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Hydrocarbon generation and migration.

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CHAPTER 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration
TB Cotton and DM McKirdy

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................................2
HYDROCARBON GENERATION.................................................................................................................................2
Eastern Eromanga Basin..............................................................................................................................................2
Western Eromanga Basin.............................................................................................................................................3
ORIGIN OF EROMANGA BASIN OIL ..........................................................................................................................3
OIL ALTERATION AND MIXING ..................................................................................................................................4
MIGRATION..................................................................................................................................................................5
CHARGE HISTORY .....................................................................................................................................................6
Gidgealpa Field.............................................................................................................................................................6
Strzelecki Field..............................................................................................................................................................7
Murteree Ridge .............................................................................................................................................................8
FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................................................9
TABLE
10.1 Source affinity and thermal maturity of DST oils and SFTE residual oils from Eromanga and
Cooper Basin reservoirs (after McKirdy et al., 2005).......................................................................................5

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 1

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to provide an overview of recent research and new insights into the generation and migration of
hydrocarbons within the active petroleum systems of the Eromanga Basin in South Australia. Work on oil migration
and mixing undertaken by the Organic Geochemistry in Basin Analysis Group (OGBA) at the University of Adelaide
(McKirdy et al., 2005), major initiatives including the National Geoscience Mapping Accord Cooper–Eromanga
Basin Project, together with various thermal history and geochemical studies commissioned by PIRSA, have
provided a greater understanding of the operation of these systems. Detailed compositional analysis of source
rocks, drillstem test (DST) oils and residual oils using gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and
other standard methods, combined with new techniques such as sequential flow-through solvent extraction (SFTE)
of residual oils from core plugs (Schwark et al., 1997), have enabled researchers to better understand not only the
source affinity and migration pathways of the oils but also the charge history of their host Jurassic and Cretaceous
reservoirs in the Cooper–Eromanga region of South Australia.

It has now been established that source rocks within both the Eromanga and underlying Cooper Basin sequences
have contributed to oil accumulations in Eromanga Basin reservoirs and that multiple charge events and mixing of
oils has occurred in many instances (Alexander et al., 1996; Boreham and Hill, 1998; Boult et al., 1998; Michaelsen
and McKirdy, 2001; Michaelsen, 2002; Arouri et al, 2004; Kramer et al., 2004). At least four episodes of regional
hydrocarbon generation have taken place (Deighton et al., 2003; Arouri et al., 2004) between the Permian and
Tertiary with the majority generated in the mid-Cretaceous (Deighton and Hill, 1998; Deighton et al., 2003). Many
reservoirs have been charged from local source rocks with only short migration paths (Michaelsen and McKirdy,
1996; Kramer et al., 2004). Others, as evidenced by recent commercial oil discoveries at the margins of the
underlying Cooper Basin, have required extensive migration of oil from deeper source regions, in part within the
open aquifer systems of the Eromanga Basin (Hunt et al., 1989; Toupin et al., 1997; Boult et al., 1998; Boreham
and Hill, 1998; Boreham and Summons, 1999; Michaelsen and McKirdy; 2001; Altmann and Gordon, 2004).

While recent research and exploration has focused on the eastern sector of the Eromanga Basin that overlies the
Cooper Basin, the western sector above the Permo-Carboniferous Pedirka and Triassic Simpson basins (Fig. 1.2)
has remained relatively unexplored. Limited well data and sparse modern seismic coverage (Carne and Alexander,
1997) has meant that the true extent and nature of the petroleum system(s) within these vast areas is yet to be
realised. Despite this, the potential of the area is highlighted by the fact that oil generation is known to have
occurred in the Simpson–Eromanga region with oil shows in five wells, including the DST recovery of oil from
Poolowanna 1 (Fig. 1.2). An investigation by Ambrose et al. (2002) that utilised CSIRO Petroleum’s OMI (oil
migration intervals), QGF (quantitative grain fluorescence) and GOI (grains with oil inclusions) technologies,
resulted in the recognition of a palaeo-oil–gas column in the Poolowanna Formation at Colson 1. Early Permian
source rocks are predicted to have expelled significant quantities of oil and gas during loading by the Winton
Formation in the Cretaceous, creating an oil–gas column that leaked or was flushed during Tertiary folding. This
upgrades the prospectivity of a large area in the vicinity of the northern Poolowanna and Madigan troughs where
numerous pre-Winton Formation dip closures and a myriad of stratigraphic plays remain completely unexplored
(Ambrose et al., 2002). While no new petroleum exploration wells have been drilled in the western sector of the
Eromanga Basin since 1989, and despite a significant portion of the prospective area now being taken up by the
Simpson Desert Conservation Park and unavailable for exploration as at 2005 (Fig. 2.12), the area remains one of
South Australia’s most prospective frontier hydrocarbon provinces.

HYDROCARBON GENERATION
Eastern Eromanga Basin
Known generation of hydrocarbons in the Cooper and Eromanga basins of South Australia has occurred principally
from kitchen areas within the vicinity of the Patchawarra and Nappamerri structural troughs (e.g. Boreham and Hill,
1998; Deighton and Hill, 1998; Boreham and Summons, 1999; Deighton et al., 2003). Thermal modelling by
Deighton et al. (2003) indicated that generation and expulsion of hydrocarbons from Eromanga and Cooper source
rocks occurred primarily during the mid Cretaceous with minor amounts generated during the Tertiary and from

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 2

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

Cooper Basin source rocks in the hottest and deepest parts of the Nappamerri Trough during the Permian (Figs
10.1, 10.2) The hydrocarbon expulsion curves for the principal Cooper and Eromanga source rocks indicate that
the majority of hydrocarbons were generated and expelled from the Cooper Basin with only minor and localised
generation from Eromanga sources. However, the authors did concede that poor prediction of early oil expulsion
where source and reservoir rocks are in close proximity was a limitation of the modelling. The fact that a substantial
proportion of the oil in Eromanga Basin reservoirs has been generated, at least in part, from intra-Eromanga source
rocks (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1996; Boult et al., 1998; Boreham and Summons, 1999; Michaelsen and McKirdy,
2001; Michaelsen, 2002), and in many instances locally derived (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1996), would suggest
that Deighton et al. (2003) have underestimated the contribution of Eromanga sourced oil to accumulations within
the basin.

