ENGINEERING

WORKSHOP
MANUAL
SVIST
To familiarize with the basic manufacturing processes
and to study the various tools and equipment used, hands-on
training is given in different sections. Essentially student should
know the labor involved, machinery, or equipment necessary, time
required to fabricate and also should be able to estimate the cost of
the product or job work.
SRI VENKATESWARA
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE
&TECHNOLOGY

KADAPA
 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

CONTENTS
S. No. NAME OF CONTENT PAGE No.

1. CARPENTRY 12
01. T - LAP JOINT 20
02. CROSS HALF LAP JOINT 21

2. FITTING 22
01. SQUARE FITTING 29
02. V – FITTING 30

3. FOUNDRY 31
01. MOULD FOR A SINGLE PIECE PATTERN 35
02. MOULD FOR A SPLIT PIECE PATTERN 37

4. SHEET METAL WORK (or) TIN SMITHY 39

01. RECTANGULAR TRAY 44
02. ROUND PIPE/ CYLINDER 45

5. WELDING 46
01. BUTT JOINT 52
02. LAP JOINT 53
03. CORNER JOINT 54

6. HOUSE WIRING 55
01. ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH 61
02. STAIR CASE WIRING 62

7. PLUMBING 63

8. POWER TOOLS 70

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. : Name of Figure .......................................................................Page No.

Figure 1: Terminology of TIMBER ...................................................................................................... 12

Figure 2: STEEL RULE ........................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 3: MEASURING TAPE .............................................................................................................. 14
Figure 4: Marking Gauge .................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 5: Mortise Gauge ................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 6: Try square, Marking Knife, Bevel Square ............................................................................. 15
Figure 7: Carpenters Bench Vice ....................................................................................................... 15
Figure 8: Work piece holding Devices (Types of CLAMPS) .................................................................. 15
Figure 9: Types of wood cutting tools (SAWs).................................................................................... 16
Figure 10: Terminology of SAW (Parts of SAW).................................................................................. 16
Figure 11: Types of Chisels................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 12: Wooden & Metal Body JACK-PLANE.................................................................................. 18
Figure 13: Types of HAND DRILLING tools ......................................................................................... 18
Figure 14: Wooden Mallet and Claw Hammer ................................................................................... 19
Figure 15: Wood Striking Tools ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 16: Types of Wood Joints ....................................................................................................... 19
Figure 17: T - LAP JOINT .................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 18: CROSS HALF LAP JOINT ..................................................................................................... 21
Figure 19: Work Bench ..................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 20: Bench Vice ....................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 21: V- Block ........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 22: Types of Calipers .............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 23: Vernier Caliper ................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 24: Surface Plate .................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 25: Angle Plate ...................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 26: Scriber and Surface Gauge ................................................................................................ 24
Figure 27: Punches ........................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 28: Try Square ....................................................................................................................... 25

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Figure 29: Vernier Height gauge........................................................................................................ 25

Figure 30: Hacksaw .......................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 31: Single & Double cut files, and Rasp File ............................................................................. 27
Figure 32: Cross Sectional Views of FILES or Shapes of FILES .............................................................. 28
Figure 33: Filing Methods and File Card ............................................................................................ 28
Figure 34: SQUARE FITTING .............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 35: V - FITTING ....................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 36: Hand Riddle, Rammers, and Trowels................................................................................. 34
Figure 37: Showel and Riser Pin ........................................................................................................ 34
Figure 38: Lifter, strike bar, Vent wire, & Slick ................................................................................... 34
Figure 39: Swab, Gate Cutter& Bellow .............................................................................................. 34
Figure 40: Mould Box, Draw Spike, & Sprue Pin................................................................................. 34
Figure 41: Section View of Single Piece Mould Pattern ...................................................................... 35
Figure 42: Single /solid Pattern ......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 43: MOULD PREPERATION PROCEDURE FOR A SPLIT PIECE PATTERN ....................................... 38
Figure 44: Sheet Metal Gauge OR Standard Wire Gauge .................................................................... 40
Figure 45: Scriber & Trammel ........................................................................................................... 40
Figure 46: Snips & Mechanical Cutter................................................................................................ 40
Figure 47: Different types of STAKES ................................................................................................. 41
Figure 48: Stake Holder .................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 49: Types of Hammers ........................................................................................................... 41
Figure 50: Hand Groover .................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 51: Rivet Set: ......................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 52: Soldering Iron .................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 53: Types of Sheet Metal Joints .............................................................................................. 43
Figure 54: Methods of Edge Forming ................................................................................................ 43
Figure 55: Various Techniques Of Welding Process .......................................................................... 46
Figure 56: Terminology of Welding Process ....................................................................................... 47
Figure 57: Types Of Weld Joints ........................................................................................................ 47
Figure 58: Types of Welding Positions ............................................................................................... 48
Figure 59: Principle of ARC Welding Process...................................................................................... 48
Figure 60: Elements Involved In Arc Welding Process ........................................................................ 49

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Figure 61: Electrode Holder .............................................................................................................. 50

Figure 62: Parts of Welding Electrodes .............................................................................................. 50
Figure 63: Earth Clamp, Chipping Hammer, & Wire Brush .................................................................. 51
Figure 64: Single Vee Butt Joint ........................................................................................................ 52
Figure 65: Lap Joint .......................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 66: CORNER JOINT ................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 67: 3-Phase Wire Coding ........................................................................................................ 56
Figure 68: Color Codes for Wires ....................................................................................................... 56
Figure 69: Wire gauge chart .............................................................................................................. 57
Figure 70: Terminology of USB Cable ................................................................................................ 57
Figure 71: Symbols of Basic Electrical & Telecom Instruments ........................................................... 58
Figure 72: Electronic Circuit Symbols ................................................................................................ 59
Figure 73: Electrical Workshop Hand Tools ....................................................................................... 59
Figure 74: Parallel Connection of Two Switches................................................................................. 60
Figure 75: Wiring of Ceiling Fan ........................................................................................................ 60
Figure 76: Connecting of Wall Socket ................................................................................................ 60
Figure 77: ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH ......................................................................... 61
Figure 78: STAIR CASE WIRING......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 79: Pipe Fittings ..................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 80: Photographic views of Pipe Fittings .................................................................................. 67
Figure 81: Types of Valves ................................................................................................................ 68
Figure 82: water Tap, Water Cock, & Globe Valve ............................................................................. 69
Figure 83: Foot Valve........................................................................................................................ 69
Figure 84: Electric powered Circular Saw........................................................................................... 71
Figure 85: Electric Powered Angle Grinding Machine, Hand Drill, &Cordless Hand Drill Machine ........ 71
Figure 86: Pneumatic/ Air Pressure Powered Tools ........................................................................... 72
Figure 87: Electric Powered Bench Grinding Machine ........................................................................ 72
Figure 88: Electric Powered Power Tools........................................................................................... 73
Figure 89: Electric Powered Double Bevel Sliding Compound Saw, & Jig Saw ..................................... 73

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INDEX
Name of Student
Roll No.
Branch
Year & Sem.

TRADE OF NAME OF FACULTY

S. No. DATE MARKS
EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT SIGNATURE

01
01
02

01
02
02

01
03
02

01
04
02

01
05
02

Date of Completion & Avg. Marks obtained

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY

phenomena in different areas of Workshop and to expose you to uses of instruments.

Conduct the job with interest and an attitude of learning.

l prepared for the job.

measurements!) and equally share the work with your partners.

Diagrams should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always display units.

to the Instructor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for the purpose of your
experiment.

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

Syllabus
SRI VENKATESWARA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,
KADAPA

ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
(Common to all branches – I - B.Tech.)
OBJECTIVE:
To familiarize with the basic manufacturing processes and to study the various tools and
equipment used, hands-on training is given in different sections. Essentially student should know
the labour involved, machinery or equipment necessary, time required to fabricate and also
should be able to estimate the cost of the product or job work.

TRADES FOR EXERCISES:

At least two exercises from each trade:
a. CARPENTRY: Middle lap T joint, cross lap joint, mortise and tenon T joint, Bridle
T joint
b. FITTING: Square joint, V joint, half round joint, dovetail joint
c. TIN-SMITHY: Tray, cylinder, hopper, funnel
d. WELDING: Butt – Joint, Lap Joint, & Cross Joint
e. HOUSE-WIRING: wiring for ceiling rose and two lamps (bulbs) with independent
switch controls with or without looping, wiring for stair case lamp, wiring for a water
pump with single-phase starter.
f. FOUNDRY: single pattern, double pattern

TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION:

a. Plumbing
b. Machine Shop
c. Power tools in construction, wood working, electrical engineering and mechanical
Engineering.

OUTCOMES
Basic practice sessions must be conducted in the trades mentioned and then two products
of Industrial application (with combination of different trades) may be produced with the
available resources.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Engineering Work shop practice for JNTU, V. Ramesh Babu, VRB Publishers Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Work shop Manual / P.Kannaiah/ K.L.Narayana/ SciTech Publishers.
3. Engineering Practices Lab Manual, Jeyapoovan, SaravanaPandian, Vikas publishers
4. Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering, GHF Nayler, Jaico Publishing House.

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

+ SAFTEY PRECAUTIONS IN ENGINEERING WORKSHOP +

Observe the following safety to avoid injury to yourself and co-workers

1. Be well dressed i.e., avoid loose garments, roll up sleeves, put on suitable
footwear and remove watch and ring.

2. Keep the work place neat and clean i.e., place the tools at proper position.
The scraps and chips should be dropped in waste bins.

3. Concentrate on your job and avoid talking with co-workers.

4. The shops are no place to play. Running and pushing in the shop may
cause accidents.

5. Understand the use of tools and machines before handling.

6. Never use dull tools. The use may damage the tools completely or may
lead to injury.

7. In case you are in doubt contact the instructor.

8. Always chuck the fitting of the handle in the hammerhead.

9. Be familiar with the locations of First Aid Box and Fire Extinguisher in
the shop. In case of emergency, one should reach them quickly.

