CHAPTER 1

An Overview of Operational 
Oceanography 
Andreas Schiller1, Baptiste Mourre2, Yann Drillet3, and Gary Brassington4
1CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia; 2SOCIB, Palma de Mallorca, Spain;
3Mercator Océan, Parc Technologique du Canal, Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France; 4Bureau of Meteorology,
Sydney, Australia

Operational oceanography is like weather forecasting for the ocean, it provides estimates of ocean variables
(temperature, currents, surface height, etc.) for the past, present, and future. There is a systematic focus on
sustained operational ocean observing systems, estimates of the current state, short-range predictions and
ocean reanalyses. Operational oceanography systems provide routine and fully supported production and
delivery of oceanographic information at pre-determined and agreed upon service levels. Nowadays, many
operational oceanography systems cover global-to-coastal marine environments, and physical and
biogeochemical properties, with active research underway to eventually include ecosystems. Operational
oceanography involves and benefits marine industries, service providers, government agencies, and
research and development (R&D) providers.

Introduction 

T
his chapter provides a high-level overview of the key elements of state-of-the-art
operational oceanography systems, including observing systems, modelling, data
assimilation, service delivery, applications and benefits derived from operational
oceanography. The efforts of the international GODAE OceanView team are being described,
which targets consolidation and improvement of global and regional ocean analysis and forecasting
systems as well as assessment of contributions to the global ocean observing systems and scientific
guidance for its improvement. The chapter concludes with a discussion of current and future
research challenges in operational oceanography that aim to increase forecast skill and support Earth
system modelling efforts.

What Is Operational Oceanography? 
There is no widely accepted, unambiguous definition of “operational oceanography.” The European
component of the Global Ocean Observing System provides the following working definition:
Operational oceanography can be defined as the activity of systematic and long-term routine
measurements of the seas and oceans and atmosphere, and their rapid interpretation and
dissemination. Ocean forecasting as part of operational oceanography is based on the near real-time

Schiller, A., et al., 2018: An overview of operational oceanography. In "New Frontiers in Operational Oceanography", E.
Chassignet, A. Pascual, J. Tintoré, and J. Verron, Eds., GODAE OceanView, 1-26, doi:10.17125/gov2018.ch01.

1
2  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

collection of ocean observations and proceeds by the rapid transmission of observational data to
data processing centres, which conduct quality controls and provide the data to forecasting centres.
There, powerful computers using numerical ocean forecasting models assimilate the observations
into the models to improve and create initial conditions for ocean forecasts, with forecasts typically
up to 10 days in advance. Data analysis and ocean forecasting centres are operating at a routine,
fully supported production and delivery level of services to user-defined levels. At present, ocean
forecasting centres cover global-to-coastal marine environments, and physical and biogeochemical
properties. Ecosystems analysis and forecasting are active areas of research.
Outputs from the models are used to generate data products, often through intermediary, value-
adding service providers. Examples of final products include optimised shipping routes, coastal
flood warnings, and forecasts of harmful algae blooms. Because ocean conditions are constantly
changing over time, the final forecasts and products must be distributed rapidly to marine industry,
governments, regulatory authorities and the public.

