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    Eelec Notes

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    noreen tonog
    Electrons flow through conductive materials and not through insulators. A circuit must have a complete loop for current to flow from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative terminal. Resistance controls the amount of current that flows and is measured in ohms. Different circuit components like resistors, diodes, capacitors, transistors and LEDs work together using principles like Ohm's law and conventional current flow. Semiconductors allow their conductivity to be controlled, and components like diodes and transistors use PN junctions to control electron flow.

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    Eelec Notes

    Uploaded by

    noreen tonog
    49 views8 pages
    Electrons flow through conductive materials and not through insulators. A circuit must have a complete loop for current to flow from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative terminal. Resistance controls the amount of current that flows and is measured in ohms. Different circuit components like resistors, diodes, capacitors, transistors and LEDs work together using principles like Ohm's law and conventional current flow. Semiconductors allow their conductivity to be controlled, and components like diodes and transistors use PN junctions to control electron flow.

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    Electrons flow through conductive materials and not through insulators. A circuit must have a complete loop for current to flow from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative terminal. Resistance controls the amount of current that flows and is measured in ohms. Different circuit components like resistors, diodes, capacitors, transistors and LEDs work together using principles like Ohm's law and conventional current flow. Semiconductors allow their conductivity to be controlled, and components like diodes and transistors use PN junctions to control electron flow.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    49 views8 pages

    Eelec Notes

    Uploaded by

    noreen tonog
    Electrons flow through conductive materials and not through insulators. A circuit must have a complete loop for current to flow from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative terminal. Resistance controls the amount of current that flows and is measured in ohms. Different circuit components like resistors, diodes, capacitors, transistors and LEDs work together using principles like Ohm's law and conventional current flow. Semiconductors allow their conductivity to be controlled, and components like diodes and transistors use PN junctions to control electron flow.

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    Intro to Electronics

    Atoms in every material are made up of electrons and protons.

    - Everything is made of atoms.


    - Consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
    - Electrons orbit the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
    - the electrons in conductive materials are free to move from atom to atom.

    Electrons ( - ) charge are attracted to protons ( + ) charge, this holds the atom together.

    Insulators – are materials that have immobile electrons (air, glass, rubber, most plastics)

    - block flow of electrons.

    Conductors - materials have electrons that are free to move (copper, silver, gold, aluminum)

    - permit flow of electrons.

    Current of electricity – in a conductor, electrons can be made to move from one atom to another.

    Surplus of electrons is called a NEGATIVE CHARGE.

    Shortage of electrons is called a POSITIVE CHARGE.

    (a batter provides a surplus of electrons by chemical reaction.)

    By connecting a conductor from the positive to negative terminal electrons will flow.

    A circuit must be close loop.

    by convention electricity runs from positive to negative

    ben franklin was wrong.

    **WILL USE CONVENTIONAL FLOW NOTATION ON ALL SCHEMATICS**


    Battery has POSITIVE & NEGATIVE terminal.

    Voltage measured between the terminals of a battery is a measure of the ability of the battery to move
    charge through an external circuit.

    - Is like differential pressure, always measure between two points.


    - measure between two points or across a component
    - when measuring DC voltage polarity of meter must be correct: (+) red , ( - ) black.
    - Also called “electromotive force”
    - Things fall because of gravitational force.
    - Current flow in a circuit because of ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (VOLTAGE)
    - Sometimes we refer to a “voltage drop” or “voltage difference” between two points.
    - Other times voltage is stated with respect to a reference point called “ground” (usually the
    negative source of power)

    Water analogy – a battery is analogous to a pump.

    Higher voltage battery is ANALOGOUS to a higher-pressure pump.

    Voltage = electro-motive force, the driving force in electron flow.


    Constriction – creates resistance to water flow.

    Resistor - creates resistance to current flow.

    Resistance – used to control current.

    - Measured in ohms.
    - (example: audio volume control)
    - determines the amount of current that will flow in the presence of a given Voltage.
    - The Voltage across and the current through a resistor are related by Ohms law: V = I*R
    - The resistance of a good wire is much less than 1 Ω.
    - A resistor of 1MΩ is still a much better conductor than the air around the circuit

    Types of resistors:

    - Fixed
    - Potentiometer (pot)
    - Potentiometer
    - Sliding potentiometer

    Measuring current – through a section of a circuit.