10. Laziness and carelessness are your deadly enemies. Always be active
and careful in the shop.

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

Engineering:-
Engineering is a professional art of applying science and technology to optimize
the conversion of natural resources to the benefit of mankind. (Natural resources
available in the universe are Iron ore, Air, Sun, Water, Space, Human etc.)
Human resource is a supreme strength to develop Engineering to contribute the
welfare and progress of the society or to this nation.
Engineer:-
Engineer is a person having creative thoughts and ideas to develop technology
for the noble cause of the society or to nation.
All objects begins an idea, Conceived and visualized by the Engineer. He makes
an internal representation of the object in his mind and communicates it to others
through media of expression.
Professional Activities of an Engineer:
1. Planning: (Proposal of doing something)
It means a set of preparation is to do in order to achieve something or any kind
of task/work. (Preparation means programmes, drawings, Materials requirement
and their sources, time schedule, cost estimate, scheme and design and method of
preparation etc.)
It is a management function of defining goal of an individual / organizations.
It determines the task/work and resources necessary to achieve set goals.
It helps to save materials, labor, time, money efforts and process etc. so that any
kind of work/task can be performed successfully without having any difficulty
with full confidence.
2. Visualization (related to vision / creating picture in mind)
It is a behavioral technique of improving performance of his individual.
It encourage for creating metal picture for successful execution of any work.
3. Hard work and practice (doing something repeatedly)
There is no substitute for hard work. A spiritual person says “Work is Worship”,
“Practice makes the man perfect”. Practice makes a person to acquire skill to use their
knowledge for gaining self-assurance and confidence to handle any kind of work without
any difficulty.
4. Punctuality (being in time):
Punctuality is a moral goodness, which is to be practiced very well punctuality is
nothing but courtesy to others. By being punctual, you respect the value of time of others.
This is more than anything else is. It helps you to plan your activities and schedule with
precision and efficiency.
5. Work place Environment:
Workplace environment is to be maintained neat and clean, and spread happiness,
cheerful, love, & affection around your work place, at home and to the community.

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1. CARPENTRY
Carpentry is the process of shaping Timber, using hand tools. The products produced are
used in building construction, such as doors and windows, furniture manufacturing, patterns for
moulding in foundries, etc. Carpentry work mainly involves the joining together of wooden
pieces and finishing the surfaces after shaping them. Hence, the term joining is also used
commonly for carpentry. A student studying the fundamentals of wood working has to know
about timber and other carpentry materials, wood working tools, carpentry operations and the
method of making common types of joints.

Materials Used in Carpentry:

Basic materials used in carpentry shop are timber and plywood. Auxiliary materials used
are nails, screws, adhesives, paints, varnishes, etc.
Timber:
Timber is the name given to wood obtained from exogenous
(outward growing) trees. In these trees, the growth is outward from the
center, by adding almost concentric layers of fresh wood every year
known as annual rings. After the full growth, these trees are cut and
sawed to convert into rectangular sections of various sizes for
Figure 1: Terminology of TIMBER
engineering purposes.
Timber is available in market in various shapes and size. The common shapes and sizes an: given below:
1. Log: This is the trunk of die tree which is tree from branches.
2. Balk: This is the log after sawing roughly to square cross section.
3. Deal: This is the log after sawing into rectangular cross section of width about 225 mm and
thickness up to 100 mm.
4. Plank: This is the timber piece having width more than 275 mm and thickness 50 lo 150 mm.
5. Board: This is the timber piece below 50 mm in thickness and above 125 mm in width,
6. Batten: This is the timber piece below 175 mm in width and thickness between 30 mm to 50
mm in thickness.
7. Scantlings: These are timber pieces of various assorted and nonstandard sizes other than the
types given above.

Classification of Wood
The timber used for commercial purposes can he divided into two classes as soft wood and hard
wood
Soft wood
A soft wood is light in weight and light colored. They may have distinct annual rings but the
medullar rays (radial lines) are not visible and the color of the sap wood (outer layers) is not distinctive
from the heart wood (inner layers). These woods cannot resist stresses developed across their fibers;
hence, not suitable for wood working.

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Hard wood
In this type of wood the annual rings are compact and thin and the medullar rays (radial lines} are
Visible in most cases Figure6.1. Hard woods are nearly equally strong both along and across the fibers.
Hand wood is the material used for wood working.

Classification of timber
According to the manner of growth of trees, timber can be classified as
i) Exogenous or out ward growing
ii) Endogenous or in ward growing
i) Exogenous or out ward growing
In exogenous trees the growth take place from the center by the addition of concentric layers of
fresh wood every year, known as annual rings. These varieties of trees are suitable for building and other
engineering uses the exogenous trees are again classified as
a) Conifers or ever green trees
b) Deciduous or broad leaf trees

The conifer give soft woods and the deciduous gives hard wood common example of hard wood
are Sal, teak, rose wood, sandal, shisham, oak beach, ash ebony, mango, neem, babool, etc., soft wood
include kail pine, deodar chair, walnut seemal etc.
ii) Endogenous or in ward growing timber
These trees grow in wards i.e. .every fresh layer of sap wood is added inside instead of outside
cane, bamboo, coconut
Seasoning
Seasoning of wood carried out for removing the sap and reducing the moisture content the
presence of sap and moisture will render the wood unsuitable for engineering works due to uneven
shrinkage, crack, wrapping and decay.
Different methods of seasoning
1. Air seasoning or Natural seasoning
2. Water seasoning
3. Electrical seasoning
4. Kiln seasoning

PLY WOOD
Thick sheet formed by pasting veneers of wood is called ply. Three or more plys joined by glues
is called plywood. The grains of adjacent layers are kept at right angle to each other in order to get better
strengthening both directions the outer layer are called facing plys and good hard wood veneers are used
for this inner ones are called core plys and low quality wood is used for this the ply wood is made by
either cold pressing or hot pressing.
Tools for wood working
The principle hand tools used in a carpentry workshop can be classified into
i) Marking and measuring tool iv) Boring tool
ii) Cutting tool v) Striking tool
iii) Planning tool vi) Holding tool

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Marking and measuring tool

a) Rules
Rules are used for measuring dimensions. For measuring and setting out dimensions various types
of rules are used in carpentry shop. Steel Rule- Stainless Steel Rule of length 30cm and 60cm. Flexible
Measuring Rule- for measuring large dimensions as well as curved or angular surface dimensions.

Figure 2: STEEL RULE

b) Straight Edge and Squares

This is a machined flat piece wood or metal having
perfectly straight and parallel edges.

c) Steel Tape
It is used for large dimensions, such as marking on boards
and checking the overall dimensions of the work.
Figure 3: MEASURING TAPE

d) Marking Gauges
Gauges are used to mark lines parallel to the edges of a wooden piece. It mainly consists of a
wooden stem sliding inside a wooden stock. The stem carries a steel point for marking lines. The stock
position on the stem can be varied and fixed rigidly by tightening the thumb screw.

Figure 4: Marking Gauge

To mark a line parallel to an edge the gauge stock is held freely against the edge and pushed
along it, pressing the steel points to the surface.

Figure 5: Mortise Gauge

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e) Try square
Try square consists of rectangular steel blade fixed rigidly to cast iron stock. The length of blade
varies from 150mm to 300mm.
f) Marking Knife or Scriber
Marking Knives are used to convert the pencil lines drawn on the wooden surface into deep
scratch lines on the surface. They are made of steel with a sharp point at one end and flat blade at the
other end.
g) Bevel Square
It is also called sliding level. It is an adjustable try-square used for measuring/marking angles
between 00and 1800.

Figure 6: Try square, Marking Knife, Bevel Square

VI. Work Piece Holding tools
a) Work Bench
This is a table of having size and raised construction made of hard wood. The size ranges from
50- 80 cm in length and about 90cm in width. Two or four carpenters can work at a time on the work
bench.
b) Carpenters Bench Vice
It consists of jaw fixed on the table side
and movable jaw kept in position by means of
screw and handle. The body of vice is made of
cast iron or steel. The jaws are lined with hard
wood which can be removed when it is damaged.
The screw moves inside the fixed half nut
which can be engaged or disengaged by operating
the lever. This is made up of a bar of steel. The
work is clamped between jaws by rotating the
screw using the handle. It is used for clamping
glued pieces or holding the work piece of larger
size together for various operations. Figure 7: Carpenters Bench Vice
c) C- Clamp: The clamp of the shape of letter C or G is used to clamp short pieces together as the bar
clamp. These clamps are available is sizes varying from 70 mm to 800 mm. it is used for holding the
planks after gluing.

Figure 8: Work piece holding Devices (Types of CLAMPS)

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d) Bar or T-cramp: It consists of a steel bar fitted with a threaded spindle and an adjustable shoe. It is
used for holding the glued pieces tightly or holding firmly two or more unglued pieces for fitting dowels
or doing other operations on them in assembled position.

II Cutting tools
a) Saws
Saw is a cutting tool which has teeth on one edge and cutting is affected by reciprocating motion
of the edge relative to the work piece. Cutting occurs during the forward motion; such a saw is called
push type saw, the cutting occurs during the backward motion.

i. Hand Saw- This saw is used for short straight cuts. It has a blade of 25-40cm length 6- 10cm width.
The number of teeth per cm length ranges from 3-5.
ii. Tenon Saw (Back Saw) - It has a parallel blade of 25-40cm length and 6-10cm width. The number of
teeth per cm length ranges from 5-8.

Figure 9: Types of wood cutting tools (SAWs)

Figure 10: Terminology of SAW (Parts of SAW)

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b) Chisels
The common type of chisels used is briefly explained below.

I. Firmer Chisels- they are most common and general purpose chisel used by a carpenter. They have flat
blade of 15-50mm width and 125mm length.

Ii. Dove Tail Chisel (Beveled Edge Firmer Chisel) - These chisels are used for fine and delicate works as
well as for cutting corners.