The underlying Cooper Basin reservoirs contain numerous accumulations of both oil and gas. Most of the oil
contains significant quantities of dissolved gas with no evidence of water washing (Hunt et al., 1989; Boreham and
Hill, 1998). The majority of oil and wet gas is sourced primarily from the Patchawarra Trough, while predominantly
dry gas is generated from the deeper and more thermally mature source rocks of the Nappamerri Trough (Fig. 4.9;
Hunt et al., 1989; Boreham and Hill, 1998). While source rocks within the Eromanga Basin have been shown to
contain both Type II/III (oil/gas-prone) and Type II (oil-prone) organic matter (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1996), and
gas is found at many levels throughout the Jurassic–Cretaceous sequence (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001), these
occurrences of gas are insignificant when compared to those in the underlying Cooper Basin. This suggests that
Eromanga source rocks typically have only reached maturities suitable only for oil generation.

Western Eromanga Basin

The two most prospective areas of the western Eromanga Basin are the Eringa and Poolowanna troughs where it
overlies the Pedirka and Simpson basins (Fig. 1.2). While there has been only limited exploration drilling in both
areas, the evidence for petroleum generation is strong. High-quality oil-prone source rocks have been identified in
enough wells to imply their development over a wide area of the western Eromanga Basin (Michaelsen and
McKirdy, 1996). Geochemical investigations have revealed excellent oil-prone source rocks in the Eringa Trough
that have reached temperatures sufficient for petroleum generation (Alexander et al., 1996; Tingate and Duddy,
1996; Ambrose et al., 2002). In the Poolowanna Trough, hydrocarbon generation is proven by the existence of oil
shows in five wells at the Simpson Basin level, including the DST recovery of two distinct types of oil from the
Triassic Peera Peera and Jurassic Poolowanna formations in Poolowanna 1 (Wiltshire, 1978). In the northern
Poolowanna Trough and Madigan Trough (Northern Territory), Early Permian source rocks are predicted to have
expelled significant quantities of oil and gas during deposition of the Winton Formation (Ambrose et al., 2002).

ORIGIN OF EROMANGA BASIN OIL

Up to 70% of the oil within the Cooper–Eromanga region is trapped within the Eromanga Basin (Michaelsen and
McKirdy, 2001). While the Hutton Sandstone is the primary oil reservoir unit within the basin, nearly all units from
the Poolowanna to Murta Formation contain free-flowing oil reservoirs (Alexander, 1996a). The origin of this oil,
whether from a Cooper or Eromanga source, has been widely debated and studied over many years. One of the
pivotal reasons for this uncertainty has been that traditional biomarker studies of oils and source rocks have
provided inconclusive results due to the similarity of the palaeo-depositional environments and preserved organic
matter in the two basins (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001).

Numerous studies over the last decade have confirmed the Birkhead, Murta and Poolowanna formations as the
three main effective source rocks within the Eromanga Basin sequence (e.g. Alexander et al, 1988, 1992,1996;
Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1989, 1996; Powell et al., 1989; Kagya, 1997; Boult et al., 1998, Michaelsen, 2002;).
Previous authors suggested that the majority of the Eromanga Basin’s oil had been derived principally from
Permian sources, and had migrated along faults and erosional subcrops into the overlying reservoirs (e.g. Heath et
al, 1989; Jenkins, 1989). While geochemical evidence now suggests that in many instances Permian oil has indeed
migrated into the overlying Eromanga Basin sequence, it is also widely accepted that a significant portion of this oil,
up to 80% in the Birkhead Formation from Arrakis 1 (McKirdy et al., 2005), has been derived from local Eromanga

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 3

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

sources (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1996; Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001; Arouri et al., 2004; McKirdy et al., 2005).
As such, many authors (e.g. Boreham and Summons, 1999; Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001) have found it
convenient to define the principal petroleum systems within the Cooper–Eromanga region in terms of three
source/reservoir couplets: (1) Cooper-sourced and reservoired, (2) Cooper-sourced and Eromanga-reservoired,
(3) Eromanga-sourced and reservoired. Boreham and Summons (1999) further defined two major active petroleum
systems within the Eromanga sequence, the Birkhead and Murta petroleum systems, that reflect individual
contributions from the two separate sources. Further detailed studies of the Hutton–Birkhead reservoir–source
couplet (Boult, 1996; Boult et al., 1998; Underschultz and Boult, 2004) describe the petroleum system operating
within these specific units in the Gidgealpa area of the southwestern Cooper Basin. However, this Jurassic
petroleum system is not restricted specifically to these units in all fields and Birkhead-sourced oil pools occur in
other reservoir units of the Eromanga Basin.

Various geochemical methods have been employed in attempts to determine the source affinity of the oils found in
the Eromanga Basin. Both Michaelsen and McKirdy (1989) and Tupper and Burckhardt (1990) used the maturity
contrast between Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous source rocks in an effort to discriminate between oils of
Eromanga and Cooper origin. Boreham and Summons (1999) attempted oil–oil and oil–source correlations using
compound-specific isotopic analysis (CSIA) of n-alkanes, although Michaelsen and McKirdy (2001) subsequently
queried the validity of their conclusions. Alexander et al. (1988) were the first to identify several age-specific
biomarkers that could be used to differentiate between Permian and Jurassic–Cretaceous oils. These aromatic
hydrocarbons (viz. 1,2,5-trimethylnaphthalene, 1-methylphenanthrene, 1,7-dimethylphenanthrene and retene) that
are derived from the resin acids of araucariacean conifers have now been widely accepted as robust indicators of
Jurassic–Cretaceous source affinity. The two bacterial biomarkers (viz. 25,28,30-trisnorhopane and 28,30-
bisnorhopane), suggested by Jenkins (1989) and Alexander et al. (1996) to be capable of discriminating between
Permian and Jurassic-sourced oils, are far less definitive.

