the organization hardly.
Internal Recruitment Pros and Cons

The Internal Recruitment can build a strong loyalty with the organization as the employees have a chance
to change their position after a period of time. The employees are not pressed to look for opportunities on
the external job market.
The Internal Recruitment can be cheaper for the organization and can save the costs dedicated to the
training and induction of new employees. Also, as the candidate knows the organization, the possibility of
the failure is not a significant issue to the organization.
The Internal Recruitment needs strong management from the HRM Function, which can lead to the
conflicts and the HRM Function has to have a position to be able to act as a strong facilitator in the
conflict resolution.
The Internal Recruitment can lead to huge issues when the candidates come from one department. The
managers have to have the right to protect their own interests in the organization as they are responsible
for the smooth operation.
The Internal Recruitment does not bring new skills and competencies to the organization and organization
with an intensive usage of the internal recruitment can suffer from the fresh blood.
External Recruitment Pros and Cons

The External Recruitment brings new people to the organization, which can be a huge benefit for the
organization. The External Recruitment allows the organization to define the right requirements and the
organization can select the candidate, which suits the organization best. The external recruitment can be
in many situations quicker solutions, mainly in the situation, when the job market is full of potential job
candidates.
The external recruitment and proper campaign increase the popularity of the organization on the job
market, which helps to improve the position for further expansion.
On the other hand, the external recruitment is expensive and takes a lot of energy from the HRM Function
to handle all the job candidates in the selection process.
What is an interview?
The definition of an interview is given as 'a special type of conversation
between at least two people in order to obtain and exchange
information for a specific purpose, such as selection'.
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To employ well is only part of the goal of interviews. The biggest challenge is to hire the best candidate
so that he/she will be happy and productive.
The objective of interviews is the exchange of information between the applicant and the interviewer
(which represents the organisation). Enough information should be obtained to determine whether the
applicant is suitable for employment in the particular post and the applicant should obtain enough
information to decide whether he/she would like to accept the post if offered.
The purpose of an employment interview is to collect information, combine and classify it to help predict
the likelihood of the applicant being able to perform the job successfully.
Unfortunately the reality is usually that few managers know exactly what they want to discover or are
looking for in an interview. Consequently, the questions asked are the conventional ones which might or
might not have bearing on what the interviewer really needs to find out in order to make a decision. This
renders the interview process ineffective.
Traditional interviews vs. targeted selection (behavioural) interviews:

“OLD” Interview Targeted Selection
 people tend to employ people they like,  You ask specific questions relating to
 that are not always suited for the job, and someone’s past experience that will give a
 these people tend to be very similar in nature to good indication of how they’ll respond in
the interviewer. future situations
 Method does not rule out one’s “gut feeling”.
Intuition still plays an important role.
 TS method makes you concentrate on the
person’s ability to do the job and not just on
their personality.
 
Obviously this is not really a suitable criterion for The general idea is that past behaviour is the
employment, therefore when conducting interviews best guide to future performance.
one has to be careful that one does not make a
snap decision of whether to hire or not to hire based
on personal judgements.
An effective interview process consists of specific steps which need to

be followed:
Job specification, including skills, competencies and
capabilities required
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1. Sourcing of candidates, using adverts or a recruitment agency
2. Pre-selection or short-listing, based on CV’s received and possibly telephonic interviews
3. Preparing for the interview
4. Conducting the Interview
5. Final selection
6. Feedback
Pre-Interview Selection
The following are guidelines on pre-interview selection
tools that can be utilised in order to select the best
candidate for the post.
i. Application forms
At one time, application forms were considered necessary,

but not extremely important. Once looked through,
application forms were filed away and disregarded as
source of important information. Today it is crucial that the company gain as much insight into applicants
as possible.
 Red flags :
The application form is not completed fully
Answers are not shaped and polished
Answers given in the application form are contradictory to the Curriculum Vitae or given in the
interview
Keep a watchful eye for unanswered questions
The applicant does not possess the necessary and expected qualifications and experience
The applicant has a poor work record