A Brief History of Operational Oceanography 
This subsection provides a brief introduction to the history of operational oceanography with a focus
on elements that laid the scientific foundation of ocean forecasting, i.e., ocean observations, ocean
general circulation models, and data assimilation tools. It then describes the scientific achievements
of the first phase of internationally coordinated efforts in the development of global- and basin-
scale operational ocean forecasting systems during the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment
(GODAE) from 1997–2008.
Three key developments took place in the 1980s and 1990s that had a profound impact on the
development of operational oceanography. First, there was the launch of Earth observation satellites
designed to observe the oceans and its mesoscale structures. Second, “supercomputers” surpassed
a threshold of availability and capability in providing simulations of the ocean general circulation
at basin and global scales. Third, adopting advances being made in meteorology enabled
oceanographers to leapfrog developments in ocean data assimilation. All three of these
(observations, modelling, and data assimilation) are key elements of today’s ocean forecasting
systems.
Before satellites became more commonly available in the 1980s, oceanographers were “data
poor.” However, since then, significant technological and scientific advances in satellite remote
sensing have made it possible to obtain near real-time measurements of sea surface height
anomalies, sea surface temperature (SST), and ocean colour. These key observations have, for the
first time, enabled ocean forecasting applications (Fu and Cazenave, 2001). The realisation of a
network of 3,000 Argo profiling floats freely reporting temperature and salinity profiles to 2,000 m
depth in a timely fashion has transformed the in situ ocean measurement network in the new
millennium. This enables oceanographers to continuously monitor the temperature, salinity, and
velocity of the upper ocean, with all data being relayed and made publicly available within hours
after collection.
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  3

The advent of “supercomputers” in the 1970s and 1980s provided researchers with a new
capability to describe the ocean within a mathematical framework and allowed the development of
the first basin- and global-scale numerical ocean circulation models. Since that time, there has been
increased emphasis on the application of computers in oceanography to allow numerical simulations
and predictions of the state of the ocean. Based on significant advances in supercomputing
technologies, the 1990s saw the emergence of the first large-scale, eddy-resolving models (Semtner
and Chervin, 1992) and the first ocean-atmosphere coupled climate change projections (see e.g.,
IPCC First Assessment Report, 1990).
Over the last 20 years, the global ocean observing system (in situ and remote sensing) has been
progressively implemented and led to a revolution in the amount of data available for research and
forecasting applications. The ocean observing system, primarily designed to serve climate research,
is the backbone for most operational oceanography applications. Although significant progress has
been made, sustaining the global ocean observing system remains a challenging task (Clark et al.,
2009). This recent progress in the global ocean observing system was complemented by advances
in supercomputing technology, allowing for the development and operational implementation of
eddy-resolving (~10 km), basin-scale ocean circulation models.
GODAE was established in 1997 with the two primary goals: (i) to demonstrate the feasibility
and utility of global ocean monitoring and forecasting on the daily-to-weekly timescale and on
eddy-resolving spatial scales, and (ii) to assist in building the infrastructure for global operational
oceanography (Smith and Lefebvre, 1997; GODAE Strategic Plan, 2000; Bell et al., 2009). GODAE
has had a major impact on the development of global operational oceanography capability. Global
modelling and data assimilation systems have been progressively developed, implemented, and
inter-compared (Dombrowsky et al., 2009; Cummings et al., 2009; Hernandez et al., 2009). There
has been increased attention to the development of products and services and the demonstration of
their utility for applications such as marine environment monitoring, weather forecasting, seasonal
and climate prediction, ocean research, maritime safety and pollution forecasting, coastal and shelf-
sea forecasting, national security, as well as forecasting for the oil and gas industry and fisheries
management (Davidson et al., 2009; Hackett et al., 2009; Jacobs et al., 2009). GODAE as an
experiment ended in 2008 having achieved most of its goals. It has been demonstrated that global
ocean data assimilation is feasible and GODAE made important contributions to the establishment
of an effective and efficient infrastructure for global operational oceanography that includes the
required observing systems, data assembly and processing centres, modelling and data assimilation
centres, and data and product servers.

 Components of Operational Oceanography 
Overview of Components of Operational Oceanography Systems 
Operational Oceanography is comprised of five key components. Fig. 1.1 captures the main
functional components required by any state-of-the-art ocean forecasting system. It also illustrates
many of the interactions required to ensure or enhance the quality of the ocean forecasting systems
4  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

and their outputs. These are: the observation networks, data management and monitoring, prediction
and assessment, service delivery and dissemination, and uptake of products by end users/clients
(and their feedback about fit-for-purpose products to the operational centres). The rest of this
chapter is structured in line with these components.