OIL ALTERATION AND MIXING

Unlike the underlying Cooper Basin, oil reservoired in the Eromanga Basin sequence does not show regionally
consistent trends in hydrocarbon type, composition and maturation (Boreham and Hill, 1998). Boreham and
Summons (1999) noted that many oils in Cretaceous reservoirs are geochemically distinct from those in Jurassic
reservoirs and appear to be less mature. However, kinetic studies of Cretaceous Murta source rocks indicate that
oil expulsion has occurred at maturity levels similar to those of Jurassic and Permian sources. Boreham and Hill
(1998) suggest that Murta-hosted oils are the result of in situ mixing of low- and high-maturity charges, the latter
originating from deeper sources and hence being prone to secondary alteration during long-distance migration (see
also Boreham and Summons, 1999). These authors identified migration fractionation (Curiale and Bromley, 1996)
or evaporative fractionation (Thompson, 1987, 1988) as the process most likely to have contributed to the
compositional variation evident within the oil pools of the Eromanga Basin. Rapid reduction in the confining
pressure of upward-migrating petroleum fluids resulting in separate gas- and oil-rich phases, together with
preferential leakage of lighter compounds through ineffective seals, are two mechanisms by which this could have
occurred. Other workers (e.g. Vincent et al., 1985; Alexander et al., 1988; Powell et al., 1989) proposed that
variations in the depositional environments and organic facies of local source rocks had been at least partly
responsible for differences in the properties of Eromanga crudes. It was suggested by Heath et al. (1989) that
geochemical differences between oils from these two basins might be attributed to gas stripping and water washing
as Permian oil migrated into reservoirs within the Eromanga Basin. While there is strong evidence for water
washing and degassing of oils during their migration through the Eromanga Basin’s aquifer system (Alexander et
al., 1996; Boreham and Hill, 1998; Boreham and Summons, 1999; Michaelsen 2002; Altmann and Gordon, 2004),
and previous groundwater modelling has indicated that extensive groundwater flow through the basin had probably
occurred during the Tertiary (Toupin et al., 1997), the compositional variability of Eromanga oils cannot be
attributed to these processes alone. The mixing of oils of different source affinity is now widely believed to have
had a significant influence on the compositional variability of oil in Eromanga Basin reservoirs.

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 4

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

Recognition of the mixing of Cooper and Eromanga oils is complicated by the existence of at least two distinct
families of Permian oils (McKirdy et al., 1997; Boreham and Summons 1999; Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001).
Michaelsen (2002) attributed these two families to the second (c. 105 Ma) and third (c. 90 Ma) expulsion events of
Deighton and Hill (1998) and Deighton et al. (2003), (see also Figs 10.1 and 10.2). The exceptionally mature,
condensate-like (46–50 °API gravity) Family 1 oils were derived principally from Permian coals and are restricted to
the northern Patchawarra Trough, while the hopanoid biomarkers of the heavier (34–36 °API gravity) Family 2 oils
indicate their derivation from shale sources with a much wider distribution across the region (Fig. 10.3; Michaelsen
and McKirdy, 2001; Michaelsen 2002). In addition, CSIA of their n-alkanes reveals a difference between crude oils
originating in the Lower Permian (Patchawarra) and Upper Permian (Toolachee) coal measures (Boreham and
Summons, 1999). Moreover, recently acquired geochemical evidence has pointed to possible contributions from
underlying Cambro-Ordovician Warburton Basin sources to oil accumulations in several fields across the
Eromanga Basin (e.g. Boreham and Summons, 1999; Arouri et al., 2004; Hallmann et al., 2006).

Parallel with the development of models and ideas regarding the mixing of oils within Eromanga reservoirs, much
research has been focused on trying to quantify the relative inputs of Permian and Jurassic–Cretaceous oil to any
one accumulation. An understanding of the proportional contributions from the various sources thus enables the
timing and sequence of events that lead to migration and reservoir filling to be better understood. Jenkins (1989)
proposed using relative abundances of selected bacterial biomarkers to estimate the amount of Eromanga-sourced
oil. Several authors including Michaelsen and McKirdy (1996) and Alexander et al. (1996) have questioned this
approach on the grounds that these biomarkers (viz. norhopanes) are not restricted to Jurassic or younger source
rocks, whereas the conifer-derived aromatic hydrocarbons of Alexander et al. (1988) have proved to be far more
reliable in distinguishing between Cooper- and Eromanga-sourced oils (Arouri et al., 2004). Boreham and
Summons (1999) used n-alkane isotopic data to assess the relative contributions and concluded their method was
robust provided the Eromanga component was >25% in oils of mixed origin. Yu (2000) and Yu et al. (2000)
proposed a method involving maturity measurements on the light (C5–C14) and heavy (C15+) ends of the crude oil
and calculation of a detailed compositional mass balance that takes into account the observed chemical and/or
isotopic variation between the oil in question and the end-member oils which mixed to produce it. A source-maturity
cross-plot based on methylphenanthrenes, incorporating one of the araucariacaen biomarkers of Alexander et al.
(1988), was devised by Michaelsen and McKirdy (2001) to enable the semi-quantitative determination of the
relative contributions of Permian and Jurassic–Cretaceous oils to Eromanga reservoirs (Figs 10.4, 10.5;
Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001). Adopting this approach, Michaelsen (2002) concluded that the oils he analysed
from Eromanga reservoirs in South Australia were either mixtures of Permian and Jurassic–Cretaceous oils, or
entirely of Jurassic–Cretaceous origin (Table 10.1). Calibration of this technique by Arouri and McKirdy (2005)
using artificial blends of end-member Permian and Jurassic oils from the Moorari Field revealed that the mixing
curves of Michaelsen and McKirdy (2001) overestimate the relative contribution of Eromanga oil. Thus, many of the
oils considered entirely or mostly Jurassic–Cretaceous by Michaelsen and McKirdy (2001) and Michaelsen (2002)
are now shown to contain Permian inputs of up to 50% (Table 10.1).

Table 10.1 Source affinity and thermal maturity of DST oils and SFTE residual oils from Eromanga and Cooper Basin
reservoirs (after McKirdy et al., 2005). Use this link to view the table.