ii. Curriculum Vitae
To work through a whole stack of résumés is time consuming. When evaluating the CV, the first hint is to
assume that if you do not see clear indications of personal attributes and skills that you are looking for,
the applicant does not possess them. It can further be helpful to look for a straight and positive career
path. Be wary of applicants that are long on generalities and short on specifics. Separate the actual work
experience from superfluous information.
It is important to determine for yourself whether the CV was written with care and is clear of spelling
errors and vague language.
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 Red flags :
The applicant can not isolate specific work achievements
The applicant can not supply verifiable references
Over-qualification occurs to the extent that boredom will occur in the post applied for
Information given is inaccurate or contradictory with answers given in the interview
Compiling shortlists
In compiling the shortlist of applicants to be interviewed, all applicants
who do not meet the minimum requirements for the post must be
disregarded.
These requirements are:

 Lack of relevant work experience.
 Applicant does not meet minimum qualifications or standards.
 Applicant has a poor work record.
 There is a lack of specific skills or knowledge required.
PLEASE NOTE:
 It is a waste of time and money to compile a shortlist for interviews with applicants that obviously do
not measure up to the requirements as stated above.
 Do not be scared to be very critical in analysing the application forms and CV’s in order to select the
best candidates for the shortlist.
 Compiling the shortlist is the first step to appointment and it is therefore important to critically evaluate
the applicants from the beginning.
Prepare For the Interview

The aim of structuring the interview is to provide a framework, which can be used during the interview.
The interviewer is able to collect relevant information according to the job description and man
specification in the short time that the interview lasts. The more senior a position is, the less rigid the
structure becomes.
Structuring starts off by determining the Key Result Areas of the post, followed by identifying the key
behaviour elements. Draw up questions around the key behaviour elements and supply model answers.
It is important to note that Human Resources and the Line Management get together beforehand in order
to determine these elements, questions and model answers.
Prepare an agenda for the interview and determine whether a rating scale will be used.
Advantages
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 The interviewers are properly prepared
 It prevents the interviewers from forgetting important questions
 By following a fixed plan no diversion from the point under discussion takes place
 It prevents the talkative interviewer from talking too much
Disadvantages
 A rigid ‘question-answer’ situation may occur
 An interviewer that is not adaptive of the structured questions may not get all
the information needed out of the discussion.
Types of interviews
For the purpose of this workshop the panel, unstructured and structured interviews will be discussed.
When selecting applicants for employment or promotion, a combination of the panel and structured
interview is recommended whilst using the personal techniques of the unstructured interview.
a. Panel Interview
This type of interview is composed of at least two interviewers, each of whom is included because of their
particular expertise and knowledge. Interviewers limit their questions to those pertaining to their particular
skill or area of knowledge.
b. Unstructured Interview
The objective of this interview is to get the candidate to talk freely and expansively about his/her work
experience, personal life, interests, knowledge and education. The flow of the interview is not restricted
to a limited amount of structured questions that direct the interview. Probing techniques are used in a
more in-depth interview.
c. Structured Interview
This interview is structured by means of a comprehensive set of questions designed around the job
description that has been determined for the specific post.
Pre-interview arrangements (environment)

When preparing for an interview the following aspects should be kept in mind:
a. Privacy
The office where the interview is to be conducted must be private so that the interview will not be
interrupted. It is important that the conversation should not be overheard, as an interview should be
treated as confidential.
b. Physical setting
The room should be arranged to facilitate a comfortable atmosphere, which is neat and businesslike. Eye
contact between the interviewers and applicant is expected and the setting should promote good
communication.
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Conducting the Interview
There are three main phases when conducting an interview:
Opening the interview

