TAIBAH UNIVERSITY

‫جامعة طيبة‬
Faculty of Science
‫كلية العلوم‬
Department of Math.
‫قسم الرياضيات‬

Introduction to Statistics
STAT 101
First Semester 1443 H

Teacher :
 Lesson 2-2

Source of Data and

sampling methods
Data Sources
There are two sources of data :-
1. Primary data: Data that you retrieve firsthand (obtained
directly from the original source). Primary data sources include
information collected and processed directly by the researcher,
such as observations, surveys, interviews, and focus groups.
There are a variety of techniques to use when gathering primary
data. Listed below are some of the most common data collection
techniques used for collecting data.
• Interviews
• Questionnaires
• Observations
• Focus Groups
•Ethnographies, Oral History, and Case Studies
•Documents and Records
2. Secondary data. data that is retrieved from pre-existing
sources. Secondary data sources include information that you
retrieve through pre-existing sources such as research articles,
Internet or library searches. Pre-existing data may also include
examining existing records and data within the program such as
publications and training materials, financial records, student
client data, and performance reviews of staff, etc.
Methods of Data Collection
If the information you need is not already available from a
previous study, you might acquire it by:-
•A census
•Sampling survey
•Experimentation.
•Observational study
So there are four main methods of data collection.
1. Census. A census is a study that obtains data from every
member of a population. In most studies, conducting a census
may be time consuming, costly, impractical, or even impossible.
2. Sample survey. A sample survey is a study that obtains data
from a subset of a population, in order to estimate population
attributes.
3. Experiment. An experiment is a controlled study in which
the researcher attempts to understand cause-and effect
relationships. The study is "controlled" in the sense that the
researcher controls
 (1) how subjects are assigned to groups and
(2) which treatments each group receives.
In the analysis phase, the researcher compares group scores on
some dependent variable. Based on the analysis, the researcher
draws a conclusion about whether the treatment ( independent
variable) had a causal effect on the dependent variable.
4. Observational study. Like experiments, observational
studies attempt to understand cause-and-effect relationships.
However, unlike experiments, the researcher is not able to
control
(1) how subjects are assigned to groups and/or
(2) which treatments each group receives.
Each method of data collection has advantages and
disadvantages. For example, when the population is large, a
sample survey has a big resource advantage over a census. A
well-designed sample survey can provide very precise estimates
of population parameters - quicker, cheaper, and with less
manpower than a census.
Sampling Concepts
Sampling method refers to the process by which members of a
population are selected for a sample.
Examples. Choosing every fifth voter who leaves a polling place
to interview, drawing playing cards randomly from a deck,
polling every tenth visitor who views a certain Web site today.
As a group, sampling methods fall into one of two categories.
•Non-probability samples.
•Probability samples.
1. Non-Probability Sampling Methods
With non-probability sampling methods, we do not know the
probability that each population element will be chosen, and/or
we cannot be sure that each population element has a nonzero
chance of being chosen.
Two of the main types of non-probability sampling methods are
voluntary samples and convenience samples.
(a) Voluntary sample.
A voluntary sample is made up of people who self-select into the
survey. Often, these folks have a strong interest in the main topic of
the survey.
Suppose, for example, that a news show asks viewers to participate
in an on-line poll. This would be a volunteer sample. The sample is
chosen by the viewers, not by the survey administrator.
(b) Convenience sample.
A convenience sample is made up of people who are easy to reach.
Non-probability sampling methods offer two potential advantages -
convenience and cost. The main disadvantage is that non-
probability sampling methods do not allow you to estimate the
extent to which sample statistics are likely to differ from
population parameters. Only probability sampling methods permit
that kind of analysis.
Probability Sampling Methods
With probability sampling methods, each population element has
a known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the sample.
In probability sampling, a random device—such as tossing a coin,
consulting a table of random numbers, or employing a random-
number generator—is used to decide which members of the
population will constitute the sample instead of leaving such
decisions to human judgment.
The main types of probability sampling methods are simple
random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. The key
benefit of probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that
the sample chosen is representative of the population. This
ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid.
Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling: A sampling procedure for which each
possible sample of a given size is equally likely to be the one
obtained.
