Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Department of Physics
Course: 8.701 – Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics
Term: Fall 2020
Instructor: Markus Klute
TA : Tianyu Justin Yang

Discussion Problems
from recitation on September 8rd, 2020

Problem 1: Cosmic rays

Greisen, Zatespin, and Kuzmin (GZK) predicted that there is a maximum energy
for which any cosmic ray (which are predominantly protons) will be observed. Their
argument was that if energetic enough, cosmic rays will lose energy via the process
pγCM B → pπ 0 , where γCM B is a cosmic microwave background photon, whose energies
are ECM B ≈ 3 × 10−4 eV. Therefore, the threshold energy for which this process can
occur sets the maximum expected energy a cosmic ray should be observed to have
(called the GZK cutoff). Calculate the GZK cutoff energy in eV, and compare your
result to the observed cosmic ray energy spectrum (see Fig. 29.8 of the PDG review
on Cosmic Rays or below). [Hint: You can take the energy to be much larger than
the proton mass and assume that the frame in which we want to know this energy is
the one where the proton and CMB photon collide head on.]

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Problem 2: Mandelstam variables
Consider the reaction between two particles with 4-momenta pµ1 and p2µ . The outgoing
particles have 4-momenta pµ3 and pµ4 . Discuss the variables s, t, and u for the center-
of-mass frame and a fixed-target frame where the second particle is at rest. Assume
that the masses involved are much smaller than the energies (mi  Ei ).

•
Kinematic in center-of-mass frame:

p~∗1 + p~2∗ = p~3∗ + p~4∗ = 0

(1)
E1∗ + E2∗ = E3∗ + E4∗

Kinematic in fixed-target frame:

p~2 = 0
p~1 = p~3 + p~4 (2)
E1 + m2 = E3 + E4

Assuming that m1 , m2  E1 , i.e. small masses relative to the energies of the

scattering process:

E ≈ |p~|
E1∗ ≈ E2∗ ≈ E3∗ ≈ E4∗

For s and t:

3
   
E1 m2
s= (pµ1 + pµ2 )2 = 2 pµ1 p2 µ + m12 + m22 ≈2 ~0 = 2 m2 E1
p~1
| {z }
Fixed-target frame
2
E1∗ + E1∗

= = 4 E1∗ 2
p~1∗ − p~1∗
| {z }
Center-of-mass frame

2
t = (pµ1 ∗ − pµ3 ∗ ) = −2 pµ1 ∗ p∗3 µ + m21 + m32
 ∗  ∗ 
E1 E3
≈ −2 ∗
p~1 p~3∗
   
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
= −2 E1 E3 − p~1 p~3 = −2 E1 E3 − |p~1 | |p~3 | cos θ
  s 
= 2 E12 ∗ cos θ∗ − 1 = cos θ∗ − 1
2

 2  2
E1 − E 3 E4 − m 2
t= (p1µ − p3µ )2 = =
p~1 − p~3 p~4
= E42 − p~24 + m22 − 2 m2 E4 ≈ −2 m2 E4
 
= −2 m2 E1 + m2 − E3
 
= 2 m 2 E3 − E1

Note the range of values for t: −∞ < t ≤ 0. For u and s + t + u:

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 2
u = (pµ1 ∗ − pµ4 ∗ ) = −2 pµ1 ∗ p∗4 µ + m21 + m42
 ∗  ∗ 
E1 E4
≈ −2
p~∗1 p~4∗
   
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
= −2 E1 E4 − p~1 p~4 = −2 E1 E4 − |p~1 | |p~4 | cos (π + θ )
  s 
= −2 E12 ∗ cos θ∗ + 1 = − cos θ∗ + 1
2

 2  2
E1 − E 4 E3 − m2
u= (p1µ − p4µ )2 = =
p~1 − p~4 p~3
= E32 − p~23 + m22 − 2 m2 E3 ≈ −2 m2 E3

 2  2  2
s + t + u = pµ1 + pµ2 + pµ1 − pµ3 + pµ1 − pµ4
4
X    X4
= m2i + 2 p1 µ pµ1 + pµ2 − p3µ + pµ4 = m2i
i=1 | {z } i=1
≡0

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8.701 Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics

Fall 2020

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