An interview is an artificial situation, which makes most interviewees, feel nervous and tense. It is the
interviewer’s responsibility to break down the barriers and establish rapport when opening the interview.
Rapport is the establishment of a climate of trust and confidence that will permit functional interaction.
The objective is to do whatever is necessary to encourage the interviewee to interact freely and
comfortably with the interviewer.
Rapport can be established by greeting the candidate warmly and introducing yourself. An informal
approach could be followed where some time can be devoted to small talk. Thank the interviewee for
applying for the position and attending the interview. It is essential that the purpose of the interview, the
format and length of the interview is explained.
DO:
 Create an atmosphere in which the candidate has confidence and feels at ease.
 Open the interview with some topic of common interest.
DON’T:
 Appear ill at ease, awkward or embarrassed.
 Give the impression of being hurried or busy.
Once a healthy rapport has been established, the interview can be
conducted.
a. Conducting the interview
The objective in this phase is to obtain enough information about the
candidate in order to enable the interviewer to make effective selection decisions.
Keep the following in mind when conducting the interview:
 Ask one question at a time.
 Move smoothly from one area to another and link questions or statements.
 Listen carefully what the candidate has to say and record the answers.
 Probing could take place.
DO:
 Give the candidate time to think and a chance to answer each question before moving on to the next.
 Get the facts about the applicant’s abilities, interests, health, motivation, experience, attitudes.
 Keep the job in mind at all times.
DON’T:
 Cross-examine or crowd the candidate for answers.
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 Let the interview wander.
 Phrase questions to indicate desired answers.
 Red flags:
 The applicant left the previous job without adequate notice.
 The applicant is late for the interview.
 Confidential information about the former employer is revealed by the applicant.
 The former employer is badmouthed.
 An overall lack of enthusiasm about life and work occurs.
 Anger is felt towards the current job or former employment.
 The applicant is not informed about the company or the post that he/she is interested in.
 Responses are inadequate where the interviewee does not understand the question or have
difficulty in expressing him/herself.
 Information given in responses is inaccurate, irrelevant or contradictory.
Closing the interview

The objective in this phase is to round off the discussion so that the candidate leaves the interview
situation with a positive image of the employer. It also gives opportunity for the candidate to ask
questions.
The following aspects should be kept in mind when closing the interview:
 Allow time for questions that the interviewee might like to ask.
 Obtain permission to do reference checks.
 Explain the next step in the selection process.
 Find out when the applicant will be in a position to take up the new post if offered.
Information made available to the applicant:
It is the onus of the interviewer to help the applicant understand such things as
 the job for which he/she is being considered
 the reason the position is open
 why he/she would want to work in the company
 wages, hours, conditions of employment
 promotions and opportunity for growth
 benefits
 stability of employment
 Philosophy of the company toward its workers.
DO
 Close the interview in a friendly, constructive manner.
 Summarise near the end any points the candidate should be sure to remember.
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DON’T
 Give encouragement to applicants who are obviously not suited to fit into the post.
 Fail to tell the applicant if you plan to interview more candidates.
Making a Final Selection

A good interview will provide the most information essential for a position. The
selection interview does however hold the danger of being influenced by
subjectivity. As every interviewer have their own opinions, beliefs, attitudes
and values, decisions made by interviewers are subjective.
Subjectivity is highlighted where the person interviewed directly after a weak
candidate is evaluated more favourably. Excessive value is furthermore
attached to negative information. Research unfortunately shows that a
decision is made within the first two minutes - whether it is positive or negative - and the rest of the
interview is used to justify that decision.
To avoid subjectivity it is important to remember that the perfect candidate does not exist and if there
were any, they would only work for perfect companies!
Subjectivity can be limited by aiming the evaluation of previous behaviour to the measuring of actual
experience, exposure, knowledge and skills. Interviews should be specifically
STAFF INDUCTION
In addition to the Acts available there are also a number of codes of good practice available for
employers. These should be used to compile policies and procedures within your organisation, which will
guide employees on acceptable and unacceptable behaviour within their working environment.
A good starting point is to design a comprehensive induction for your new employees:
What is induction?
Induction is the first step in building a two-way relationship between the employer and an employee. Any
organisation which is committed to recruiting and retaining quality staff should be committed to a high
quality induction programme for staff.
Taking up a new position with a new organization or department can be a daunting process. There are
new colleagues to meet, new processes to become familiar with, new offices and buildings to navigate,
new software to master, employment conditions to understand AND a job to learn!
Benefits of induction
The transition to the new workplace is made easier and more effective for both the employee and
employer if there is an effective induction process in place.
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Induction provides new staff members with a comprehensive introduction to their role, their workplace,
which clarifies what is expected of them in terms of professional conduct and performance.
A properly conducted induction process is an essential strategy in retaining staff, reducing staff turnover
and fostering effective performance. It is every manager's responsibility to ensure that their staff are
successfully inducted.
4.3. Job descriptions are drawn up and interviewing questions designed