Simple random sample: A sample obtained by simple random
sampling.
Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method that has
the following properties.
1. The population consists of N objects.
2. The sample consists of n objects.
3. If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur,
the sampling method is called simple random sampling.
There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample the most
important of them are .
lottery method.
Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The
numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-
folded researcher selects n numbers. Population members having the
selected numbers are included in the sample.
Random-Number Tables
Obtaining a simple random sample by picking slips of paper out of a
box (lottery method) is usually impractical, especially when the
population is large. Fortunately, we can use several practical
procedures to get simple random samples. One common method
involves a table of random numbers, a table of randomly chosen
digits.
Random-Number Generators
Nowadays, statisticians prefer statistical software packages or
graphing calculators, rather than random-number tables, to obtain
simple random samples. The built-in programs for doing so are
called random-number generators. When using random number
generators, be aware of whether they provide samples with
replacement or samples without replacement.
Systematic Random Sampling
One method that takes less effort to implement than simple random
sampling is systematic random sampling. The following procedure
presents a step-by-step method for implementing systematic
random sampling.
Step 1. Divide the population size by the sample size and round
the result down to the nearest whole number, m.
Step 2. Use a random-number table or a similar device to obtain
a number, k, between 1 and m.
Step 3. Select for the sample those members of the population
that are numbered k, k + m, k + 2m, . . . .
Stratified sampling
In stratified sampling the population is first divided into
subpopulations, called strata, and then sampling is done from each
stratum. Ideally, the members of each stratum should be
homogeneous relative to the characteristic under consideration.
In stratified sampling, the strata are often sampled in proportion to
their size, which is called proportional allocation. The following
procedure presents a step-by-step method for implementing
stratified (random) sampling with proportional allocation.
Step 1. Divide the population into subpopulations (strata).
Step 2. From each stratum, obtain a simple random sample of size
proportional to the size of the stratum; that is, the sample size for a
stratum equals the total sample size times the stratum size divided
by the population size.
Step 3. Use all the members obtained in Step 2 as the sample.
As a example, suppose we conduct a national survey. We might
divide the population into groups or strata, based on geography -
north, east, south, and west. Then, within each stratum, we might
randomly select survey respondents.
Cluster sampling
Another sampling method is cluster sampling, which is particularly
useful when the members of the population are widely scattered
geographically.
With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned
to one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample
of clusters is chosen, using a probability method (often simple
random sampling).
The following procedure provides a step-by-step method for
implementing cluster sampling.
Step 1. Divide the population into groups (clusters).
Step 2. Obtain a simple random sample of the clusters.
Step 3. Use all the members of the clusters obtained in Step 2 as
the sample.
Note the difference between cluster sampling and stratified
sampling. With stratified sampling, the sample includes elements
from each stratum. With cluster sampling, in contrast, the sample
includes elements only from sampled clusters.
Multistage sampling.
Most large-scale surveys combine one or more of simple random
sampling, systematic random sampling, cluster sampling, and
stratified sampling. With multistage sampling, we select a sample
by using combinations of different sampling methods. For
example, in Stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose
clusters from a population. Then, in Stage 2, we might use simple
random sampling to select a subset of elements from each chosen
cluster for the final sample. multistage sampling is used
frequently by pollsters and government agencies.
Frame
The list of all items in the population from which samples will be
selected.
Example. Voter registration lists, municipal real estate records,
customer or human resource databases, directories.
Sampling Selection Methods
Proper sampling can be done with or without replacement.
Sampling With Replacement. A sampling method in which each
selected item is returned to the frame from which it was selected so
that it has the same probability of being selected again. For example.
Selecting entries from a fishbowl and returning each entry to the
fishbowl after it is drawn.
Sampling Without Replacement. A sampling method in which each
selected item is not returned to the frame from which it was selected.
Using this technique, an item can be selected no more than one time.
For example Selecting numbers in state lottery games, selecting
cards from a deck of cards during games of chance such as
Blackjack.