MIGRATION
Long-distance migration of Permian-sourced oil has been suggested for many of the accumulations in the
Eromanga Basin (e.g. Hunt et al., 1989; Lowe-Young et al., 1997; Toupin et al., 1997; Boreham and Summons,
1999; Altmann and Gordon, 2004). Giving credence to this interpretation are numerous recent commercial oil
discoveries within the Eromanga Basin sequence far away from the deeper troughs (i.e. hydrocarbon kitchens) and
beyond the edge of the Cooper Basin in areas previously deemed too risky due to the lack of perceived local
generative potential. Conduits for the secondary migration of hydrocarbons from mature Permian source rocks
have been developed along faulted anticlinal trends and basin pinchouts (Passmore, 1989; Heath et al., 1989) and
in areas where regional seals are thin, absent or ineffective (Heath et al., 1989). Extensive lateral migration of both
Permian- and Eromanga sourced-oil becomes possible where it has entered permeable carrier beds within the

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 5

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

open aquifer system of the Eromanga Basin. Boreham and Summons (1999) suggested that access to migration
fairways for Permian oil was one of the principal controls on the distribution of oil accumulations in the Eromanga
Basin. Analysis of fluid inclusions and mathematical modelling by Toupin et al (1997) showed that, although
present-day hydraulic gradients in the Cooper–Eromanga region are too small to flush hydrocarbons from structural
traps, significantly higher gradients existed during the Tertiary. It was suggested that this higher groundwater flow
had possibly focused Eromanga hydrocarbons toward the southern end of the Cooper Basin where the largest
number of oil reservoirs are situated.

Altmann and Gordon (2004) proposed that secondary alteration processes during long-range migration from the
deeper generating areas of the Patchawarra Trough were responsible for differences in oil properties across the
southwestern Cooper and Eromanga basins (Fig. 10.6). Oils produced from wells drilled along the flank of the
Patchawarra Trough, including the commercial Sellicks 1 (Patchawarra) and Christies 1 (Birkhead) discoveries
were each shown to have molecular compositions consistent with their origin from a terrestrial oxic-source facies.
Differences in their physical characteristics (viz. API gravity and gas to oil ratios) are consistent with the greater
degree of water washing in the Birkhead oil pool at the Christies locality . A more detailed geochemical comparison
of the oils from these two fields by Errock (2005) reveals that the common lower Patchawarra source inferred by
Altmann and Gordon (2004) is only partly correct. Using the calibrated mixing model of Arouri and McKirdy (2005),
she confirmed the intra-Patchawarra origin of the Sellicks oil while showing that the Christies crude is actually a
mixture of Permian (~60%) and Jurassic (~40%) hydrocarbons, the latter most likely derived from source beds
within the Birkhead Formation.

Alexander et al. (1996) investigated water washing and progressive depletion of soluble aromatic compounds
within oils of the Cooper–Eromanga Basin system as a means by which distances of secondary migration could be
measured. It was argued that migration distance could be linked to the abundances of phenanthrene and
dibenzothiophene relative to the less soluble tetramethylnaphthalenes , with depletion of the former compounds
reflecting increased exposure of the oil to an aqueous phase during migration. This approach assumes that the oils
being compared contained the same relative abundances of the reference compounds at the time of primary
migration. One of the key findings of this study was that oils from the stacked reservoirs of the Keleary and Big
Lake fields (Fig. 1.3) showed a pattern of increased water washing with higher stratigraphic position. The clear
implication is that most migrated oils are pooled within the youngest reservoir of each field.

CHARGE HISTORY
While thermal modelling and detailed geochemical analysis of DST oils have pointed to numerous hydrocarbon
expulsion events and multiple charge episodes of many Eromanga Basin reservoirs, only recently have attempts
been made to unravel their filling histories. The use of a Solvent Flow-Through Extraction (SFTE) cell, developed
by the University of Cologne (Schwark et al., 1997), has enabled researchers at the University of Adelaide to
reconstruct the charge histories of numerous Eromanga Basin reservoirs and to better understand the processes
involved in secondary oil migration. The SFTE cell (Fig. 10.7) sequentially recovers individual oil charges, in the
form of free and adsorbed oil from reservoir core plugs in the reverse order to which they are assumed to have
entered the pore network. Traditional geochemical analyses are subsequently performed on each of the extracted
residual oils allowing their comparison with known oils and source rocks. A more comprehensive description of the
SFTE technique and its use to determine the charge histories of Eromanga Basin reservoirs is given in numerous
publications and several theses (Yu 2000; Arouri et al., 2004; Hallmann, 2004; Kramer et al., 2004; McKirdy et al.,
2005; Hallmann et al., 2006).

Gidgealpa Field
The multi-reservoir Gidgealpa oil field is located at the southern end of the Gidgealpa–Merrimelia–Innamincka
structural ridge that separates the Nappamerri and Patchawarra troughs, the two principal hydrocarbon-generating
regions within the South Australian sector of the Cooper and Eromanga basins (Figs 1.3, 4.9). The field comprises
two domes separated by a shallow saddle (Fig. 10.8) with ~38 m of closure (McIntyre, 1989; Boult et al., 1998). Oil
is reservoired within the Namur and Hutton sandstones, and Birkhead and Poolowanna formations in the

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 6

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

Eromanga Basin. In the underlying Cooper Basin sequence, gas is produced from the Tirrawarra Sandstone and
the Patchawarra and Toolachee formations. A thin oil leg also exists beneath a gas accumulation in the Tirrawarra
Sandstone of the southern dome and in the Patchawarra Formation of the northern dome (McIntyre et al., 1989).