Now that we understand what positions we need within our business we can
begin to create a job description for each. A job description is a detailed
description of:
 The duties a specific job entails.
 The level of education, skills and physical attributes the ideal applicant
should possess. In this context, be careful what you are asking for. Only
attributes that are relevant to the job may be stipulated, anything else
could be considered discriminatory.
 Limitations of authority and reporting levels.
Each position to be filled requires a customised job description and although
these are likely to differ in line with the characteristics of the job, the following
headings should cover most eventualities.
Job title
State the job title and explain whom the incumbent will be reporting to. This is also the place to position a
copy of your organisation chart, with the job in question highlighted.
Responsibilities
Provide a detailed description of the duties the incumbent is expected to carry out. This should not be a
summary. It is best to cover every possible activity in a detailed and systematic fashion. The capacity and
role of the individual should be clearly outlined.
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Skills and Competencies
List the educational requirements and years of practical experience the incumbent should possess.
 Be realistic in formulating your requirements. If you write a job description for forecourt attendants
at a petrol station, it might be considered a tad excessive to stipulate ten years experience in a
similar job as a minimum requirement.
 Should the job require specific qualifications, for example a valid driver's licence or a trade
certificate, state this.
Capabilities
This can be a tricky area but clearly, you are entitled to specify "physically fit and able to negotiate
heights" as a non-negotiable attribute for a roof repairer.
 Keep in mind that the stipulation of excessive requirements could put excellent candidates out of
the running.
 It could also form the basis for a discrimination claim. This scenario could arise, should a job
applicant be disgruntled because he or she failed to make the grade and decides to seek relief
through the CCMA.
Before you issue job descriptions to your staff, we advise you to have them reviewed by a labour law
expert.
A job description should be created for every position within your organisation, including your own. Bear
in mind possible growth and expansion of your business when creating the job descriptions, this will make
it easier for you when your business begins to grow and expand and you need to review your HR needs.
There are many formats available to do a job description and you will need to examine the examples
provided as well as other formats and decide which best suits the needs of your organisation.
Skills Matrix Job Description:
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Shop Assistant
For each skill block the following information should be defined:
Skills / Competencies / Capabilities Tasks / Activities Standards
Provides information on the skills / Provides information on the Provides standards that will result when an
competencies required to perform the activities activities performed in the skill employee has the appropriate knowledge and
of the skill block. block. successfully performs the activities in the skill
block. Whenever possible this should provide
quantitative information
Sell at least R500.00 flowers per day.

Customer interaction and dealing
Thorough knowledge of new flower varieties
with customers
Knowledge of growths and life cycles of Answering calls and dealing

Meet sales targets set by management
flowers telephonically with clients
At least 2 years experience is a florist or selling Provide advice on best purchases Work towards achieving performance bonuses by
flowers or appropriate degree or diploma for different occasions exceeding sales targets
Complete sales invoices to company

standard
Operate pay system to company

standards
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Standard Job Description:
Job Title: Employee Number:
Employee Name: ID Number:
Department: Manager:
Review Date
SUMMARY
This section provides an overall summary of the job.
PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITIES
This section provides the primary functions of the job. The responsibilities are usually in order of importance and/or time spent. This list may also
be used to define "essential functions" for the purposes of the Labour Relations Act. Therefore, duties listed here should be considered "essential".
If an applicant cannot perform most if not all of the essential functions, the applicant will not be considered for the position.
ADDITIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
This section provides additional functions of the job. The responsibilities are usually desired but not required. These duties are not "essential
functions"; therefore, even if an applicant cannot perform these duties, the applicants will still be considered for the position.
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL REQUIREMENTS
This section provides specific knowledge and skill requirements such as sales techniques, facilitation skills, generally accepted accounting
principles, and physical requirements. The number of years experience and/or education requirements are also listed here.
WORKING CONDITIONS
This section contains information on working conditions out of the ordinary such as extensive travel, high noise levels, etc. according to the Basic
Conditions of Employment Act.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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This section provides dated signature lines for the manager/supervisor and employee. This provides a record that the employee was shown and
understands the job responsibilities.
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Sample Personality Profile:
PERSON PROFILE: SALES AND MARKETING EXECUTIVE

