Complex 1
Complex 1
Complex 1
George Voutsadakis1
Subsection 1
Complex Numbers
√
The imaginary unit i = −1 is defined by the property i 2 = −1.
Definition (Complex Number)
A complex number is any number of the form z = a + ib where a and b
are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit.
The notations a + ib and a + bi are used interchangeably.
The real number a in z = a + ib is called the real part of z and the
real number b is called the imaginary part of z.
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z are abbreviated
Re(z) and Im(z), respectively.
Example: If z = 4 − 9i , then Re(z) = 4 and Im(z) = − 9.
A real constant multiple of the imaginary unit is called a pure
imaginary number.
Example: z = 6i is a pure imaginary number.
George Voutsadakis (LSSU) Complex Analysis October 2014 4 / 67
Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane Complex Numbers and Their Properties
Arithmetic Operations
If z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 , the operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division are defined as follows:
Addition:
Subtraction:
Multiplication:
Division:
z1 a1 + ib1 a1 a2 + b1 b2 b1 a2 − a1 b2
= = 2 2 +i .
z2 a2 + ib2 a2 + b2 a22 + b22
Laws of Arithmetic
Associative laws:
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3
Distributive law:
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
z + 0 = (a + ib) + (0 + 0i ) = a + ib = z.
z · 1 = (a + ib)(1 + 0i ) = a + ib = z.
Conjugates
Definition (Conjugate)
If z is a complex number, the number obtained by changing the sign of its
imaginary part is called the complex conjugate, or simply conjugate, of
z and is denoted by the symbol z̄. In other words, if z = a + ib, then its
conjugate is z̄ = a − ib.
We obtain
z + z̄ z − z̄
Re(z) = ; Im(z) = .
2 2i
How to Divide
To divide z1 by z2 :
z1
multiply the numerator and denominator of z2 by the conjugate of z2 .
z1 z1 z̄2 z1 z̄2
= · = ;
z2 z2 z̄2 z2 z̄2
Then use the fact that z2 z̄2 is the sum of the squares of the real and
imaginary parts of z2 .
z1
Example: If z1 = 2 − 3i and z2 = 4 + 6i , find z2 .
Subsection 2
Complex Plane
z z̄ = x 2 + y 2 .
x 2 + (y − 1)2 ⇔ x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 − 2y + 1.
Comparing Moduli
Since |z| is a real number, we can compare the absolute values of two
complex numbers.
Example: If z1 = 3 + 4i and z2 = 5 − i , then
√ √
|z1 | = 25 = 5 and |z2 | = 26
Subsection 3
Polar Coordinates
A point P in the plane whose rectangular coordinates are (x, y ) can
also be described in terms of polar coordinates.
The polar coordinate system consists of
a point O called the pole;
the horizontal half-line emanating from the pole called the polar axis.
If
r is the directed distance from the pole to P,
θ an angle (in radians) measured from the polar axis to the line OP,
then the point P can be described by the ordered pair (r , θ), called
the polar coordinates of P:
√
We have seen that for z1 = i and z2 = − 3 − i , Arg(z1 ) = π2 and
Arg(z2 ) = − 5π
6 , respectively. Thus, arguments for the product and
√ √ √
3
quotient z1 z2 = i (− 3 − i ) = 1 − 3i and zz12 = −√i3−i = −1 4 − 4 i
are:
π 5π π
arg(z1 z2 ) = + (− ) = −
2 6 3
and
z1 π 5π 4π
arg = − (− ) = .
z2 2 6 3
When n = 0, we get z 0 = 1.
George Voutsadakis (LSSU) Complex Analysis October 2014 33 / 67
Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers
√
Compute z 3 for z = − 3 − i .
A polar form of the given number is z = 2[cos ( 7π 7π
6 ) + i sin ( 6 )].
7π
Using the previous formula, with r = 2, θ = 6 , and n = 3, we get
√
z3 = (− 3 − i )3
3 7π 7π
= 2 cos (3 ) + i sin (3 )
6 6
7π 7π
= 8 cos ( ) + i sin ( )
2 2
= − 8i ,
7π 7π
since cos ( ) = 0 and sin ( ) = − 1.
2 2
De Moivre’s Formula
Some Remarks
Subsection 4
Recall from algebra that −2 and 2 are said to be square roots of the
number 4 because (−2)2 = 4 and (2)2 = 4.
In other words, the two square roots of 4 are distinct solutions of the
equation w 2 = 4.
Similarly, w = 3 is a cube root of 27 since w 3 = 33 = 27.
In general, we say that a number w is an n-th root of a nonzero
complex number z if w n = z, where n is a positive integer.