Oils recovered from wells in the Gidgealpa Field clearly show a compositional distinction between Cooper and
Eromanga reservoirs (Boreham and Summons, 1999; Michaelsen, 2002). Biomarker analyses, seal studies and
maturation modelling indicate that the Gidgealpa southern dome has been charged from at least two discrete
generative pulses (Boult, 1996; Boult et al., 1998). The first pulse originated mostly from the Nappamerri Trough,
with a lesser contribution from the Patchawarra Trough, between 90 and 70 Ma. Recent increases in geothermal
gradient for the Cooper–Eromanga region have possibly provided a second charge within the last million years
(Boult et al., 1997). Subtle differences in the chemical properties of oils from Hutton, Birkhead and Namur
reservoirs also possibly reflect two separate oil charges (Michaelsen, 2002). As for other regions of the Cooper and
Eromanga basins, the origin of the Eromanga-pooled oil and gas at Gidgealpa has been the subject of much
debate. Heath et al. (1989) suggested that Permian oil had migrated up section into the Eromanga reservoirs of the
Gidgealpa Field. The fact that there is very little gas and gas to oil ratios are low within these reservoirs was
attributed to gas stripping and water washing during migration. Boult (1996) argued against this idea on the basis
that there is a lack of any significant oil within the Permian sequence at Gidgealpa. What little oil there is in the
Patchawarra Formation has a geochemical signature different from that of the Jurassic oil. Significant
concentrations of araucariacean biomarkers and unusual thermally labile hopanes in Hutton oil from Gidgealpa 17
(Ryan, 1996; Boult et al., 1998) make it unlikely that this live oil had migrated from hotter Permian rocks directly
below.

The argument for a predominantly Jurassic source (Boult 1996; Ryan, 1996; Boult et al., 1998) was supported by
the work of Michaelsen and McKirdy (2001), who concluded, through the use of their source–maturity cross-plot
(Fig. 10.4), that while the pooled oils were predominantly Eromanga-sourced, they are blended to varying degrees
with Permian oil (Table 10.1), a view also supported by the n-alkane CSIA data of Boreham and Summons (1999).
With further work and refinement of the Michaelsen and McKirdy (2001) mixing curves by Arouri and McKirdy
(2005), the proportion of Eromanga-sourced oil was significantly downgraded, particularly within the Hutton,
Birkhead and Namur reservoirs (Table 10.1). Many of the oils that were previously interpreted as entirely or
dominantly of Jurassic origin are now deemed to be up to 70% Permian (Table 10.1).

Studies of SFTE residual oils from reservoirs in the southern dome at Gidgealpa (McKirdy et al., 2005) and, in
particular, comparison of their nitrogen-containing dimethyl- and benzocarbazole signatures with those of local
source rocks and DST oils (Hallmann, 2004; Hallmann et al., 2005, 2006, in prep.) have provided the latest
breakthroughs in our understanding of the charge history of this iconic oil and gas field. These include the first
conclusive evidence of pre-Permian (Warburton) oil charges to its Hutton, Toolache and Tirrawarra reservoirs; and
the recognition of five discrete charge events.

Strzelecki Field
Several wells within the Strzelecki oil and gas field, located along the southern margin of the Nappamerri Trough
(Fig. 10.9), were the focus of a study by Kramer et al. (2004) to investigate the charge history of its oil-bearing
reservoirs. Residual oils from core plugs of the Hutton Sandstone, Birkhead Formation and Namur Sandstone were
extracted using the SFTE technique (Schwark et al., 1997) and their aromatic hydrocarbon fractions analysed by
GC-MS. The resulting data were then displayed on the source and maturity cross-plots of Alexander et al. (1988)
and Arouri and McKirdy (2005). The residual and DST oils examined by Kramer et al. (2004) were, with the
exception of the Strzelecki 10 (Toolachee) crude, all mixtures of Permian (65–80%) and Jurassic (20–35%)
hydrocarbons. Comparison of the n-alkane isotopic profiles of the Namur, Birkhead and Toolachee crudes
(Boreham and Summons, 1999) suggests that coals and carbonaceous shales of the Toolachee Formation were
the most likely source for the majority of Permian charge within the Strzelecki Field. Similarities between the
maturity and source affinity of free and adsorbed oils, extracted using SFTE, led Kramer et al. (2004) to conclude
that the oil columns within the field were either filled in a single charge event, or that the final reservoir charge had

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 7

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

occurred long enough ago for complete homogenisation of any multiple charges to have taken place. A slight
upward decrease in oil maturity within the stacked reservoirs of the Strzelecki Field was interpreted to indicate the
sequential upward filling of traps by leakage from lower reservoirs which were being progressively filled from more
mature and distant source rocks.

Murteree Ridge
The Murteree Ridge separates the Nappamerri and Tenappera troughs in the southern Cooper–Eromanga region
and is considered to be the focus of hydrocarbon migration from these two major kitchen areas (Arouri et al., 2004).
The ridge was a basement high during deposition of the Eromanga Basin sequence along which no Cooper Basin
sediments are preserved (Fig. 10.10; Gravestock and Jensen-Schmidt, 1998). All its oil pools are located entirely
within the Eromanga Basin sequence.

DST oils from fields along the Murteree Ridge, including those at Alwyn, Biala, Limestone Creek, Kobari, Nungeroo
and Ulandi (Fig. 10.11), were examined by Michaelsen (2002) who showed that in a number of instances oils
reservoired in the Namur Sandstone and Murta Formation are very waxy and similar to those in the Patchawarra
Formation at Daralingie 16 down-dip in the Nappamerri Trough. This suggests that Permian-derived oils have more
than likely migrated from the deeper Cooper Basin into the reservoirs along the Murteree Ridge.

Subsequent detailed analysis of DST samples and residual oils recovered by SFTE from core plugs of sandstones
in the reservoir units of these and other fields along or adjacent to the Murteree Ridge (viz. Cadna-owie, Murta,
McKinlay, Namur and Hutton: Arouri et al., 2004) showed that they contain hydrocarbons of mixed Cooper and
Eromanga origins in proportions that vary between 55 and 80% Permian (using the calibrated mixing model of
Arouri and McKirdy, 2005; Table 10.1; Fig. 10.12). Three Permian charge episodes, possibly linked to the oil
expulsion events at 105, 90 and 20–0 Ma (Fig. 10.1), can be recognised in the charge histories of the Cretaceous
reservoirs in the Biala, Jena, Limestone Creek, Nungeroo and Ulandi fields (Fig. 10.13). This multiple charge
history is most clearly illustrated by the residual oils from the McKinlay and Namur reservoirs in Biala 7 (top panel,
Fig. 10.13). Here the Permian pulses appear to be superimposed on a background charge of Jurassic and/or
Cretaceous oil, while the DST oil from all three reservoirs (Murta, McKinlay and Namur) is ~75% Permian sourced.