Personality:
Self-driven, results-oriented with a positive outlook, and a clear focus on high quality and business
profit. A natural forward planner who critically assesses own performance. Mature, credible, and
comfortable in dealing with senior big company executives. Reliable, tolerant, and determined.
Empathic communicator, able to see things from the other person's point of view. Well presented and
businesslike. Sufficiently mobile and flexible to travel up to a few days a month within the province.
Keen for new experience, responsibility and accountability. Able to get on with others and be a team-
player
Personal Situation:
Must be mature and domestically secure. Able to spend one or two nights away per month without
upsetting domestic situation. Able to commute reliably to office base. Able to work extended hours on
occasions when required. Must have own vehicle and drivers license.
Specific Job Skills:
Able to communicate and motivate via written media. Understands the principles of marketing and
advertising cost-effectiveness, including market sector targeting, product offer development, features-
benefits-solutions selling, cost per response, cost per conversion, etc. Appreciates need for
consistency within company's branding and marketing mix, especially PR and the Internet. Experience
of managing marketing agency activities useful.
Computer skills:
Must be adept in use of MS Office 2000 or later, particularly Excel and Word, and ideally Access or
similar database to basic level, Internet and email.
Literacy and Numeracy:
Able to understand profit and loss calculations and basic business finance, eg., gross margin
percentages and calculations, depreciation, capital and revenue expenditure, cash-flow, overheads,
etc. Must be a very competent writer of business letters, quotations and proposals
Business and Selling Skills:
Must be an excellent face-to-face and telephone communicator. Able to demonstrate success and
experience managing major accounts customers and large contracts or even a business, particularly
achieving genuine sales development. Ideal background would be in business support services;
experience of laundry and contract cleaning industries would be particularly helpful. Experience of
tenders would also be useful.
Management Ability:
Though internal staff management is not initially part of the job, responsibility and opportunity could
grow with the development of the business, for example the prospect of recruiting and managing
support telesales staff. Some people-management skills, experience and natural ability will be useful.
JOB SPECIFICATION:
A job specification flows out of a job description and tells you what kind of person to recruit and what
qualities that person should possess. From the job description we can evaluate each task in terms of
what it requires from a person to do the task.
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Information is provided on the attitudes and personality characteristics that would be important for the
position under consideration.
The important question that a job specification should answer is : 'What characteristics and experiences
are essential to do a specific job?'
The advantages of a job specification:
 The interviewer is made aware of the critical personality traits that an applicant needs to have.
 The ideal person for the post can be visualised.
 It is a tool to assist the interviewer in considering all characteristics necessary before making a
decision.
 Interviewer bias is reduced.
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4.4. Selection process and assessment tools are reviewed
Make recommendations on howSelection process and assessment tools
are reviewed
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
______
4.5. Recruitment and selection methodologies are effectively implemented.
Recruitment is not only one of the most important ways in which the Public Service meets its human
resource capacity requirements; it is also the prime instrument for achieving employment equity, by
opening up the Public Service to all sections of society. In drawing up their recruitment policies and
procedures, targets must therefore be set for achieving specified employment equity objectives, and in
particular for achieving race, gender and disability balance, as well as for achieving the skills necessary to
meet the department’s operational needs.
Identifying and attracting suitable applicants depends on the effectiveness of departmental advertising,
both in terms of the substance of the advertisement and the extent to which it reaches the target
audience. In drawing up advertisements, the following principles must be applied:
 The advertisement should include an accurate description of the duties to be undertaken, and the
qualifications required.
 Qualifications should not be defined primarily or solely in terms of educational attainment, but
should include skills, relevant experience, and other criteria. Where educational requirements are
considered to be essential, these must be set at the minimum level.
 The language and style of the advertisement must be clear and simple, and designed to attract
candidates from all sections of the target audience, particularly those whom the Public Service
wishes to attract in order to achieve employment equity.
 The method or methods of advertising must be designed to reach the widest possible number of
people within all the target groups in the most cost-effective manner. New and innovative
methods of advertising must be explored to reach those unlikely to be able to respond to
traditional methods such as newspaper insertions.
 The effectiveness of advertising campaigns must be reviewed from time to time in order to
improve future recruitment efforts.
 The requirement for additional health or security checks must be clearly stated in the
advertisement.
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Skills search, often known as ‘head-hunting’ may be used to identify candidates who are exceptionally, it
can be demonstrated that the special requirements of the position in question are likely to render more
traditional advertising methods ineffective. Once candidates have been identified, however, the principles
of selection on merit must be applied as for any other method of recruitment.
Discuss how you could effectively implement recruitment and selection
methodologies within your organisation.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________
4.6. Selection process is implemented according to public sector policies