Iii. Mortise Chisel – These chisels are used for heavy and deep cut to remove large quantity of wood.
These chisels have width of about 15mm but the blade thickness may range from 6- 15mm. Planing tool
is used to smoothen the wooden surfaces.

Figure 11: Types of Chisels

a) Wooden jack plane

This is the most commonly used plane in carpentry shop. The main part of a wooden jack plane is a
wooden block called sole, in which steel blade having knife edge is fixed at an angle with the help of
wooden edge. The angle of the blade is kept about 45 ° to bottom surface of the blade.

b) Metal Jack Plane

It serves the same purpose as the wooden jack plane but facilitates a smoother operations and better
finish. The body of a metal jack plane is made from a grey iron casting with the side and sole machined
and ground to better finish.

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Figure 12: Wooden & Metal Body JACK-PLANE

DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS:
a) Bradawl: It is a hand operated tool, used to bore small holes for starting a screw or large nail.
b) Carpenters brace: it is used for rotating auger bits, twist drills, etc., to produce holes in wood. In
some designs, braces are made with ratchet device.

Figure 13: Types of HAND DRILLING tools

c) Auger bit: it is the most common tool used for making holes in wood. During drilling, the lead screw of
the bit guides into the wood, necessitating only moderate pressure on the brace. The helical flutes on
the surface carry the chips to the outer surface.

d) Hand drill: carpenter‟s brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas hand drill is used for
drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is small, light in weight and may be
conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is clamped in the chuck at its end and is rotated by a handle
attached to gear and pinion arrangement.
e) Gimlet: it has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling large diameter holes with the hand
pressure.
STRIKING TOOLS
a) Mallet
This is wooden headed hammer of round or rectangular cross section. The striking face is made flat.
Mallet is used for striking the cutting tools and has wooden handle.
b) Claw Hammer
This is a hammer having steel head and wooden handle. The flat face of the head is used to drive nails
and claw portion for extracting nails out of the wood.
c) Pincer: it is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pulling-out small nails
from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are beveled and the outer faces are plain. The end of one
arm has a ball and the other has a claw. The beveled jaws and the claw are used for pulling out small
nails, pins and screws from the wood.

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d) Screw Driver: it is used for driving wood screws into wood or unscrewing them. The length of a
screw driver is determined by the length of the blade. As the length of the blade increases, the width and
thickness of the tip also increase.
e) Wood rasp files: it is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges, and
finish fillets and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose.
This file is exclusively used in wood work.

Figure 14: Wooden Mallet and Claw Hammer

Figure 15: Wood-Striking Tools

Figure 16: Types of Wood Joints

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EXPT. No.: 01 T - LAP JOINT DATE:

AIM:
To make a T - LAP JOINT.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Teak wood Teak wood (150 X 50 X 30 mm3 – 2 No‟s)
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:
1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file Figure 17: T - LAP JOINT

OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiseling
5. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width
according to given figure.
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiseled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiseled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiseled to exact lengths.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wood should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done without parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiseling
4. Matching of X and Y pieces should be tight.

RESULT:
The T-LAP JOINT is made success fully.

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EXPT. No.: 02 CROSS HALF LAP JOINT DATE:

AIM:
To make a Cross Half Lap Joint.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Teak wood (150 X 50 X 30 mm3 – 2 No‟s)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:

1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file Figure 18: CROSS HALF LAP JOINT

OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiseling
5. Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width
according to given figure
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiseled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiseled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiseled to exact lengths.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reaper should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done without parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiseling
4. Matching of x and y pieces should be tight.

RESULT:
The CROSS HALF LAP JOINT is made success fully.

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2. FITTING
The term FITTING, is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape to the
required size or form, in order to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the same are usually
carried out on a work bench, hence the term bench work is also added with the name fitting.
The bench work and fitting plays an important role in engineering. Although in today's industries
most of the work is done by automatic machines which produces the jobs with good accuracy but still it
(job) requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person working in the fitting shop is
called fitter
FITTING TOOLS:
Fitting shop tools are classified as below:
1. Work Holding Devices/ Clamping Tools.
2. Measuring and Marking Tools.
3. Cutting Tools.
4. Striking Tools.
5. Drilling Tools.
6. Threading Tools.

I. WORK HOLDING DEVICES /CLAMPING TOOLS:

1. Work Bench
A fitting process can be done at various places, but most of
the important operations of fitting are generally carried out on a
table called work bench.
The work bench is a strong, heavy and rigid table made up
of hard wood.
The size of the work bench required is about 150 to 180 cm
length, nearly 90 cm width and approximately 76 to 84 cm height.
Figure 19: Work Bench
2. BENCH VICE:
It is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a cast Iron body and
cast iron jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding surface of the jaw plates is knurled
in order to increase the gipping. Jaw plates are made up of carbon steel and are wear resistant. One jaw is
fixed to the body and the second slides on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle.
The jaws are opened up to required length; job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened
with the help of handle. Handle is used to move the movable jaw.

Figure 20: Bench Vice

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3. V- Block
In V Block, V grooves are provided to hold the round objects longitudinally. The screw of the
clamp applies the holding pressure. When the handle is rotated there is movement in the screw.

Figure 21: V- Block

II. MEASURING TOOLS
1. Steel Rule
These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft.
These are marked in inches or millimeters. All the faces are machined true. The edges of steel rule should
be protected from rough handling.

2. Calipers
These are generally used to measure the inside or outside diameters. Different types are:
i. Outside Caliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.
ii. Inside Caliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.
iii. Spring Caliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is provided to lock any
desired position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Odd leg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the other has
a straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the straight edges.

Figure 22: Types of Calipers

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3. Vernier Caliper: It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round, flat, square components, and
the inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is used to measure the depth of bar slots etc. The
reading accuracy in metric system is 0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001”. It is made of stainless steel.

Figure 23: Vernier Caliper

III. MARKING TOOLS:
1. Surface Plate
It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the surfaces. It
is made up of cast iron or graphite. Its upper face is planned to form
a very smooth surface. It is also used in scribing work.
While not in use, it should be covered with a wooden
cover. Figure 24: Surface Plate
2. Angle Plate
It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two
planed surfaces at right angles to each other and has various slots in
each surface to hold the work by means of bolts and clamps.
Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nuts
and bolts. Figure 25: Angle Plate
3. Scriber and Surface Gauge
It consists of a cast iron bass on the center of which a steel rod is fixed vertically. Scriber is made
up of high carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is used for locating the centers of round
bars or for marking of the lines.

Figure 26: Scriber and Surface Gauge

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4. Punches
Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punches are used for marking dotted line and center
punch is used to mark the center of hole before drilling. Punches are made up of high carbon steel or high
speed steels. One end is sharpened. Hammering is done on the second end while working. For dot punch,
angle of the punching end is 60 degree while in center punch; angle of punching end is 90 degree.

Figure 27: Punches

5. Try Square
It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It
consists of a blade made up of steel, which is attached to a base at
90 degree. The base is made up of cast iron or steel. It is also used
to mark the right angles and measuring straightness of surfaces.
Never use try square as a hammer. Figure 28: Try Square

6. Vernier Height gauge:

A Vernier height
gauge consists of a heavy
base, a graduated beam, a
sliding head with Vernier
sliding jaws holding the
scriber and a fine adjustment
clamp.
It is similar to large
Vernier calipers in
construction, except that it
consists of a heavy base
which allows the gauge to
stand upright instead of a
fixed jaw in a Vernier.
The movable jaw of
Vernier height gauge consists
of a projection or extension
which is levelled to sharp
edge for scribing lines at any
Figure 29: Vernier Height gauge
required height.

METHOD OF MARKING
Marking means setting out dimensions with the help of a working drawing or directly transferring
them from a similar part. The procedure of marking is as follows:
1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red lead and allowed to dry.
2. Then the work is held in a holding device depending upon shape and size. If it is flat, use
surface plate, if it is round use V block and clamp, else use angle plate etc.

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3. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a surface gauge. Lines at right angles can
be drawn by turning the work through 90 degree and then using the scriber. If true surface is
available, try square can also be used.
4. The center on the end of a round bar can be located by using an odd leg caliper, surface gauge
etc.
5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.
6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using dot punch and
hammer.
IV. CUTTING TOOLS
1. Hacksaw
Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It consists of a frame, which is made
from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with the help of a flange nut. The
blade is made up of high carbon steel or high speed steel.
The points of the teeth are bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body of
the blade from rubbing or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades are generally forward cut so in
the case, pressure is applied in the forward direction only.
Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:
o Forward cut
o Backward cut.
Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive teeth) blades is classified
as:
- - -32 teeth per inch)

Figure 30: Hacksaw

2. Files

Files are multi points cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it on the metals.
Files are available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness.
Classification of files
i. On the basis of length
4”,6”,8”,12”
ii. On the basis of grade:
a. Rough (R)(20 teeth per inch)
b. Bastard (B)(30 teeth per inch)
c. Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)
d. Smooth file (S)(50 teeth per inch)
e. Dead smooth (DS)(100 teeth per inch)

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Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more, these files are
used. These files have bigger cut but the surface produced Is rough.
Dead smooth and smooth files have smaller teeth and used for finishing work. Second cut file has degree
of finish in between bastard and smooth file.
iv. On the basis of number of cuts:
a. Single cut files.
b. Double cut files.
In single cut files the teeth are cut in parallel rows at an angle of 60 degree to the face. Another
row of teeth is added in opposite direction in case of double cut files. Material removal is more in case of
double cut files.