The shallowest oil pools atop the ridge (Cadna-owie, Murta) have the greatest Permian inputs, which represent the
first escape of low-maturity fluids from the Cooper Basin into the overlying Eromanga succession. Subsequent
pulses progressively displaced this initial Permian charge upwards into shallower traps. This explains why, at each
stage of their charge histories, the three reservoirs of the Jena Field maintain the same relativity of Permian input,
viz. Murta > McKinlay > Namur (second panel, Fig. 10.13).

Analysis of DST oils from the Hutton reservoirs of the Kerinna and Mudlalee fields in the immediate vicinity of the
Murteree Ridge, and from the Murta reservoir of the Kobari Field further south (Fig. 10.11), likewise showed them
to be of mixed Cooper and Eromanga source affinity (Arouri et al., 2004). The Permian component of the oil pooled
in these fields increases, while its maturity decreases, with increasing distance from the Murteree Ridge.

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 8

Chapter 10 Hydrocarbon generation and migration

FIGURES
10.1 Oil expulsion vs time, Cooper Basin (after Deighton et al., 2003). (202700_084)
10.2 Gas expulsion vs time, Cooper Basin (after Deighton et al., 2003). (202700_085)
10.3 Distribution of Family 1 and Family 2 oils in the southwestern Cooper Basin, South Australia, with respect
to Tupper and Burckhardt’s (1990) isoreflectance contours for the base of the Patchawarra Formation (after
Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001). (202700_088)
10.4 Simple model of hydrocarbon mixing using the cross-plot 1-methylphenanthrene/9-methylphenanthrene
versus 2-methylphenanthrene/1-methylphenanthrene for Cooper–Eromanga oils. Mostly Permian sourced
= c. 95–68% Permian; Mixed = 67–34% Permian; Mostly Jurassic or Cretaceous sourced = 33–c. 5%
Permian. (After Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001.) (202700_089)
10.5 Distribution of Eromanga Basin oils in South Australia based on ‘mixing curve 1’ and ‘mixing curve 2’ (after
Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001). (202700_090)
10.6 Schematic representation of the Patchawarra Trough showing the migration of oil towards the Patchawarra
sub-crop margin and its increased susceptibility to water washing with exposure to the open aquifer system
of the Great Artesian Basin (after Altmann and Gordon, 2004; Errock, 2005). (202700_091)
10.7 SFTE cell device. (a) Whole-core extraction cell. (b) Cell with arrows indicating solvent flow. (c) Schematic
oil-filled pore illustrating ‘free oil’ and ‘adsorbed oil’. (After Kramer et al., 2004; Schwark et al., 1997.)
(202700_092)
10.8 Cross-section of the Gidgealpa oil and gas field showing possible migration pathways and the control of the
Triassic seal on migration pathways (after Boult et al., 1998). (202700_093)
10.9 Cross-section of the Strzelecki oil and gas field. Line of section located relative to the oil–water contact of
the Hutton reservoir (after Heath et al., 1989; Kramer et al., 2004). (202700_094)
10.10 Cross-section of the Murteree Ridge oil fields (after Heath et al., 1989). (202700_095)
10.11 Seismic section across the Murteree Ridge showing truncation of Permian strata by Mesozoic erosion and
locations of fields (after Arouri et al., 2004). (202700_096)
10.12 Estimates of the degree of mixing of Cooper- and Eromanga-derived hydrocarbons in fields along and
adjacent to the Murteree Ridge, based on the model of Michaelsen and McKirdy (1989, 2001) and manual
blending of end-member oils (dashed curve is from Arouri and McKirdy, 2005). (After Arouri et al., 2004).
(202700_097)
10.13 Hydrocarbon filling sequence of the Murteree Ridge fields as inferred from the analysis of their residual and
DST oils. Estimates of Permian hydrocarbon contributions derived from the manual-mixing curve (Arouri
and McKirdy, 2005) are compared to those made based on Michaelsen and McKirdy’s (1999, 2001) model.
(After Arouri et al., 2004.) (202700_098)

Petroleum geology of South Australia. Vol. 2: Eromanga Basin. 9

 Time (Ma)
0 100 200 300
20 Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian
Volume (bbl equiv/m2)

10

Gidgealpa–Merrimelia–Innamincka Ridge (Gidgealpa 16, Merrimelia 7)

Patchawarra Trough (Beanbush 1, Cuttapirie 1, Cook Nth 1, Tirrawarra Nth 1)
Nappamerri Trough (Burley 1, Bunya 1, Daralingie 5)
Della–Nappacoongee Ridge (Dullingari 1)
Tennappera Trough (Toolachie 1)
Tinga Tingana Ridge (Tinga Tingana 1)
Jackson–Naccowlah–Pepita Trend (Challum 1)
Other wells (Kenny 1, Kobari 1, Moomba 27, Nulla 1)
202770_084

Figure 10.1 Oil expulsion vs time, Cooper Basin (after Deighton et al., 2003).
 Time (Ma)
0 100 200 300
0.7 Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian

0.6
Volume (bbl equiv/m2)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Gidgealpa–Merrimelia–Innamincka Ridge (Gidgealpa 16, Merrimelia 7)

Patchawarra Trough (Beanbush 1, Cuttapirie 1, Cook Nth 1, Tirrawarra Nth 1)
Nappamerri Trough (Burley 1, Bunya 1, Daralingie 5)
Della–Nappacoongee Ridge (Dullingari 1)
Tennappera Trough (Toolachie 1)
Tinga Tingana Ridge (Tinga Tingana 1)
Jackson–Naccowlah–Pepita Trend (Challum 1)
Other wells (Kenny 1, Kobari 1, Moomba 27, Nulla 1)
202770_085

Figure 10.2 Gas expulsion vs time, Cooper Basin (after Deighton et al., 2003).
 140° E

’
ge
ed
ro
‘ ze
in
B as
er
op
Co

28° S

0 10 km

Oil field
Oil and gas field
Gas field
202770_088

Figure 10.3 Distribution of Family 1 and Family 2 oils in the southwestern Cooper Basin, South Australia,
with respect to Tupper and Burckhardt’s (1990) 0.75%, 1.00% and 1.35% Ro isoreflectance contours for
the base Patchawarra Formation (after Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001).
 202770_089