Selection on merit is fundamental to ensuring that the Public Service recruits and promotes people of the
highest calibre. The aim is to ensure that the person selected is, of the available applicants, the person
best suited for the position, on the basis of his or her skills, experience, abilities and personal attributes.
Unfortunately, the principle of selection on merit has been eroded and misused in the past by drawing up
narrow, exclusive position requirements which discriminated both against external candidates and against
certain groups of internal candidates, to the detriment of the quality of human resource capacity within the
Public Service. The time has come to restore to the word merit its true meaning, and to ensure that the
principle of selection on merit underpins the filling of all posts within the Public Service.
In drawing up their selection procedures, whether for recruitment or for promotion, departments must
apply the following principles.
Job-related selection criteria

The criteria on which selection is made must relate only to the inherent requirements of the duties to be
undertaken. They should, however, take account of the wide variety of ways in which suitability can be
assessed including, for example, competencies acquired through previous experience or training, and
demonstrable interpersonal skills, decision-making capacity and learning potential are all equally
important. Educational qualifications should not, alone, predetermine suitability. The criteria should not be
used to undermine the goal of achieving representation and advancing previously disadvantaged groups.
Fairness
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The process of selection must not discriminate against external applicants, nor against any applicant on
the grounds of race, colour, gender, disability, age, religion, belief, culture, marital status, sexual
orientation, pregnancy, or domestic circumstances.
Equity
Merit must be defined in the context of equity, which aims to advance persons who have been
disadvantaged by unfair discrimination. All candidates must be measured against the same objective
criteria, which must be drawn up in writing in advance of the selection process. A minimum of three
people should undertake the selection, including an independent chairperson to ensure fairness and
objectivity. All applicants for a particular post should be assessed by the same selection group. The
normal selection procedure should comprise of an interview, on the basis of a written application. If the
number of applicants is so great as to require pre-interview shortlisting, written criteria must be drawn up
in advance.
Transparency
A written record must be kept of the criteria used in selection, and the assessment of individual
candidates, which justify the decisions reached.
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LEARNING UNIT 5:
MANAGE THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUALS WITHIN A TEAM.

the public sector
Learning Outcome 1: Training and development plans are compiled according to related
legislation and public sector policies and procedures.
Learning Outcome 2: Appropriate providers are sourced, evaluated and appointed for external
training requirements and schedules for such training programmes are
drawn up.
Learning Outcome 3: Internal trainers are sourced for internal training requirements and
schedules for training programmes drawn up.
Learning Outcome 4: Assessment policies relating to training and development interventions are
adhered to and trainee is briefed in accordance with legislative practices
and public sector policies and procedures relating to assessment.
Learning Outcome 5: Training and development is monitored and evaluated on an ongoing basis
to ensure skills transfer back at the workplace.
5.1. Compiling training and development plans are according to related legislation and public
sector policies and procedures.
The development of policies is intrinsically linked to the
constitution of South Africa and the labour laws found
therein. It is incredibly important that no matter how small an
enterprise is that they follow the letter of the law when it
comes to employment policies and labour practice.
The first and fundamental premise of our constitution is the

Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights has a list of the fundamental
rights of all people living in South Africa. This Bill is the foundation that governs all other legal
requirements in the workplace. The below is an abridged version.
 The right to Dignity
 The right freedom and security of the person:
[This includes the right to make decisions on reproduction and medical treatment and the right not to be
subjected to medical or scientific experiments without informed consent.]
 The right to privacy
 Freedom of expression
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 Freedom of association – to come and go as you please.
 Freedom of trade, occupation and profession
 The right to fair labour practices. No person may be unfairly discriminated against at work.
 The right to an environment that is not harmful to one’s health or well-being
 The right to have access to adequate housing
 The right to education
 The right to fair social services
 The right to be treated fairly even if you are a prisoner
 The right to information e.g. one’s own medical records, or skills to prevent infection
 The right to health care, water and social security
Anyone who feels their rights are being violated can take their case to The Public Protector or The South
African Human Rights Commission or The Commission for Gender Equality. They may decide to take the
case to the constitutional court.
The following laws apply when compiling workplace policies:
Constitution and Bill of Rights
Employment Equity Act (No. 55 of 1998)
Labour Relations Act (No. 66 of 1995)
Occupational Health and Safety Act (No. 85 of 1993)
Mine Health and Safety Act (No. 29 of 1996)
Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act
(No. 130 of 1993)
Basic Conditions of Employment Act (No. 75 of 1997)
Medical Schemes Act (No. 131 of 1998)
All policies must be drawn up with input from all the stakeholders of the organisation. Once the policy has
met with agreement and understanding from the stakeholders then it must be clearly communicated to
your workforce. Various organisations use different methods in ensuring that their employees are aware
of the different policies and how they affect the employees while they are at work. Some policies are
made into poster format and displayed around the workplace, are posted on the intranet, trained during
the induction period of a new employee. Which ever manner one chooses it is imperative to realize that it
is the employer’s responsibility to ensure that the employees are aware and knowledgeable of the policies
of the organisation and not the other way round.
There are many different formats for policy writing and the internet is a great source of information with
ready-made policies that can be adapted to suit ones own organisation. The following are examples of
different forms of policies that may be found in a workplace.
It is also important to note that policies once they are written are not cast in stone. It is the requirement of
each organisation to have regular policy reviews as there may be changes in the law, the organisation as
a whole or the type and manner in which the work is done. A good rule of thumb is to review policies at
least once a year.
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All policies and procedures should be open to discussion with staff and wherever possible they should be
involved in the drafting of such policies and procedures. In addition to the staff within your organisation
you will also need to report on certain elements of your business such as skills development and
employment equity, in accordance with government regulations.
Individual Development Plans
Individual Development Plans are compiled in order to identify, prioritise and implement the training
needed for the development of employees.
Every Company should be committed to the continuous training and development of its employees to
achieve its vision, mission and strategic objectives and to empower employees. Companies should
manage training and development within the guidelines of relevant national policies and legislation.
It is suggested that an integrated approach to Human Resource Management be followed, that Human
resource development should form an integral part of human resource planning and management.
In order for Skills Development Plans to be successful they should be based on sound Human Resource
(HR) practices, such as the HR Plan, job descriptions, the result of regular performance appraisals and
career development programmes.
The Individual Development Plans of employees should be included in their annual performance