Figure 31: Single & Double cut files, and Rasp File
iii. On the basis of shape and size:
The length of the files varies from 4' to 14*. The various shapes of cross-section available are
hand file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge, pillar, needle and mill file.

a. Flat file: This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and then it tapers in width and
thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single cut.
b. Hand file: for a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness tapers as given in flat file.
Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut. The remaining edge is kept uncut in order to use for
filing a right-angled corner on one side only.
c. Square file: It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its length and then tapers
towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing square corners and slots.
d. Triangular file: It has width either parallel throughout or upto middle and then tapered towards the tip.
Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are double cut and the edges single cut. It is used
for filing square shoulders or comers and for sharpening wood working saws.
e. Round file: It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its surface. It is normally
made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as rat-tail file. Parallel round files having same
diameter throughout the length are also available. The round files are used for opening out holes,
producing round comers, round-ended slots etc.
f. Half-round file: Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about one-third of a circle. The
width of the file is either parallel throughout or upto middle and then tapered towards the tip. The flat side
of this file is always a double cut and curved side has single cut. It is used for filing curved surfaces.
g. Knife edge file: It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered towards the tip and
thickness. It carries double cut teeth on the two broad faces and single cut teeth on the edge. It is used for
finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots
h. Diamond file: Its cross-section is like a diamond. It is used for special work.
i. Needle file: These are thin small files having a parallel tang and a thin, narrow and pointed blade made
in different shapes of its cross-section to suit the particular need of the work.

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These are available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm of various shapes and cuts. These files are
used for filing very thin and delicate work.

Figure 32: Cross Sectional Views of FILES or Shapes of FILES

Methods of Filing
The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:
a. Cross-filing b. Draw filing.
(a) Cross - filing.
This method is used for efficient removal of maximum amount of metal in the shortest possible
time. It may be noted that the file must remain horizontal throughout the stroke (long, slow and steady)
with pressure only applied on the forward motion.

(b) Draw filing.

This method is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the file is gripped as
close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing method, a fine cut file with a flat face
should be used.
FILE CARD:
It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean dirt and chips from the teeth of a file.
When particles of metal clog the teeth the file is said to the pinned, a condition that causes scratching of
the surface of the work. Files, therefore, require cleaning by means of a file card or by dislodging the
material between the teeth by means of a piece of soft iron, copper, brass, tin plate and so on, sharpened at
the end. Hardened steel should never be used.

Figure 33: Filing Methods and File Card

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EXPT.No. 01 SQUARE FITTING DATE:

AIM:
To make a Square fit from the given mid steel pieces.

MATERIALS REQUIRED Mild Steel Flat 2 No‟s (50 X 25 X 3mm3).

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1.6”try square
2. 6”sriber
3. Odd leg caliper
4. Blades (12 TPI)
5. 10”rough file
6. 10”smooth file
7. 10”Square file
8. Dot punch
9. Ball peen hammers (0.5 Ib).
10. Steel Rule
11. 12”Hacksaw
Figure 34: SQUARE FITTING

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Filling 4. Sawing
2. Marking 5. Filling
3. Punching 6. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filled to straightness with rough and smooth files and checked with try
square.
3. An adjacent is also filled such that is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for making.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. using the dot punch are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half of
the marked dots.
8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The perpendicularity of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error.

RESULT: The SQUARE FITTING is done successfully.

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EXPT. No.: 02 V - FITTING DATE:

AIM: To make a V-Fit from the given mid steel pieces.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Mild Steel Flat 2 No‟s (50 X 25 X 3mm3).

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1.6”Try Square
2. 6”Scriber
3. Odd leg caliper
3.12”Hack Saw Frame
4 Blades (12 TPI)
5.10”Rough File
6.10”Smooth File
7.10”Triangle File
8. Knife Edge file
9. Dot punch
10. Ball Peen Hammer (0.5 Ib)
11. Steel Rule Figure 35: V - FITTING

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Filling 4. Sawing
2. Marking 5. Filling
3. Punching 6. Finishing

PROCEDURE:
1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filled with rough and smooth files and checked with try square for
straightness.
3. An adjacent edge is also filled such that it is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for marking.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. Using the dot punch, punches are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half of
the marked dots.
8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The perpendicularity of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error.

RESULT: The V- FITTING is done successfully.

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3. FOUNDRY
PATTERN
A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in molding sand and
suitable ramming of molding sand around the pattern is made. The pattern is then withdrawn for
generating cavity (known as mold) in molding sand.
COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS
The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal, plastic, plaster, wax or Mercury.
TYPES OF PATTERN
The types of the pattern and the description of each are given as under.
1. One piece or solid pattern 5. Loose piece pattern 10. Skeleton pattern
2. Two piece or split pattern 6. Match plate pattern 11. Segmental or part pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern 7. Follow board pattern
4. Three-piece or multi- piece 8. Gated pattern
pattern 9. Sweep pattern
1. Single-piece or solid pattern: Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints, partings lines or
loose pieces. It is the simplest form of the pattern. Typical single piece pattern is shown in Fig. 10.1.
2. Two-piece or split pattern: When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity, then
solid pattern is split in two parts. Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the parting line
by means of dowel pins. The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern.

MOLDING SAND
The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular elements of
rocks, and deserts.
Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural molding sands contain sufficient
binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using basic sand molding constituents
(silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in suitable equipments.
Binder
In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic group includes clay
sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be
Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller‟s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic
group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea
formaldehyde etc. Organic binders are mostly used for core making.
Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However, this clay alone
cannot develop bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.
Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop some special
property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing the properties of molding and core
sands are discussed as under.
1. Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during casting.

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2. Corn flour: It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase the collapsibility of
the molding and core sand
3. Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a manner similar to
that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the molds.
4. Sea coal: Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place among the pores of
the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand
5. Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its relatively long thin
fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact with one another.
6. Silica flour: It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which increases the hot
strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and cores

KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which are
described below.
1. Green sand: Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of
silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish
the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and porous.
2. Dry sand: Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores, is
called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability.
3. Loam sand: Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses
high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.
4. Facing sand: Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the
surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating
around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest
conditions and must possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness.
5. Backing sand: Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the
whole volume of the molding flask.
6. Parting sand: Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to
the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without clinging
7. Core sand: Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin, light
mineral oil and other bind materials.

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under.
1. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures
without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly important
characteristic of molding sands. Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent
2. Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any air,
gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into it. All these
gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting becomes
defective
3. Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and
attract each other within the molding sand
4. Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength and
toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e.
they must be capable of attaching themselves to another body

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5. Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient strength to its shape
in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal
6. Flow ability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It will
flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure evenly all
around in all directions
7. Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such sticking
of molding sand with inner wall of molding box
8. Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible
so that free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of the
contracting metal.

HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP

I. Hand Riddle: It consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh equipped with circular
wooden frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing foreign material such as
nails, shot metal, splinters of wood etc. from it. Even power operated riddles are available for
riddling large volume of sand.
II. Shovel: It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It is used in mixing, tempering
and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for moving and transforming the
molding sand to the container and molding box or flask.
III. Rammers: Rammers are shown in Fig. These are required for striking the molding sand mass in
the molding box to pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern.
IV. Sprue Pin: It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold
cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed.
V. Trowels: These are used for finishing flat surfaces and comers inside a mould. Common shapes
of trowels are shown as under. They are made of iron with a wooden handle.
VI. Lifter: A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould sand.
Lifter is also used for removing loose sand from mould.
VII. Strike Off Bar: It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike off the excess sand from the top of a
box after ramming. Its one edge made beveled and the surface perfectly smooth and plane.
VIII. Vent Wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and a wooden handle
or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is used to make small
holes, called vents, in the sand mould to allow the exit of gases and steam during casting.
IX. Slicks: They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are generally
used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal of the pattern
X. Swab: Swab is shown in Fig. It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of sand
mould, which are in contact with the pattern surface before withdrawing the pattern. It is used for
sweeping away the molding sand from the mold surface and pattern.
XI. Gate Cutter: Gate cutter is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut runners and
feeding gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.
XII. Bellows: Bellows gun is shown in Fig... It is hand-operated leather made device equipped with
compressed air jet to blow or pump air when operated. It is used to blow away the loose or
unwanted sand from the surfaces of mold cavities.
XIII. Draw Spike: Draw spike is shown Fig. It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end
and a sharp point at the other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern for it
withdrawal from the mold.
XIV. Sprue Pin: It is a tapered wooden pin, used to make a hole in the cope through which the molten
metal is poured into the mould.

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XV. Moulding Box: Moulding box is also called moulding flask. It is frame or box of wood or metal.
It is made of two parts cope and drag as shown in figure.

Figure 36: Hand Riddle, Rammers, and Trowels

Figure 37: Showel and Riser Pin

Figure 38: Lifter, strike bar, Vent wire, & Slick

Figure 39: Swab, Gate Cutter& Bellow

Figure 40: Mould Box, Draw Spike, & Sprue Pin

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EXPT. No.: 01 MOULD FOR A SINGLE PIECE PATTERN DATE:

Aim: To prepare a sand mold, using the given single piece pattern.

Raw material required:

a. Moulding sand, e. Single piece solid pattern,
b. Parting sand, f. Bottom board,
c. Facing sand, g. Moulding boxes etc.
d. Baking sand,

Tools Required:
1. Molding board
2. Drag and cope boxes
3. Molding sand
4. Parting sand
5. Rammer
6. Strike-off bar
7. Bellows
8. Riser and sprue pins
9. Gate cutter
10. Vent rod
11. Draw spike
12. Wire Brush
Figure 41: Section View of Single Piece Mould Pattern

Sequence of operations:
1. Sand preparation
2. Placing the mould flask (drag) on the moulding board/ moulding platform
3. Placing the pattern at the center of the moulding flask
4. Ramming the drag
5. Placing runner and riser
6. Ramming the cope
7. Removal of the pattern, runner, riser
8. Gate cutting

Procedure: Mould Making

1. First a bottom board is placed either on the molding platform or on the floor, making the
surface even.
2. The drag molding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag part of the
pattern at the center of the flask on the board.
3. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Freshly prepared molding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on the
pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.
5. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to
compact the sand.
6. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scraped using a flat bar to
the level of the flask edges.