Figure 10.4 Simple model of hydrocarbon mixing using the cross-plot 1-methylphenanthrene/
9-methylphenanthrene vs 2-methylphenanthrene/1-methylphenanthrene for Cooper–Eromanga oils.
Mostly Permian sourced = c. 95–68% Permian; Mixed = 67–34% Permian; Mostly Jurassic or Cretaceous
sourced = 33 – c. 5% Permian. (After Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001).
 140° E

QUEENSLAND
0 20 km

28° S

202770_090

Figure 10.5 Distribution of Eromanga Basin oils in South Australia based on ‘mixing curve 1’ and ‘mixing curve 2’ (after Michaelsen and McKirdy, 2001).
 Christies Sellicks Carrickalinga
Source and
generation

Birkhead Fm seal

Zone of Artesian
aquifer Base flow
mixing of Ju
ra ssic u/c
n

M
I
r

ta

ur
te
-P
Triassic and

re
at

e
ch
Permian

Sh
ale

Ba

aw
seal

se

arr
sediments

me

as
nt

ea
l
2 7 ° 3 7 ´ 2 0 ´´ S
1 3 9° 11 ´3 5 ´´ E

Kalledeina
ion
Cooper at
Patchawarra
m

Basin
r

S.A.
Fo

Formation
rr a

Moomba
wa

QLD.
a
ch

N.S.W.
t

Nulla Welcome Lake

Pa

East
of

AN
ge
Approx ed

FL

GH RA

Source and
OU AR

Lhotsky Sellicks 1
generation
TR HAW
AWARRA

Jack Lake
TC

Christies 1 Kuenpinnie Carrickalinga

Patc
PA

h awarra Trough
PATCH

Lycium
Brighton Fresh artesian water >1500 ppm
Moana (Eromanga Basin)
1 3 9° 5 3 ´3 5 ´´ E

Lake Hope Oil Fields Connate Patchawarra Fm water ~14 000 ppm
Hollows
(Cooper Basin)
0 10 km Chelten North
2 8° 11´ 3 5 ´´ S Regionally effective seals
202770_091

Figure 10.6 Schematic representation of the Patchawarra Trough showing the migration of oil towards the Patchawarra sub-crop margin and the increased
susceptibility to water washing with exposure to the open aquifer system of the Great Artesian Basin (after Altmann and Gordon, 2004; Errock, 2005).
 (a) SFTE SYSTEM

CONFINING PRESSURE
VALVE
PRESSURE GAUGE 1

SOLVENT
MANTLE

FEP-LINER

HP PUMP
FILTER

PRESSURE
GAUGE 2
BACK
PRESSURE
SOLVENT VALVE COLLECTION
RESERVOIR CHAMBER

(b) SOLVENT IN

METAL END FEP-LINER

METAL FRITS
SOLVENT
MANTLE

SOLVENT
FLOW

INERT RUBBER
AND METAL
SEALING RINGS

SOLVENT OUT

(c) OIL-FILLED PORE

ROCK MATRIX

WATER LAYER
adsorbed oil

free oil WIDE PORE THROAT

NARROW PORE THROAT

TRAPPED PORE WATER

202770_092

Figure 10.7 SFTE cell device. (a) Whole core extraction cell.
(b) Cell with arrows indicating solvent flow. (c) Schematic oil-filled
pore illustrating ‘free oil’ and ‘absorbed oil’. (After Kramer et al.,
2004; Schwark et al., 1997).
 21 17 9 15 2
Cadna-owie Formation Murta
Wallumbilla Formation
Depth Formation
sub-sea (marine)
(m)

1500 North Dome

South Dome Namur Sandstone
Seals Birkhead Formation

1750 Hutton
Sandstone
Poolowanna Formation
TRIASSIC SEAL
2000

Toolachee Formation
2250 Patchawarra Sandstone Pre-Permian
Tirrawarra Sandstone 4 km

Craton derived sediments Gas

Volcanic-arc-derived sediments Oil

Gas migration path

Other seals of non-volcanic
or unknown origin Oil migration path

Permian Energy change seals

2
0
205

15 North Dome

00
22 9
0 5 km
50
21 Line of section
00
21 17

21
South Dome Top Permian
depth structure contours,
(50 m interval),
Gidgealpa Field

202770_093

Figure 10.8 Cross-section of the Gidgealpa oil and gas field showing possible
migration pathways and the control of the Triassic seal on migration pathways
(after Boult et al., 1998).
 Strzelecki Field
1 4 6 5 10

ie Fm
Cadna-ow

m
Murta F

t
Namur Ss

m
Birkhead F

Sst
Hutton
i Gp
amerr
Napp
Fm Murteree
chee
Toola Shale
Patchawarra Fm
me nt
B ase
Patchawarra Fm
Murteree
Shale
TS

Fly Lake
EN
IM
D

Tirrawarra
SE
AN

Moorari
1
I

Merrimelia
M

rri
PER

ra me
QLD

ar pa u gh
PRO? IMATE LIMIT OF

p
awgh
e

Na Tro
dg

t c h
u
Ri

Pa Tr o
GM

28 o Wilpinnie
Gidgealpa Moomba
North Dullingari
Della
Moomba Lepena
AP

4
Strzelecki
e
dg
Big Lake Ri 6
e
re

Thurakinna
h
te

ug
ur

Tr o
Dirkala
5
M

Toolachee
Wancoocha ra
Garanjanie
ppe
na
Te

STUDY AREA Hutton OWC

Line of section
29 o
Strzelecki 4

Strzelecki 6
10
Oil/gas field
NSW

Strzelecki 5 Oil
Major fault

0 50 Gas–Condensate
o o
KILOMETRES 140 141
202770_094

Figure 10.9 Cross-section of the Strzelecki oil and gas field. Line of section located relative to the oil–water
contact of the Hutton reservoir (after Heath et al., 1989; Kramer et al., 2004).
 Limestone
Pinna 1 Calamia West 1 Biala 1 Nungeroo 1
Creek 1

ie Fm
Cadna-ow
m
Murta F

Sst
Namur
ad Fm
Birkhe
Sst
Hutton
Basement Patc
p haw
ri G a
pa mer Fm rra
Nap Fm Murteree Horst
ee
o lac
h
e Fm
To al
Fm Sh t
on e ra Ss Murta Field
p sil tere ar
E ur w a Fm limit LINE OF SECTION
M
tha arr
c w a
Pa ra eli
Tir rim Pinna 1
Limestone
r Ck 1
Me
Calamia
West 1 Biala 1
Oil
Nungeroo 1
202770_095