agreements. This approach will ensure the alignment of individual performance objectives to the
company's strategic objectives, and that training and development needs can be identified through
performance management and appraisal.
Career-pathing ensures that employees are placed and developed in jobs according to aptitude and
identified potential. Through training and development they can acquire the necessary competencies to
prepare them for future positions. A comprehensive competency framework and profile for all posts in the
company should be including the relevant registered unit standards, will specifically assist in the
compilation of Individual Development Plans.
Individual Development Plans are compiled for individual employees and the data collated from all
employees in the company will form the basis for the prescribed Workplace Skills Plan(WSP), which
companies are required to compile. The WSP will co-ordinate all training and education activities in the
company in a specific financial year and will enable the compilation of the Annual Training Report (ATR)
on progress made in Skills Development to the Sector Education and Training Authority.
5.2. Sourcing, evaluating and appointing appropriate providers for external training requirements
and schedules for such training programmes are drawn up.
The External Training opportunity should be short in duration and identified as necessary to meet short-
term skills gaps. Thus, the External Training interventions should fall within one financial year, ensuring
confidence that funding will be met for the duration of the course.
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The main advantage of using external trainers is that they are specialists.
 The trainer may have spent years refining a training course.
 The trainer can bring you up to date with current best practice.
Training comes in a wide range of forms.
 Lectures and conferences typically thrust a mass of information at a large audience.
 Seminars help people acquire knowledge in a more interactive way.
 Workshops give people information and let them practise working out problems.
 Distance learning may make use of workbooks, videos or DVDs, while e-learning is computer-
based.
5.3. Internal trainers are sourced for internal training requirements and schedules for training
programmes drawn up
A corporate trainer is a specialized skill development position in a corporation where the goal is to help
improve the performance of the employees. The performance areas can range from "soft skills" or
"people skills" to “hard skills” relating to specific technical tasks.
The term is generic and could be applied to nearly any skill whether technical, physical or otherwise. Also,
the role is not solely reserved for corporations. Other organizations such as non-profit groups or
government organizations can make use of a corporate trainer's services. An effective corporation or
other organization functions as a system and lack of the skills mentioned above and others can keep the
organization from functioning as an effective system, and thus keep the organization and its members
from reaching their goals. An effective corporate trainer can remove these impediments and be very
valuable to the organization. In order to effectively support the team, corporate trainers must work as a
business partner of the organization they are supporting. In other words, trainers should not operate in a
bubble - removed from the realities facing their clients.
Either internal or external trainers can be partners, depending on the needs of the organization.
Internal trainers have the advantage of knowing the organization and employees well. They are
more likely to have a long-term relationship with the organization and continue to support skills
improvement over time.
External trainers have the advantage of an outside perspective. They can effectively deliver training or
intervene in a way that is difficult for internal trainers. Trainers can help employees learn new skills but to
have an impact on broader organizational change, they need the support of senior management. Some
employees become corporate trainers through their expertise in a particular subject matter and an interest
in instruction
5.4. Assessment policies relating to training and development interventions are adhered to and
trainees are briefed.
5.5. Training and development is monitored and evaluated on an ongoing basis to ensure skills
transfer back at the workplace.
Training & Development Policy
The overall purpose of the policy is to set out guidelines and purpose for the training and development of
employee’s that have a skills need or career path. The policy emphasises the importance of maintaining a
continuous learning programme to develop a core of well-trained individuals whose performance will
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enhance the company’s abilities to perform at a level that is consistent with growth and profitability
objectives.
The policy of the company is to ensure that all personnel are trained and become sufficiently experienced
to the extent necessary to competently and effectively undertake their assigned activities and
responsibilities. It is also the aim of the company to encourage its employees’ to make the most of
learning opportunities to realise their own personal potential and enjoyment of their job.
The company shall attempt to create a learning environment where employees’ will be prepared to accept
change, develop new skills and take responsibility for their own continuous learning, in partnership with
their immediate manager and Managing Director, to ensure their effective contribution to the successful
achievement of both business and personal goals.
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SAQA QUALIFICATION TITLE NQF MIN

50060 National Certificate: Public Administration 5 141

Public Administration NQF Level 5 1

Details Please Complete this Section

This icon represents important information related to a specific topic or

This icon represents any exercise to be completed on a specific topic at

An important aspect of the assessment process is proof of competence.

An important aspect of learning is through workplace experience.

The series of Learner Guides are conceptualized in modular’s format and

Learners are required to attend training workshops as a group or as specified

UNIT STANDARD NUMBER : 15237

8|Page ALL COPYRIGHT RESERVED

The goals and objectives of the workplace activity

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Styles of team leadership and membership

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Principles of effective delegation

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Team members are involved in decision-making about the tasks at hand

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Viewpoints of the team members

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Individual participation is encouraged in the process

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What Is the Process?

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Completed workplace activities meet specified objectives

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Leadership style contributes positively to the achievement of workplace activities

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Time-wasting activities are identified and discouraged so as to improve productivity

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UNIT STANDARD NUMBER : WORKPLACE

LEARNING ASSUMED TO BE IN PLACE:

Problems, disputes and conflict

This manual makes the following basic assumptions about conflict:

Conflict can be destructive if . . .

Causes of Disputes and Conflicts

Conflict Management and Conflict Resolution

Be open-minded to new ideas and options and be willing

Where are you?

Connection Direction of power or influence

 Cooperative problem solving is an unassisted procedure which includes formal or informal

Methods of Conflict Resolution

Conflict Resolution In Terms of the Labour Relations Act

Roles Played in Conflict situations

Five Habits of Highly Effective Conflict Resolvers

1. Understand the Employee's Needs

Active Listening Techniques