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 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL

7. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a pointed end, vent holes are
in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases
during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of the drag.
8. Now finished drag flask is rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
9. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired
10. The cope flask on the top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins of the
drag box.
11. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance of
about 50 mm from the pattern. The sprue base, runners and in-gates are also located as shown
risers are also placed. Freshly prepared facing sand is poured around the pattern.
12. The moulding sand is then poured in the cope box. The sand is adequately rammed, excess
sand is scraped and vent holes are made all over in the cope as in the drag.
13. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask
14. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
15. The cope is separated from the drag any loose sand on the cope and drag interface is blown
off with the help of the bellows.
16. Now the cope and the drag pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and rapping
the pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould cavity so that the walls are not spoiled by the
withdrawing pattern.
17. The runners and gates are to be removed or to be cut in the mould carefully without spoiling
the mould.
18. Any excess or loose sand is applied in the runners and mould cavity is blown away using the
bellows.
19. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which would give
the finished casting a good surface finish.
20. A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After suitable baking, it is placed in the mould
cavity.
21. The cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means of the
pins.
22. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal. The liquid metal is allowed to cool and become
solid which is the casting desired.

Figure 42: Single /solid Pattern

Result: The required mould cavity is prepared using the given Single /solid Pattern.

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EXPT.No.:02 MOULD FOR A SPLIT PIECE PATTERN DATE:

Aim: To prepare a sand mold, using the given Split-piece pattern.

Raw Material required

a. Moulding sand, e. Single piece solid pattern,
b. Parting sand, f. Bottom board,
c. Facing sand, g. Moulding boxes etc.
d. Baking sand,

Tools Required:
1. Molding board 5. Rammer 9. Gate cutter
2. Drag and cope boxes 6. Strike-off bar 10. Vent rod
3. Molding sand 7. Bellows 11. Draw spike
4. Parting sand 8. Riser and sprue pins 12. Wire Brush

Sequence of operations:
1. Sand preparation
2. Placing the mould flask(drag) on the moulding board/ moulding platform
3. Placing the split pattern at the center of the moulding flask
4. Ramming the drag
5. Placing the pattern at the center of the moulding flask (Cope box)
6. Placing runner and riser
7. Ramming the cope
8. Removal of the pattern, runner, riser
9. Gate cutting

Procedure: Mould Making

1. First a bottom board is placed either on the molding platform or on the floor, making the
surface even.
2. The drag molding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag part of the
pattern at the center of the flask on the board.
3. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Freshly prepared molding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on the split-
pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.
5. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to
compact the sand.
6. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scraped using a flat bar to
the level of the flask edges.
7. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a pointed end, vent holes are
in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases
during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of the drag.
8. Now finished drag flask is rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
9. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired and cope half of the pattern is
placed over the drag pattern, aligning it with the help of dowel pins

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10. The cope flask on the top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins of the
drag box.
11. Dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern
12. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance of
about 50 mm from the pattern. The sprue base, runners and ingates are also located as shown
risers are also placed. Freshly prepared facing sand is poured around the pattern.
13. The moulding sand is then poured in the cope box. The sand is adequately rammed, excess
sand is scraped and vent holes are made all over in the cope as in the drag.
14. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask
15. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
16. The cope is separated from the drag any loose sand on the cope and drag interface is blown
off with the help of the bellows.
17. Now the cope and the drag pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and rapping
the pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould cavity so that the walls are not spoiled by the
withdrawing pattern.
18. The runners and gates are to be removed or to be cut in the mould carefully without spoiling
the mould.
19. Any excess or loose sand is applied in the runners and mould cavity is blown away using the
bellows.
20. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which would give
the finished casting a good surface finish.
21. A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After suitable baking, it is placed in the mould
cavity.
22. The cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means of the
pins.
23. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal. The liquid metal is allowed to cool and become
solid which is the casting desired.

Figure 43: MOULD PREPERATION PROCEDURE FOR A SPLIT PIECE PATTERN

Result: The required mould cavity is prepared using the given Split Pattern.
Step: 1 Place Drag part of the pattern on mould board and filled with mould sand
Step -2: Turn drag box upside down and Place cope box over drag box
Step -3: place cope part of the pattern, riser, Sprue, runner in position and filled with mould
sand. Place Drag part of the pattern on Bottom board AND FILLED WITH MOULD SAND
Step-4: Finally, the Mould cavity is produced by removing the pattern.

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4. SHEET METAL WORK (or) TIN SMITHY

INTRODUCTION
Sheet metal work has its own significance in the engineering work. Many products, which fulfill
the household needs, decoration work and various engineering articles, are produced fromsheet metals.
Common examples of sheet metal work are hoopers, canisters, guards, covers, pipes, hoods, funnels,
bends, boxes etc. Such articles are found less expensive, lighter in weight and in some cases sheet metal
products replace the use of castings or forgings.

METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK:

A metal plate of thickness less than 4 mm is considered as sheet. The size of the sheet is specified
by its length, width and thickness in mm. In British system, the thickness of sheet is specified by a
number called Standard Wire Gauge (SWG). The commonly used gauge numbers and the equivalent
thickness in mm are given below.

The following metals are generally used in sheet metal work:

i. Black Iron Sheet : It is the cheapest among ail. It has a bluish-black appearance and is
uncoated sheet. Being uncoated, it corrodes rapidly. It is prepared by rolling to the desired
thickness, then annealed by pleasing in a furnace and then set aside to cool gradually. The use of
this metal is limited to articles that are to be painted or enameled such as stovepipes, tanks, pans
etc.
ii. Galvanized Iron: It is soft steel coated with molten zinc. This coating resist rust, improves
appearances, improves solderability, and improves water resistance. It is popularly known as G.I.
sheets. Articles such as pans, buckets, furnaces, cabinet etc. are made from Gl sheets.
iii. Stainless Steel: It is an alloy of steel with nickel, chromium and traces of other metals. It has
good corrosive resistance. The cost of stainless steel is very high but tougher than Gl sheets. It is
used in kitchenware, food handling equipment, chemical plants etc.
iv. Coupper: It is a reddish colored metal and is extremely malleable and ductile. Copper sheets
have good corrosion resistance as well as good appearances but costs are high as compared to Gl
and stainless steel. Because of high thermal conductivity, it is used for the radiator of
automobiles, domestic heating appliances etc.
v. Aluminium: Aluminium cannot be used in its pure form, but is used in alloy form. Common
additions are copper, silicon, manganese and iron. It has many qualities like high ratio of strength
to weight, corrosion resistant qualities, and ease in fabrication and whitish in color. It is used in
manufacturing of a number of products such as refrigerator trays, household appliances, lighting
fixtures, window work, construction of airplanes and in many electrical and transportation
industries.
vi. Tin Plates: It is an iron sheet coated with the tin to protect it against rust. This metal has a
very bright silvery appearance and is used principally in making food containers, cans and pans.
vii. Lead: It is a very soft, malleable, low melting point and possesses high resistance to acid
corrosion. It is having low mechanical strength so it is used to provide lining to the highly
corrosive acid tanks. It is also used in radiation shielding.
3. HAND TOOLS:
For measuring, marking cutting and forming, various types of hand tools are used in sheet metal
work. A list of them is given below:
I. Measuring tools II. Marking tools III. Cutting tools

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IV. Forming tools V. Joining tools

I. Measuring Tools
The following types of tools are commonly used in sheet metal shops to measure the dimensions
of work pieces:
1. Steel rule 2. Vernier caliper 3. Micrometer 4. Sheet Metal gauge
The above tools are already explained in the fitting section.
Sheet Metal Gauge
It is a disc shaped piece of metal, having a number of slots
on the outside edge as shown in figure. The slots are of various
widths and each corresponds to a certain standard wire gauge
(SWG) number.
The gauge is placed over the edge of the sheet to be
measured and a slot is found that will slip over the metal with a
light fit pressure.
Standard tables are referred to for conversion of SWG Figure 44: Sheet Metal Gauge OR
numbers to mm sizes. Standard Wire Gauge

II. Marking Tools:

1. Scriber:It is used to scribe or mark line on a metal surface for a variety of purposes. It is a
metalworker's pencil
2. Trammel: These are used for drawing large circles and arcs that are beyond the limit of
dividers. It has two straight, removable legs tapered to a needle point mounted on separate
holders which slide on steel (or wooden) bar and held in position by thumb screws.
3. Punches: It is used in sheet metal work for marking on sheet, locating centers. There are two
types of punches. a) Dot punch and b) Prick punch.
These are already explained in fitting section in detail.

Figure 45: Scriber & Trammel

III Cutting Tools:
To cut the sheet metal as per the pattern drawn and to make holes for rivets etc., the
following types of tools are used. A snip is a hand shear used to cut thin sheets of gauge size
number 20 or above. It works like ordinary scissors. There are several types and sizes of snips
available to cut along straight lines or curved lines.
Figure (a) shows a straight snip having straight blades to cut along straight lines.
Figure (b) shows a bent snip having curved blades to cut along curved lines. These snips
are used for cutting thin sheets. The heavier types are known as bench shear and block shear.

Figure 46: Snips & Mechanical Cutter

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IV. Forming Tools:

Shaping of the sheet metal such as folding, bending, curling, etc., are done by using the following
types of forming tools.
1. Stakes:
Stakes are the sheet metal anvils used for bending, seaming and forming by using a
hammer or mallet. They work as the supporting tool as well as the forming tools. They are made
in different sizes and shapes depending upon the job requirement. Commonly used stakes are

Figure 47: Different types of STAKES

2 .Stake Holder
The stake holder used in sheet metal shop is a rectangular bench plate as shown in Figure.

Figure 48: Stake Holder

3. Hammers:
The sheet metal is shaped by hammering or striking with mallet, after keeping the work
on suitable form of stake. The hammers used for sheet metal work are
(a) Setting hammer, for setting down the edge while making double seam,
(b) Raising hammer for forming curved or hollow shape from flat piece, and
(c) Riveting hammer for riveting purpose. Mallets are soft hammers used to give soft
blows which will not damage the sheet at the same time will shape them. The commonly
used types of hammers and mallets are shown in Figure.