    Measuring resistance – measured with resistor.

    Diodes allow current to flow in only one direction.

    - The arrow on the symbol points in the direction of positive current flow.
    - is a 2 lead semiconductor that acts as a one way gate to electron flow.

    Current - is a measure of the quantity of charge that is flowing.

    - Measures in amperes (or miliamps)


    - Must be measured in series.
    - An ammeter acts like a smart wire telling you how much current is passing through it.

    Voltage, current, and resistance are related by Ohm’s Law:

    Objects will only fall if they are given a path to the ground.

    Electric current will only flow if given a path from high to low Voltage.

    Series circuits – current is conserved in a circuit.

    - I1 = I2 = I3
    - The Voltage across each resistor depends on its individual resistance.
    - The voltage across each resistor obeys Ohms law.

    Parallel circuits - Voltage across both resistors is the same.

    - Current divides between the two resistors.


    - I1 = I2 + I3
    - The voltage across and current through each resistor still obey Ohms law.

    Resistance in series - Resistances add when wired in series.

    - Rtotal = R1 + R2

    Resistance in Parallel - Resulting resistance is always less than either.

    - If resistors are equal, resulting resistance will be half.


    Light emitting diodes (LED) – Will only pass current in one direction.

    - Behave like 1–3-volt light bulbs.


    - Generally, require a resistor in series with them.
    - 2 lead semiconductor device.
    - Light emitting PN-junction diode. – Visible or infrared light.
    - Has polarity
    - Recall diodes act as a one way gate to current flow. – A forward-biased PN-junction diode allows
    current flow from anode to cathode.
    - Similar to diodes, LEDs are current-dependent devices. – LED brightness is controlled by
    controlling current through LED
    - A resistor placed in series with LED accomplishes current control

    Visible light LED

    - Inexpensive and durable.


    - Typical usage: as indicator lights.
    - Common colors: green (~565nm), yellow (~585nm), orange (~615nm), and red (~650nm).
    - Maximum forward voltage: | 1.8V.
    - Typical operating currents: 1 to 3mA.
    - Typical brightness levels: 1.0 to 3.0mcd/1mA to 3.0mcd /2mA.
    - High-brightness LEDs exist. – Used in high-brightness flashers (e.g., bicycle flashers).

    Blinking LED

    - Contain a miniature integrated circuit that causes LED to flash from 1 to 6 times/second.
    - Typical usage: indicator flashers. May also be used as simple oscillators.

    Tricolor LED

    - Two LEDs placed in parallel facing opposite directions.


    - One LED is red or orange, the other is green.
    - Current flow in one direction turns one LED ON while the other remains OFF due to reverse bias.
    - Current flow in the other direction turns the first LED OFF and the second LED ON.
    - Rapid switching of current flow direction will alternatively turn the two LEDs ON giving yellow
    light. • Used as a polarity indicator.
    - Maximum voltage rating: 3V
    - Operating range: 10 to 20mA

    7-segment LED display

    - Used for displaying numbers and other characters.


    - 7 individual LEDs are used to make up the display.
    - When a voltage is applied across one of the LEDs, a portion of the 8 lights up.
    - Unlike liquid crystal displays (LCD), 7-segment LED displays tend to be more rugged, but they
    also consume more power.

    Capacitance – a capacitor is used to store charged for a short amount of time.

    - It is like a small rechargeable battery.


    - Capacitance is a measure of the quantity of charge that a capacitor can store (at a given
    voltage)
    - Measure in farads (often microfarads)
    - (EXAMPLES: Mylar, monolythic ceramic, tantalum, ceramic, electrolytic
    - Can be used for timing.
    - Will conduct AC but not DC.

    Semiconductors – conductivity falls between conductor and insulators.

    - Are “part-time” conductors whose conductivity can be controlled.


    - Silicon is the most common material used to build semiconductor devices.
    o main ingredient of sand and it is estimated that a cubic mile of seawater contains
    15,000 tons of Si.

    Valence electrons – contains four electrons in outer orbit. (atoms in a pure silicon wafer and
    Germanium another semiconductor material with valence electrons.)

    - A pure Si wafer is said to act as an insulator.

    PN- junction diode - formed by joining together n-type and p-type silicon.

    - The p-side is called anode and the n-side is called cathode.