Figure 1.1. Operational oceanography components.

Our ability to monitor and predict the evolution of energetic motions in the ocean mesoscale (such
as the meanders in the western boundary currents and the rings that break off from them) at mid-
latitudes is based on five key technologies: 

1) satellite altimeters, which measure the ocean’s sea level at the mesoscale;
2) surface forcing fields such as heat and freshwater fluxes plus remotely sensed and in situ
SST;
3) the Argo system of profiling floats, which measures temperature and salinity profiles
within the ocean (but does not resolve the ocean mesoscale); and
4) high-resolution ocean models that resolve the ocean’s mesoscale motions and data
assimilation capabilities that combine the measurements from the above three technologies
plus other ocean monitoring platforms with model predictions to provide accurate initial
conditions for future predictions.

Observations 
Altimetry
Satellite altimetry provides global, real-time, all-weather measurements of sea surface heights
(SSH) (sea level) at high space and time resolution. At mid-latitudes, the sea level is, to a good
approximation, an integral measure of the density variations in the upper ocean interior.
Consequently, sea level provides a strong constraint for inferring the four-dimensional (4-D) ocean
circulation through data assimilation. This explains the unique and fundamental role of satellite
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  5

altimetry in data assimilation and operational oceanography. The quality of mesoscale predictions
in ocean analysis and forecasting models is heavily reliant on the availability of altimeter data from
multiple satellites. It is commonly agreed that real-time analysis and forecasting of mesoscale
circulation requires at least three or preferably four altimeters to be flown simultaneously in
appropriately selected orbital configurations (Le Traon, 2013). A very precise long-term altimeter
system (e.g., Jason series) is also needed as a reference for the other missions (particularly for
climate monitoring). Jason-2, CryoSat-2, HY-2A, and SARAL/AltiKa altimetry missions are the
result of a period of intense cooperation between the space agencies (NASA, NOAA, ESA, CNES,
EUMETSAT, CNSA, and ISRO).
For the next decade, future missions include Sentinel 3A&B, Jason-3, and Jason CS. Sentinel
3A&B and Jason CS will use an improved along-track SAR mode (higher along-track resolution,
lower noise level). Although, at the time of this writing, there are uncertainties about the launch
dates and funding of some of these missions, it is hoped that the altimeter constellation will be
satisfactory (although not ideal) in the coming years. For example, the Sentinel 3A mission was
launched in 2016 and sea level anomaly observations are already available and assimilated in
several operational forecasting systems. It is also hoped that by 2020 the new Surface Water Ocean
Topography (SWOT) concept will have been demonstrated, providing new capabilities for very
high-resolution observations of the ocean mesoscale over a swath. SWOT should be seen as an
essential contribution to operational oceanography, helping observation capabilities to keep pace
with our steadily increasing model resolutions.

Argo
A major challenge at the end of the 1990s was to set up a real-time global in situ observing system
to complement satellite observations. Based on technological progress made during the World
Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE, 1990-2002), proposals were made to develop a global array
of profiling floats taking temperature and salinity profile measurements down to 2000 m every 10
days throughout the deep global oceans. The resulting Argo international programme (Roemmich
& the Argo Science Team, 1999) was initially developed as a joint venture between GODAE and
CLIVAR (Climate and Ocean: Variability, Predictability and Change). Argo has been an
outstanding achievement, and in November 2007 it reached its initial target of 3,000 profiling floats.
Argo delivers data both in real-time for operational users and after careful scientific quality control
for climate change research and monitoring. Argo has brought remarkable advances in ocean and
climate change research (Freeland et al., 2009) and ocean forecasting capability (Oke et al., 2009;
Dombrowsky et al., 2009). There are strong and unique complementarities between Argo and
satellite altimetry, and Argo data are now systematically used together with altimeter data for ocean
analysis and forecasting. The main ocean forecasting requirements for Argo are to maintain Argo
global coverage and sampling for the long term. As reanalysis is as important as real-time
prediction, reprocessing of past data with improved quality must be conducted in addition to the
delivery of products in real time. Finally, the need for an improved vertical sampling has been
identified for both regional prediction systems and coupled ones; near surface sampling needs to be
improved to better reproduce interactions with the atmosphere. Operational oceanography should
6  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