Figure 49: Types of Hammers

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V Joining Tools:
The tools exclusively used for making and finishing joints are:
a) Hand grooves b) Rivet set c) Soldering irons
a) Hand Groovers: Hand groovers are used to flatten and
shape joints made in sheet metal. The tool has a
groove of required width and depth like a die. This
groover is placed over the joint (double hem or lock
seam) and hammered from the top of it, to shape the
joint that of the groove as shown figure Figure 50: Hand Groover

b) Rivet Set: Rivet get is made of tool steel. At the

bottom of the rivet set there is a deep hole and a cup-
shaped hole. The deep hole is used to draw a rivet
through sheet metal and cup shaped hole is used to
form the finished head of the rivet- Another hole on
the aide of the set is to release the burrs that are
punched. Dollies are used to backup rivets, when it is
not possible to support the job on a bench. Figure 51: Rivet Set

c) Soldering Iron: A soldering iron consists of a copper

block, fixed on an iron rod with a wooden handle. It is
made in various shapes and sizes to suit the use as
shown in figure. The purpose of the copper block is to
act as a heat source for melting and spreading the
solder (filler metal) at the joining area. The soldering
iron (copper) is heated using furnace, blower or by Figure 52: Soldering Iron
electrical resistance.
SHEET METAL JOINTS:
The line of joint on a sheet me ml pieces is called seam. The most common types of seams are as
follows:
1. Lap seam: This is the simplest seam used in sheet metal work (Figure (a)). This consists of
one edge lapping over the other and joint is made by soldering or riveting.
2. Grooved seam: A grooved seam is made by hooking two-folded edges together and then off
setting them as shown in Figure. This joint is self-locking and stronger to some extent than lap seam.
3. Single seam: This seam is used to join a bottom portion to a vertical body as shown in Figure
(c). The bottom edge is hooked over the bent edge of the vertical body. This method of joint can be used
for square, rectangular or round containers.
4. Double seam: This seam is similar lo single scam with the difference that the formed edge is
bent upwards against the body as shown in Figure (d).
5. Dove-tail seam: This seam is used to connect a cylindrical piece to a flat as shown in Figure
(e). The edge of the cylindrical part to be joined is slit at short distance and is bent so that alternate pieces
come inside and outside of the joint. Permanent joint is obtained by soldering or riveting.

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6. Flanged (burred) bottom seam: This seam is used to fasten the bottom of a container to its
body. The flange of a cylindrical job is often called a burr. The joint consists of a narrow flange which
may be joined to inside or outside of the vessel as shown in figure (f).

Figure 53: Types of Sheet Metal Joints

Edge Forming
For sheet metal objects strength is given to the edge and the sharpness is eliminated by folding
the edge. The common types of folding used in sheet metal work are as follows:
1. Single Hem
2. Double Hem , and
3. Wired Edge

Figure 54: Methods of Edge Forming

Figure shows the three types of edge folding. A wired edge consists of an edge wrapped around a
steel wire for better strength.

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EXPT. No. : 01 RECTANGULAR TRAY DATE:

AIM:
To make a RECTANGULAR TRAY as per required dimensions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Galvanized Iron sheet (150*110*26 gauge)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Steel rule
2. Flat file
3. Scriber
4. Try square
5. Snips
6. Dot punch
7. Stakes
8. Mallet

OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Bending
5. Seaming
6. Soldering

PROCEDURE:
1. The size of the given sheet is checked with steel rule.
2. Mark the measurement and make the development surface sketch diagram.
3. The layout of the tray is marked on given sheet.
4. The layout of the tray is cut by using the straight snips.
5. The sheet is bent to the required shape using stakes and mallet.
6. Now the bent edges are made to overlap each other and stuck with a mallet to get the required
joint.
7. The joint is soldered.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Care should be taken while cutting with snip.
2. Care should be taken while bending and jumping.

RESULT:
The RECTANGULAR TRAY is done success fully made.
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EXPT. No. : 02 ROUND PIPE/ CYLINDER DATE:

AIM:
To make a CYLINDRICAL PIPE as per required dimensions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Galvanized Iron sheet (100*38*26 gauge)

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Steel rule
2. Flat file
3. Scriber
4. Try square
5. Snips
6. Dot punch
7. Stakes
8. Mallet
OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Cutting
4. Bending
5. Seaming
6. Soldering

PROCEDURE:
1. The size of the given sheet is checked with steel rule.
2. Mark the measurement and make the development surface sketch diagram.
3. The layout of the cylindrical shape pipe is marked on the given sheet.
4. The sheet is bent to the required shape using stakes and mallet.
5. Now the edges are slightly bent to one is one side and the other is opposite side, using
stakes and mallet.
6. Join both the ends with in a cylindrical shape.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Care must be taken while cutting snips.
2. Care must be taken while bending and joining.

RESULT:
The Cylindrical Pipe (Shape) is made successfully.
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5. WELDING
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The
heat may be generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical
reaction.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. The
welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of the typical
applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore
platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Figure 55: Various Techniques Of Welding Process

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other.
However, some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in welding term „weldability‟ is often
used. The weldability may be defined as property of a metal which indicates the ease with which it can be
welded with other similar or dissimilar metals.
Elements of welding process used with common welding joints such as base metal, fusion zone,
weld face, root face, root opening toe and root are depicted in Figure.
Edge preparations
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge preparations
may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.
Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of two major
kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under.

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Figure 56: Terminology of Welding Process

1. Lap weld joint

I. Single-Lap Joint : This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended
for most work. The single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily for
joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
II. Double-Lap Joint: This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it
requires twice as much welding.
III. Tee Fillet Weld: This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an
alternative design is possible.
2. Butt weld joint
a. Single-Vee Butt Weld : It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends
upon the technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
b. Double-Vee Butt Weld : It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be
performed on both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom
angle is 80°, depending on the technique being used.

Figure 57: Types of Weld Joints

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II. Welding Positions

As shown in Fig. there are four types of welding positions, which are given as:

Figure 58: Types of Welding Positions

a) Flat or Down-hand Welding Position: The flat position or down hand position is one in which
the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal.
b) Horizontal Welding Position: In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and
the deposited weld head is horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in
welding vessels and reservoirs.
c) Vertical Welding Position: In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the
weld is deposited upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this
position due to the effect of the force of gravity on the molten metal.
d) Overhead Welding Position: The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than
the vertical position. Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process.
The basic principle of arc welding is shown in Figure. However the basic elements involved in
arc welding process are shown in Figure. Most of these processes use some shielding gas while others
employ coatings or fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.

Figure 59: Principle of ARC Welding Process

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Elements Involved In Arc

Welding Process:
1) Switch box.
2) Secondary terminals
3) Welding machine.
4) Current reading scale.
5) Current regulating
hand wheel.
6) Leather apron.
7) Asbestos hand gloves.
8) Protective glasses
strap
9) Electrode holder.
10) Hand shield
11) Channel for cable
protection.
12) Welding cable.
13) Chipping hammer.
14) Wire brush.
15) Earth clamp.
16) Welding table
(metallic).
17) Job.
Figure 60: Elements Involved In Arc Welding Process

Arc Welding Equipment

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure. However
some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the important
components of arc welding setup are described as under.
1. Arc welding power source
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each
having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators driven by
electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC welding supply,
transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity supply is
available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit
welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors influence the selection of a power source:
a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment

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2. Welding cables
Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are insulated
copper or aluminum cables.
3. Electrode Holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the
electrode manually and conducting current to it.
These are usually matched to the size of the
lead, which in turn matched to the amperage
output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are
available in sizes that range from 150 to 500
Amps.
Figure 61: Electrode Holder
4. Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is set
up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into following types-
(i) Consumable Electrodes (ii) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes (a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes (b) Tungsten Electrodes
Consumable Electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable electrode itself
acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without any flux coating on them.
Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating
on melting performs many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc
stabilizers etc.
Non-Consumable Electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But practically, the
electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the
electrode material during welding. The materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper coated
carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated or zirconiated tungsten.

Figure 62: Parts of Welding Electrodes

5. Hand Screen
Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
6. Chipping Hammer
Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.
7. Wire Brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

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Figure 63: Earth Clamp, Chipping Hammer, & Wire Brush

8. Protective clothing
Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct heat to
the body.

Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these general
safety recommendations which are given as under.
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines
containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall not be
used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall be mechanically strong and
electrically adequate for the required current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also;
consequently the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special filter glass
to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder
4. The welder‟s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks and
flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder‟s clothes and his trunk and thighs
while seated he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.
10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working order at all
times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual service
conditions.

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EXPT. No.: 01 BUTT JOINT DATE:

AIM:
To make a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
MATERIAL REQUIRED:
MILD STEEL plate of size 50 X 25 X 3 mm3 – 2 No‟s
WELDING ELECTRODES: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
WELDING EQUIPMENT: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V 3 phase supply, amps up to 350
TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:
1. Rough and smooth files.
2. Protractor
3. Arc welding machine
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode
holder
5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs
7. Face shield
8. Apron
9. Chipping hammer.

Figure 64: SINGLE VEE BUTT JOINT

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Marking 5. Tacking
2. Cutting 6. Welding
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, 7. Cooling
scale etc.) by filling 8. Chipping
4. Try square leveling 9. Cleaning

PROCEDURE:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. One edge of each piece is believed, to an angle of 300, leaving nearly ¼ th of the flat thickness,
at one end.
3. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated slightly for
better penetration of the weld.
4. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper
value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the two pieces
together; first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
7. Second run of the weld is done with proper weaving and with uniform movement. During the
process of welding, the electrode is kept at 150 to 250 from vertical and in the direction of
welding.
8. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
9. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.
RESULT:
The SINGLE V-BUTT JOINT is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned above.