    - When the anode and cathode of a pn-junction diode are connected to external voltage such that
    the potential at anode is higher than the potential at cathode, the diode is said to be forward
    biased.
    - When potential at anode is smaller than the potential at cathode, the diode is said to be
    reverse biased. In a reverse-biased diode current is blocked.

    Water analogy of diodes

    - When water pressure on left overcomes the restoring force of spring, the gate is opened and
    water is allowed to flow.
    - When water pressure is from right to left, the gate is pressed against the solid stop and no
    water is allowed to flow.

    Depletion region - results in an empty zone around the pn - junction that is free of charge carries.

    - acts as an insulator preventing current from flowing through the diode.

    Diodes application – HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

    - converts ac input voltage to a pulsed dc output voltage.


    - Whenever the ac input becomes negative at diode’s anode, the diode blocks current flow.
    - The o/p frequency is same as the i/p frequency.

    Diodes application – FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

    - does not block negative swings in the i/p voltage, rather it transforms them into positive swings
    at the o/p.
    - The o/p frequency is twice the i/p frequency.

    Diodes application – AC2DC POWER SUPPLY

    - is built using a transformer and a full-wave rectifier.


    - Transformer is used to step down the voltage i/p.
    - Rectifier converts AC to pulsed DC.
    - A filter capacitor is used to smooth out the pulses.
    - Capacitor must be large enough to store sufficient charge so as to provide a steady current
    supply to the load.

    Transistor – three lead semiconductor device that acts as: An electrically controlled switch or
    current amplifier.

    - Is analogous to a faucet.
    - A small voltage/current applied at transistor’s control lead controls a larger current flow through
    its other two leads.

    Types of transistors: BJT, JFET, MOSFET

    - Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) – NPN and PNP


     NPN: a small input current and a positive voltage applied @ its base (with VB>VE) allows a
    large current to flow from collector to emitter.
    (When no voltage is applied at transistor’s base, electrons in the emitter are prevented from
    passing to the collector side because of the pn junction.)
    (If a negative voltage is applied to the base, things get even worse as the pn junction
    between the base and emitter becomes reverse - biased resulting in the formation of a
    depletion region that prevents current flow.)
     PNP: a small output current and a negative voltage @ its base (with VB
    - Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) – N-channel and P-channel
     Junction field effect transistors like BJTs are three lead semiconductor devices
     JFETs are used as: – electrically controlled switches, – current amplifiers, and – voltage-
    controlled resistors.
     Unlike BJTs, JFETs do not require a bias current and are controlled by using only a voltage.
    - Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) – Depletion type (n- and p-channel) and
    enhancement type (n- and p-channel)
     Similar to JFET.
     A metal oxide insulator is placed @ the gate to obtain a high input impedance @ the gate.

    Optoelectronics

    - In optoelectronics we deal with 2 types of electronic devices.


    - Light emitting electronic devices: ones that generate electromagnetic energy under the action of
    electrical field. Example: light emitting diodes (visible and infrared light).
    - Light detecting devices: ones that transform electromagnetic energy input into electrical
    current/voltage. Examples: photoresistors, photodiodes, phototransistors, etc

    Photoresistors – light sensitive variable resistor

    - Its resistance depends on the intensity of light incident upon it.


    - When a photoresistor is exposed to light, it takes a few milliseconds, before it lowers its
    resistance.
    - When a photoresistor experiences removal of light, it may take a few seconds to return to its
    dark resistance.
    - Some photoresistors respond better to light that contains photons within a particular
    wavelength of spectrum

    Photodiode - 2 lead semiconductor device that transforms light energy to electric current.

    - Photodiodes have very linear light v/s current characteristics. – Commonly used as light meters
    in cameras.
    - Photodiodes often have built-in lenses and optical filters.
    - Response time of a photodiode slows with increasing surface area.
    - Photodiodes are more sensitive than photoresistor.

    Solar cells - are photodiodes with very large surface areas.

    - Compared to usual photodiodes, the large surface area in photodiode of a solar cell yields
    - Solar cells yield more power.
    - A single solar cell may provide up to 0.5V that can supply 0.1A when exposed to bright light.

    Phototransistor - is a light sensitive transistor.

    - In one common type of phototransistor, the base lead of a BJT is replaced by a light sensitive
    surface.
    - A phototransistor is used to control the base current supplied to a power -switching transistor
    that is used to supply current to a relay.
    - A phototransistor is being used as a frequency counter or tachometer.

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