also benefit greatly from extending Argo capabilities towards deeper observations (below 2000 m)
and towards the observation of biogeochemical variables. This could be quantified through
Observing System Simulation Experiments (OSSEs) and tested as part of Argo extension pilot
projects. The main challenges for Argo over the next decade will be first to maintain the global
array and ensure its long-term sustainability, and second to prepare the next phase of Argo with an
extension towards biogeochemistry, the polar oceans, the marginal seas, and the deep ocean. Given
the prominent role of Argo in constraining ocean models, meeting such challenges is essential for
the long-term sustainability and evolution of global operational oceanography.

Measurements of SST and other variables

GODAE recognized the inadequacy of the suite of SST products in the late 1990s and launched a
pilot project that would not only meet the requirements of GODAE, but also those of weather
prediction and climate centres. The Group for High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature
(GHRSST) (Donlon et al., 2009) was initiated in 2001 and has overseen the introduction of
standardised and verified SST products for multiple uses, including ocean analysis and prediction.
The GODAE-sponsored project has resulted in a coordinated network of centres disseminating SST
data in real time in a common format to agreed standards from a wide range of microwave and
infrared instruments on polar orbiting and geostationary satellites. The basis for this success is the
complementary polar orbiting and geostationary satellite radiometers, which yield high-resolution
infrared and microwave estimates of SST. Complementary data from a wide variety of in situ
sources are also used. Products are widely available from a number of sources and have both high-
resolution and accuracy; documented bias and error characteristics; meet timeliness and temporal
resolution demands, and are dependable and fit-for-purpose (Donlon et al., 2010). There is also a
wide usage of information on sea-ice concentration from satellites by groups participating in
GODAE OceanView (GOV) and information on sea-ice thickness, sea-ice drift, and sea-ice
temperature should be widely used in future. A number of other systems contribute measurements
of temperature, salinity, sea level, and currents, among other variables. Argo is now the workhorse
for broad-scale temperature and salinity measurements. The tropical moored buoy arrays
(McPhaden et al., 2010) provide high-frequency sampling in the rapidly changing tropical waters
(temperature, salinity, velocity); the Expendable Bathy-Thermograph (XBT) networks (Goni et al.,
2010) provide high-resolution sections to complement the broad-scale Argo network (particularly
important for ocean transport calculation); L-band microwave satellite-borne radiometers
(Lagerloef et al., 2012; Font et al., 2013) are now, for the first time, providing measurements of
surface salinity with of the order of 0.5 psu accuracy for 10-day averages in 50 km squares and are
expected to have a positive impact on ocean forecasting systems (Le Traon et al., 2015). Although
the current accuracy of remotely sensed salinity limits its impact on the skill of ocean forecasting
systems, it is expected to increase in the coming years with the launch of new sensors. The Global
Drifter Program (Dohan et al., 2010) provides important surface drift (and temperature) data for
validation. Further information about future plans regarding SST remote sensing can be found in
Le Traon et al. (2015); future developments of all components of the global observing system are
described elsewhere in this book.
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  7

Data Management and Monitoring Systems 
Measurement network and data assembly and processing centres provide the main inputs to
assimilation centres. This includes the in situ and satellite components of the current global
observing system.
Near real-time quality control of observational data and the joint use of in situ and satellite data
are key elements of any operational ocean forecasting system, as indicated by the product servers.
Product servers also provide the underpinning concepts and technologies that enable the observed
data to be discovered, visualised, downloaded, intercompared, and analysed all over the world.