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EXPT. No. : 02 LAP JOINT DATE:

AIM:
To make a Lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding.
MATERIAL SUPPLIED:
MILD STEEL plate of size 50 X 25 X 3 mm3 – 2 No‟s
WELDING ELECTRODES: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
WELDING EQUIPMENT: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V,3-ɸ supply, Current up to 350Amps
TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:
1. Rough and smooth files. 5. Ground clamp
2. Protractor 6. Tongs
3. Arc welding machine (transformer 7. Face shield
type) 8. Apron
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode 9. Chipping hammer.
holder

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust,
scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Figure 65: LAP JOINT

PROCEDURE:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces overlapped one
over the other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper
value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-
welded at both the ends and at the center of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

RESULT:
The LAP JOINT is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned

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EXPT. No. : 03 CORNER JOINT DATE:

AIM:
To make a corner joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding.
MATERIAL SUPPLIED:
MILD STEEL plate of size 50 X 25 X 3 mm3 – 2 No’s
WELDING ELECTRODES: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
WELDING EQUIPMENT: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V,3-ɸ supply, Current up to 350Amps
TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:
1. Rough and smooth files. 5. Ground clamp
2. Protractor 6. Tongs
3. Arc welding machine (transformer 7. Face shield
type) 8. Apron
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode 9. Chipping hammer.
holder

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust,
scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Figure 66: CORNER JOINT

PROCEDURE:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the L shape is formed. The tongs
are made use of for the purpose.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper
value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-
welded at both the ends and at the center of the joint.
6. The alignment of the corner joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.
RESULT:
The CORNER JOINT is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned.

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6. HOUSE WIRING
INTRODUCTION:
Power is supplied to domesticate installations through a phase and neutral, forming a single phase
AC 230 v to wire system. For individual establishment power is supplied through three phase two wire
system. To give 440V, the neutral is earthed at to the domestic utilities; power is fed to kilo watt meter
and then to distributes power along several circuits. It also protects these circuits from over load by safety
devices like fuses or circuit breakers.
ELEMENTS OF HOUSE WIRING:
1. Fuses and circuit breakers
2. Electric switch
3. Plug
4. Socket out let
5. Lamp holder
6. Main switch
7. Incandesant Light

WIRING METHOD: A circuit is path along which the electric current flows from negative side of power
source to positive side.

COMMON HOUSE WIRING REPAIRS:

1. Replacing a fuse
2. Resulting a circuit beaker
3. Resulting a switch or an out let
4. Repair of house hold appliances

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure that the insulation of wire reaches up to accessory
2. Do not over tighten the screw
3. Ensure that the base wire is not touching any part of accessory.

RULERS OF WIRING:
1. Every fitting or appliances must also be controlled by a switch.
2. The switch should be on the line conductor
3. Every sub-circuit must have a separate fuse.
All the metals covering frames etc. should be earthed.
Incandescent Light:
In candescent means „glow ingot white hot‟ .A lamp actually works like a heating element, except
that it gives of flight by becoming white hot. Figure. shows the part s of a bulb. The amount of power it
consumes is stamped on the bulb. The higher the wattage, brighter the light. The bulbs have filaments
made of tungsten. However, special bulbs are available with inside coating and filled with gas.
Wires and Wire Sizes:
A wire is defined as a bare or an insulated conductor consisting of one or several strands. An
insulated wire consists of a conductor with insulating material made of vulcanized India rubber (VIR) or
polyvinylchloride (PVC). The wire may consist of one or several twisted strands. A multi core conductor
consists of several cores insulated from one another and enclosed in a common sheathing (fig.3.10).

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Wires ize sare specified by diameter of the wire, using a stand ard wire gauge (SWG), which also
gives an ideao f the current carrying capacity. Thespecification consist so fb ot htheno. Of strandsand the
diameter of each wire in it. Forexample, the specification,
(i)silk wire14/36 indicates14strands of 36SWG each and
(ii )3/18 PVC indicates 3 strands of 18SWG each.

Figure 67: 3-Phase Wire Coding

Figure 68: Color Codes for Wires

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Figure 69: Wire gauge chart

Figure 70: Terminology of USB Cable

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Figure 71: Symbols of Basic Electrical & Telecom Instruments

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Figure 72: Electronic Circuit Symbols

Figure 73: Electrical Workshop Hand Tools

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Figure 74: Parallel Connection of Two Switches

Figure 75: Wiring of Ceiling Fan

Figure 76: Connecting of Wall Socket

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EXPT.No.01 ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH DATE:

AIM:
To control one lamp by a one switch with provision for plug socket with switch control.
MATERIALS REQUIRED WITH DIMENSIONS:
1. 1/18”pvc wire of sufficient length
2. One way switch – 2 no.
3. Two-pin plug socket-1no.
4. Bulb-1no.
5. Bulb holder-1no.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:
1. 6”cutting pliers 5. 6”screw drivers
2. 1.5 IB ball peen hammer. 6. Hack saw
3. Wire stripper 7. 12mm hand drilling machine.
4. Tester
OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED
OUT:
1. Fitting the wires
2. Connection of the bulb
holder
3. Connection of plug socket
4. Connection of switch
5. Circuit connections
6. Power from mains
7. Operation the bulb
Figure 77: ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH
8. Testing the plug socket.
PROCEDURE:
1. The outline wiring diagram marked on the wooden board and clips are nailed to the board
following the diagram, six wire pieces are taken and insulation is removed at the ends by using
wire stripper.
2. A phase wire is connected to one point switch s1 and s2.
3. The lower points of switches s1ands2 are connected to one point of bulb holder and one point
of plug socket respectively.
4. Two neutral wires are taken and one in connected to the remaining point of the bulb holder.
5. The other is connected to the remaining points of plug socket.
6. After checking the proper circuit connections the power supply is given.
7. Now the bulb is ready to glow bright and the plug socket is also ready with control.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the wire connections of the switches, bulb holder and sockets are tight.
2. Too many load connections fr4om a single junction are avoided.

RESULT:
Successfully the wires are connected the bulb and it glows.

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EXPT. No. 02 STAIR CASE WIRING DATE:

AIM:
To do stair case wiring (i.e. control of one lamp by two switches fixed at two different places).
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
PVC wire of sufficient length 5-no,Two-way switches, bulb holders, ceiling rose and bulb.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:
1. 6‟‟ cutting pliers,
2. 6‟‟screwdrivers,
3. Wire stripper
4. Tester

.OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:

1. Fitting the wires
2. Connection of the bulb holder
3. Connection of switches
4. Circuit-connection
5. Power from mains
6. Operating the lamp

Figure 78: STAIR CASE WIRING

PROCEDURE:
1. A phase wire is taken and its one end is connected to the middle point of two – way switch,
S1. While the other end is connected to the phase point of main supply. Another phase wire
(second wire) is taken and used for connecting the lower points of the two switchesS1; S2.
2. The third phase wire piece is taken and is connected between the middle point of S2 and one
of the points of the bulb holder .
3. A neutral wire piece is taken and its one end is connected to the remaining points of bulb
holders, while the other end is connected to main supply.
4. Now the glowing of the bulb is controlled by two way switches.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All wire connections to the switches and bulb holders should be right.
2. Always red wire should be used for phase and black for neutral.
3. Too many load connections from a single junctions are avoided
4. Switch should be connected in phase only.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION:

Stair case wiring (i.e. control of one lamp by two switches fixed at two different places) is done.

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7. PLUMBING
Plumbing is a skilled trade of working with pipes or tubes and plumbing fixtures. The process is
mainly used for the supply of drinking water and the drainage of waste water, sometimes mixed with
waste floating materials in a living or working place.
A plumber is someone who installs or repairs piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment
such as valves, washbasins, water heaters, water closests, etc. Thus it usually refers to a system of pipes
and fixtures installed in a building for the distribution of water and the removal of waterborne wastes.
The latin word plumbum, means metal lead pipe, is the origin for developing the term plumbing.
Plumbing process was originated during the ancient civilizations such as the greek, Roman, Persian,
Indian and Chinese civilizations as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water, and
drainage of wastes carried by water.

PIPES AND THEIR JOINTS:

Pipes are manufactured by using different types of materials like steel, cast iron, galvanized iron,
brass, copper, aluminum, lead, plastic, concrete, asbestos, etc. They are usually classified according to the
material. They are also grouped as cast, welded, seamless, extruded, etc. For conveying large quantity of
water, cast iron, steel or concrete pipes having large diameter are usually used. Galvanized iron pipes (GI
pipes) are popular for medium and low pressure water supply lines.
Plastic pipes are preferred for household uses at low pressure. Pipes are generally specified by
their inner diameter (Nominal diameter specified in inches). Hence, the pipe fitting size is also based on
this dimension. But for plastic pipes, this rule is not strictly followed because threading is not usually
required for them. For engineering uses, along with the nominal diameter, the pipe thickness is also
specified as light, medium or heavy.

Types of pipe joints:

According to the pipe material, size and application, different methods are used to join pipes. The
most common types of pipe joints are:
1. Screwed pipe joint – For GI Pipes
2. Welded pipe joint – for steel, copper, aluminum and lead pipes
3. Flanged pipe joint – for cast iron and steel pipes
4. Soldered pipe joint – for brass and copper tubes
5. Glued or cemented pipe joint – for PVC pipes

Pipes made of iron (GI Pipes) and brass of small and medium diameters (10 mm to 100 mm) are
usually joined by screwing the pipe specials with internal or external threads. Welding is used to make
permanent joint of medium and large diameter steel pipes. Flanged pipe joints are common in medium
and large diameter pipes of cast iron and steel, along with rubber/CAF (Compressed asbestos fibre)
gaskets. The flanged are screwed to the pipe for smaller diameter but made integral for large diameters.
Pipes of copper and brass are usually joined by soldering.

PVC (poly Vinyl Chloride) pipe is the most popular choice in plastic group. It is rigid and uses
thread and solvent weld (glue) connections. It also can be heat fused. PVC pipes are available in various
pressure ratings for water supply, and is a very choice for landscape irrigation.