√ √ √ √
Example: w1 = 12 2 + 12 2i and w2 = − 12 2 − 12 2i are the two
square roots of the complex number z = i .
We will demonstrate that there are exactly n solutions of the equation
w n = z.
The symbol arg(z) really stands for a set of arguments for a complex
number z.
Similarly, z 1/n is n-valued and represents the set of n n-th roots wk of
z.
The unique root of a complex number z obtained by using the
principal value of arg(z), with k = 0, is referred to as the principal
n-th root of w .
√ π
+2kπ π
+2kπ
Example: Since Arg(i ) = π2 and wk = 3 1(cos 2 3 + i sin 2 3 ),
k = 0, 1, 2, √
3 1
w0 = + i
2 2
is the principal cube root of i .
The choice of Arg(z) and k = 0 guarantees that when z is a positive
√
real number r , the principal n-th root is n r .
George Voutsadakis (LSSU) Complex Analysis October 2014 41 / 67
Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane Powers and Roots
Since the roots have the same modulus, the n n-th roots of a nonzero
√
complex number z lie on a circle of radius n r centered at the origin
in the complex plane.
Since the difference between the arguments of any two successive
roots wk and wk+1 is 2π n , the n nth roots of z are equally spaced on
this circle, beginning with the root whose argument is nθ .
To illustrate, look at the three cube roots of i :
√
3 1
w0 = 2 √+ 2 i ;
w1 = − 23 + 12 i ;
w2 = −i .
We calculate
√
8 π π
k = 0, w0 = 2(cos 16 + i sin 16 );
√
k = 1, w1 = 8
2(cos 9π 9π
16 + i sin 16 );
√
k = 2, w2 = 8
2(cos 17π 17π
16 + i sin 16 );
√
k = 3, w3 = 8
2(cos 25π 25π
16 + i sin 16 ).
Subsection 5
Circles
Suppose z0 = x0 + iy0 .
The distance between the points z = x + iy and z0 = x0 + iy0 is
q
|z − z0 | = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 .
Example:
(a) |z| = 1 is an equation of a unit circle centered at the origin.
(b) By rewriting |z − 1 + 3i| = 5 as |z − (1 − 3i)| = 5, we see that the
equation describes a circle of radius 5 centered at the point z0 = 1 − 3i.
George Voutsadakis (LSSU) Complex Analysis October 2014 46 / 67
Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
Open Sets
A point z0 is called an interior point of a set S of the complex plane
if there exists some neighborhood of z0 that lies entirely within S.
If every point z of a set S is an interior point, then S is said to be an
open set.
Annulus
The set S1 of points satisfying the inequality ρ1 < |z − z0 | lie exterior
to the circle of radius ρ1 centered at z0 .
The set S2 of points satisfying |z − z0 | < ρ2 lie interior to the circle of
radius ρ2 centered at z0 .
Thus, if 0 < ρ1 < ρ2 , the set of points satisfying the simultaneous
inequality ρ1 < |z − z0 | < ρ2 is the intersection of the sets S1 and S2 .
This intersection is an open circular ring centered at z0 , called an
open circular annulus.
Region
A region is a set of points in the complex plane with all, some, or
none of its boundary points.
Since an open set does not contain any boundary points, it is
automatically a region.
A region that contains all its boundary points is said to be closed.
Example: The disk defined by |z − z0 | ≤ ρ is an example of a closed
region and is referred to as a closed disk.
Example: A neighborhood of a point z0 defined by |z − z0 | < ρ is an
open set or an open region and is said to be an open disk.
If the center z0 is deleted from either a closed disk or an open disk,
the regions defined by 0 < |z − z0 | ≤ ρ or 0 < |z − z0 | < ρ are called
punctured disks. A punctured open disk is the same as a deleted
neighborhood of z0 .
A region can be neither open nor closed.
Example: The annular region defined by 1 ≤ |z − 5| < 3 contains only
some of its boundary points, and so it is neither open nor closed.
George Voutsadakis (LSSU) Complex Analysis October 2014 54 / 67
Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
Bounded Sets
We say that a set S in the complex plane is bounded if there exists a
real number R > 0 such that |z| < R every z in S, i.e., S is bounded
if it can be completely enclosed within some neighborhood of the
origin.
Example: The set S shown below is bounded because it is contained
entirely within the dashed circular neighborhood of the origin.
On the real line, we have exactly two directions and we represent the
notions of “increasing without bound” and “decreasing without
bound” symbolically by x → +∞ x → −∞, respectively.
We can avoid ±∞ by dealing with an“ideal point” called the point
at infinity, which is denoted simply by ∞.
We identify any real number a with a point (x0 , y0 ):
Subsection 6
Applications