Figure 10.10 Cross-section of the Murteree Ridge oil fields (after Heath et al., 1989).
 Alwyn Jena Ulandi Nungeroo Kobari (16 km
AGE FORMATION (projected) (Biala/LCk) (projected) SSW of Nungeroo)

A B

Source rocks
Residual oils
Cretaceous
NW SSE

DST oils
Eromanga

Cadna-owie
Murta
s
ay
McKinlay
w
Namur ath
p
Jur. Hutton
tion
gra
Nappamerri Gp Mi
Permian edge
Permian–

Toolachee Fm
Triassic
Cooper

Patchawarra Fm

Tirrawarra Sst and Merrimelia Fm Basement

Edge of regional
Ord. Dullingari Gp and Innamincka Fm
Cooper Basin seal
Warb-
urton

Camb Kalladeina Fm (Triassic)

-rian Mooracoochie Volcanics

rr i Mudlalee 3
me
ppa h
Na roug
T Kerinna 1

A
e
dg
Ri
e ree
Alwyn 5
Alwyn 3 M
urt
28°30´ S
Jena 6 Jena 12 Biala 6
Jena 11 Jena 2 Limestone Creek 9
Ulandi 2 Biala 1
Biala 7
Ulandi 1 Biala 3
Nungeroo 1

0 10 km
B
Tenappera Figure 10.11 Seismic section across the Murteree Ridge showing truncation of Permian strata
Kobari 1 Trough 140°30´ E
by Mesozoic erosion and locations of fields (after Arouri et al., 2004).
202770_096
 Biala-7 Nungeroo
1.4 Permian 100% mixing 1.4 100%
90% 90%
end-member oil curve
1.2 (Tirrawarra Sst, portion of 1.2
80% 80%
Merrimelia Field) 95% the ‘manual 95%
1.0 mixing’ curve 1.0

2MP/1MP
2MP/1MP

70% 70%
67% 67%
0.8 mixing 7 60%
0.8 60%
33% 33% 50%
curve 3a 50%
0.6 3a 5%
0.6 5%
5 7
2 2 2 3a 5
0.4 DST oil 12 5 0.4 21 8
9 6 9 DST oil
McKinlay (sample 5) 8 10 4
2a 2a Namur top (sample 19) 2a 2a 2
0.2 0.2
Namur (sample 7) Namur bottom (sample 20)
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
1MP/9MP 1MP/9MP

Jena Ulandi
1.4 100%
90% 1.4 100% 90%
1.2 80% 1.2
95%
80%
1.0 95%
1.0
2MP/1MP

70%
2MP/1MP 67% 70%
0.8 67% 60% 0.8
50% 33% 60%
DST oil 33% 13 2a 50%
0.6 16 0.6 5a 6 8a 9 5%
Murta (sample 9) 3a 5% 2a
2a 2 15 11 2 2 8
26
2 7
0.4 Murta (sample 10) 0.4 24 4
14 12 2a DST oil 10 25
9 10 2a 6 12 23
McKinlay (sample 12) 6a Murta (sample 22) 22
0.2 0.2 4a
Namur (sample 13) Namur (sample 21)
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
1MP/9MP 1MP/9MP

Limestone Creek Alwyn, Erinna, Obari and Mudlalee

1.4 100% 1.4 100%
90% 90%
1.2 80% 1.2 80%
95%
1.0 95% 1.0
2MP/1MP
2MP/1MP

70% 67% 70%

0.8 67% 60% 0.8 33% 60%
50% 50%
33% 19 17 5%
0.6 0.6
5% 18 20 3
2 2a
2
2 1
0.4 DST oil 0.4
8 4a 8a 6 3a
McKinlay (sample 16) 4
0.2 0.2
Namur (sample 18) DST oil
2a
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
1MP/9MP 1MP/9MP
202770_097

Figure 10.12 Estimates of the degree of mixing of Cooper- and Eromanga-derived hydrocarbons in fields along and
adjacent to the Murteree Ridge, based on the model of Michaelsen and McKirdy (1989, 2001) and manual blending
of end-member oils (dashed curve is Arouri and McKirdy, 2005). (After Arouri et al., 2004).
 Biala
100
Residual oils DST oils

Permian contribution (%)

Fraction Fraction
80 3a 7
A and 2a 12 2 8 and 9
M 10
model 5
60 5, 6 & 7
9 8 and 9
40
M and M
10
20 model

5, 6 & 7
0
Reservoir filling sequence

Jena
100
Permian contribution (%)

Residual oils DST oils

A and
80 M 3a 14, 12
model
10 13 and 16
60 6 15 and 11
Fraction
6a
40 2a 8 14
12
M and M Fraction
model 13 and 16
20 2

15 and 11
0
Reservoir filling sequence

Limestone Creek
100
Residual oils DST oil
Permian contribution (%)

A and M
80 model
Fraction 8 19
60 4a 2a
8a
40 6
M and M
model
3a
20 Fraction 19
2
0
Reservoir filling sequence

Nungeroo
100
Permian contribution (%)

Residual oils DST oil

A and M model
80

21
60

3a Fraction
40 Fraction
2a
M and M 8 5 2
model
20

0
Reservoir filling sequence

Ulandi
100
DST
Permian contribution (%)

Residual oils
A and M oils
80
model
2a
60 12
8a 5a 26
M and M 22
40 model 10 2
6
24
20 9
7 23
4 25
0
Reservoir filling sequence
202770_098

Figure 10.13 Hydrocarbon filling sequence of the Murteree

Ridge fields as inferred from the analysis of their residual
and DST oils. Estimates of Permian hydrocarbon
contributions derived from the manual-mixing curve
(Arouri and McKirdy, 2004) are compared to those made
based on Michaelsen and McKirdy’s (1999, 2001) model.
(After Arouri et al., 2004.)

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