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The reasons for the popularity are the economy, no corrosion and easiness to work. CPVC is a
different type of plastic, which has an extra chlorine atom in the compound, can be used for the hot water
supply, and in industry.
To join plastic pipes, gluing or cementing method is used. Solvent cement is the gluing material
and it partially melts the surface of the plastic pipe to make the joint. As the glue evaporates within two
minutes, a strong joint is obtained.

Screwed pipe fittings, (pipe specials) are removable or temporary pipe connections which permit
necessary dismantling or reassembly for the purpose of installation, maintenance, cleaning, repair, etc.
The functions of pipe fittings can be broadly classified as:
1. To join two or more pipe lines together
2. To effect change in diameter or direction
3. To close the end of a pipe line

The most common types of screwed pipe fittings used in galvanized iron (GI) pipe lines and
plastic (PVC) pipe lines are shown in Figure 1 (I to 17). A brief description of these fittings is given
below
1. Coupler (coupling): Two pipe lines of equal diameter and in axial alignment can be joined by
a coupler (coupling). It is a short sleeve with internal thread.
2. Reducer coupler (Reducer coupling): This is a coupler to join two pipe lines of different
diameters in axial alignment.
3. 900 Elbow: This is a pipe special used or effecting abrupt change in direction through 90°.
Internal threads are provided on both ends. An elbow brings twice the head loss than a bend.
4. 900 Reducer elbow: This is an elbow with outlet diameter less than that of inlet diameter It is
used to join two pipe lines having different diameters and meeting at right angle.
5.Bend: This is a pipe special used to effect gradual change in direction (usually 90°).The two
ends of the bend are externally threaded.
6. Return hand: This bend is used to return the direction of pipe line through 180°.The ends are
internally threaded for fitting the pipe lines.
7. Tee: This pipe special is used to make a branch connection of same diameter to the main pipe
line at right angle. A Tee is internally threaded and it connects three ends of pipes.
8. Reducer Tee: This is a pipe special similar to Tee used to take a branch connection of reduced
diameter from the main pipe line.
9, Cross: This pipe special is used to take two branch connections at right angles to the main pipe
line. The threads are provided internally,
10. Close nipple: A nipple is a short straight piece of pipe with external thread on both ends. A
close nipple is the shortest one of this category with external thread for the full length. They are
used to join two internally threaded pipe specials and valves.
11. Short nipple: A short nipple has the same shape and function of a close nipple, but it has a
short unthreaded portion at the middle of its length for gripping.
12. Short nipple with hexagonal grip: This nipple has an additional hexagonal nut shape at the
middle portion for easy screwing with spanner. It is similar to an ordinary short nipple, except
that difference.

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13. Hose nipple: A hose nipple is used to connect a hose (flexible pipe-usually plastic or rubber)
to a pipe line. One end of the hose-nipple has a stepped taper to fit the hose, while other end has
thread. A hexagonal nut shape is given to the middle portion for gripping with a spanner.
14. Male plug: A male plug is used to close an internally threaded end of a pipe line or pipe
special. It has external thread and a grip of square shape at the end.
15. Female plug (cap): A female plug is used to close an externally thread end of a pipe or pipe
special. It has internal thread and a grip of square shape at the end.
16. Screwed union: II consists of three pieces as shown in the drawing. The two end pieces have
internal threads at their ends which are connected to the pipe ends. The central hexagonal (or
octagonal) piece (union nut) has internal thread at one end and a collar at the other end. After the
end pieces are screwed on to the pipes, the central piece (union nut) is tightened to draw the end
pieces together to get a water tight joint.
17. Flange: This is a disc type pipe special having threaded hole at the center for screwing to the
externally threaded end of a pipe line. It will have holes around the central hole at equal angular
spacing (3, 4, 6f or 8 Nos.) for joining to another similar flange or flat surface using bolt or stud.
Example for the use of various pipe fittings in pipe line is given in Figure.

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Figure 79: Pipe Fittings

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Figure 80: Photographic views of Pipe Fittings

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Valves and Meters

Valves are used in piping systems to control or stop the flow of liquid or gas. The most common
types of valves used in low pressure water pipe line are:
1. Water tap 5. Ball valve
2. Water cock 6. Non-return valve
3. Globe valve 7. Foot valve
4. Gate valve

Figure 81: Types of Valves

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Figure 82: water Tap, Water Cock, & Globe Valve

1. Water Tap :
To collect water from low pressure pipe line, water tap (screw-down valve) is commonly used.
Figure gives the cross section of the tap. Its leather or rubber faced valve disc is lifted or lowered by
rotating the spindle. Brass or gun-metal is the material used for the valve body and the size is specified by
the pipe to which it is fitted, usually ranging from 10 mm to 25 mm.

2. Water Cock
This is the simplest and smallest form of a valve in which a conical plug called cock is inserted
into a conical hole having a matching taper. A rectangular hole is provided at the center across the conical
potion so that, in one position it permits flow of water as shown in Figure. A half turn of the handle will
bring the solid portion of the cock to the water ways preventing the flow. Cocks are used for low rate of
water flow' or for tapping pressure line to a manometer etc.

3. Globe Valve
Globe valves are used as control valves in fluid (gas and liquid) pipe lines. Figure shows
the simplest and smallest type of globe valve used in water pipe lines. Basically, the valve is a
variable opening flow device. The valve plug is raised or lowered to stop or regulate the flow
through a circular opening. A globe valve can be identified by the spherical body and the arrow
mark for the direction of flow. These valves are used in water pipe lines from 12 mm to 100 mm or even
larger diameter for the flow control purpose.

4. Foot Valve:
Foot valve is a kind of non-return valve used in centrifugal
pumps. It is fitted at the bottom most end of the suction pipe (Foot)
to stop flow in the downward direction for priming purpose.

The strainer restricts the entry of floating materials to the

pipe line. Figure gives the details of the foot valve. The material
used may be cast iron, brass, or PVC.

Figure 83: Foot Valve

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8. POWER TOOLS
INTRODUCTION:
Power tool is a powered by an electric motor, a compressed air motor, or a gasoline engine.
Power tools are classified as either stationary or portable, where portable means handheld. They are used
in industry, in construction, and around the house for cutting, shapping, drilling, sanding, painting,
grinding, and polishing.
Stationary power tools for metalworking are usually called Machine tools.
The lathe is the oldest power tool, being known to the ancient Egyptians. Early industrial
revolution-era factories had batteries of power tools driven by belts from overhead shafts. The prime
power source was a water wheel or a steam engine.
Stationary power tools are prized not only for their speed, but for their accuracy. A table saw not
only cuts faster than a hand saw, but the cuts are smoother, straighter and more square than even the most
skilled man can co with a handsaw. Lathes produce truly round objects that cannot be made in any other
way.
An electric motor is the universal choice to power stationary tools. Portable electric tools may be
either corded or battery-powered.
Common power tools include the drill, various types of saws, the router, the electric sander, and
the lathe. The term power tool is also used in a more general sense, meaning a technique for greatly
simplifying a complex or difficult task.

A Pneumatic Tool is also called pneumatic-powered, air-powered or an air tool. The driving
force behind such pneumatics is simply compressed air by nothing more than an air compressor.

In addition, Electric Power Tools are more involved and may cause more injuries because of their
electrical elements. The motors and parts also make them much heavier, and therefore harder on the body.

Efficiency is built into the air tools because they are easier and faster to use. The bonus is that on
many construction sites electricity is harder to come by. Air tools are a fantastic work-around to the
power dilemma.
They are not only useful tools for building, such as with an air nail gun but also for cleaning up
sites after a long day of work. The pneumatic wrench is priceless especially when tasked with an
industrial site that has thousands of nuts to tighten one followed by another.

Power Hacksaw:
A power hacksaw is a type of hacksaw that is powered either by its own electric motor (also
known as electric hacksaw) or connected to a stationary engine. Most power hacksaw is stationary
machines but some portable models do exist.
Stationary models usually have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return stroke and
some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from overheating.
While stationary electric hacksaw are reasonably uncommon they are still produced but saws
powered by a stationary engines have gone out of fashion. The reason for using one is that they provide a
cleaner cut than an angle grinder or other types of saw.

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HAND-HELD CIRCULAR SAWS:

The term circular saw is most commonly used to refer to a hand-held electric circular saw
designed for cutting wood, which may be used less optimally for cutting other materials with the
exchange of specific blades.
Circular saws can be either left or right handed, depending on the side of the blade where the
motor sits and which hand the operator uses when holding a saw.

DRILL:
A drill is a tool with a rotating drill bit used for drilling holes in various materials. Drills are
commonly used in woodworking, metalworking. Special designed drills are also used in medical and
other applications such as in space missions.
The drill bit is gripped by a chuck at one end of the drill and rotated while pressed against the
target material. The tip of the drill bit does the work of cutting into the target material, either slicing off
thin shavings (twist drills or auger bits), grinding of small particles (oil drilling), or crushing and
removing pieces of the work piece (masonry drill).

BENCH GRINDER:
A bench grinder or pedestal grinder is a machine used to drive an abrasive wheel (or wheels).
Depending on the grade of the grinding wheel it may be used for sharpening cutting tools such as lathe
tools or drill bits. Alternatively it may be used to roughly shape metal prior to welding or fitting.
A wire brush wheel or buffing wheel can be interchanged with the grinding wheels in order to
clean or polish work-pieces.

Figure 84: Electric powered Circular Saw

Figure 85: Electric Powered Angle Grinding Machine, Hand Drill, &Cordless Hand Drill Machine

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Figure 86: Pneumatic/ Air Pressure Powered Tools

Figure 87: Electric Powered Bench Grinding Machine

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Figure 88: Electric Powered Power Tools

Figure 89: Electric Powered Double Bevel Sliding Compound Saw, & Jig Saw

N. SAYED BABA, Asst. Prof. Dept. of M.E. SVIST-KADAPA Page 73