Prediction and Assessment Systems 
Models
Despite the increasing wealth of observations from satellites, floats, moorings, and ships,
observational coverage is still sparse for vast parts of the deeper ocean, especially on the ubiquitous
mesoscale with horizontal scales of the order of 100 km. With the growing exploitation of the seas,
mesoscale prediction of ocean currents and, more recently, their biophysical variability have been
key goals of the ocean forecasting community. Using numerical ocean models, national forecasting
centres simulate the global and regional ocean circulation from the surface down to the abyss. Ocean
models evolve according to physical and dynamical constraints. They have the ability to produce
forecasts using information on the atmospheric surface forcing, the ocean’s bathymetry, and the
recent state of the ocean obtained from ocean observations and introduced into the model through
data assimilation. Ocean modelling is an active field and new knowledge stemming from
observations and theoretical studies produces a continuous stream of improvements to ocean
models, which leads to more accurate ocean analyses and forecasts.
The first operational models applied to short-term ocean forecasting in the late 1990s and early
2000s typically had horizontal resolutions between 1° and ¼° in global configurations and higher
resolutions in regional applications (Dombrowsky et al., 2009). This range of horizontal resolution
is insufficient outside the equatorial domain to predict the mesoscale variability accurately. Such
problems have been solved with the current generation of operational global ocean forecasting
systems at model resolutions of about 1/10° or higher (and up to 80 vertical levels or layers). Work
is progressing at some centres towards operational implementation of global models with at least
1/25° grids in the next few years.
The practical impact of weather, ocean, and climate prediction on the world’s population and
economy drives the use of high performance computing (HPC), which includes supercomputing
and data management, for earth system modelling. The computational and operational requirements
for ocean simulations of appropriate spatial and temporal scales are immense and require HPC to
provide forecasts and services in practical timeframes. Supercomputers have enabled the weather,
ocean and climate research and operational communities to produce results in the shortest amount
of time possible while investigating and predicting increasingly complex and detailed phenomena,
8  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

such as eddies. Nowadays, the world’s most powerful supercomputers (many of them are being
used in earth system modelling and forecasting) have peak performances of tens of petaflops (1015
calculations per second) [http:// www.top500.org/lists/].
In general, nearly all basin- and global-scale ocean models use forms of the primitive equations,
whereas the first systems developed in the 1990s were based on quasi-geostrophic approach. These
equations relate the variables of velocity, temperature, and salinity, and their evolution over space
and time. The primitive equations are a set of nonlinear differential equations that are used to
approximate the ocean circulation (and atmospheric flow in atmospheric models). They consist of
three main sets of balance equations:

● A continuity equation: Representing the conservation of mass.

● Conservation of momentum: Consisting of a form of the Navier–Stokes equations that
describe hydrodynamical flow on the surface of a sphere under the assumption that vertical
acceleration is much smaller than horizontal acceleration (hydrostatic) and that the fluid
layer depth is small compared to the radius of the sphere.
● A thermal energy equation: Relating the overall temperature of the system to heat sources
and sinks. As similar equation applies to salt in the ocean (absolute salinity).

Further details about ocean circulation modelling can be found in, e.g., Haidvogel and Beckmann
(1999) and Griffies (2004).

Data assimilation
GODAE was predicated on the expectation that profiles of temperature and salinity data, as well as
altimeter data would provide complementary information and that their assimilation would control
the evolution of ocean models; the altimeter data controlling the ocean mesoscale and the profile
data controlling the vertical water mass structure on larger horizontal scales. Initial evidence that
the altimeter data could be effectively assimilated into models came mainly from idealised
experiments using simple models (Hurlburt, 1986), statistics on vertical structure (De Mey &
Robinson, 1987), and ideas on conservation of water mass properties (Cooper & Haines, 1996). The
groups within GODAE chose to adopt widely differing approaches to data assimilation (Cummings
et al., 2009; Martin et al., 2015). For example, the core algorithms for estimating the covariances of
the errors in the model fields differ a great deal, including the Ensemble Kalman filter approach,
the SEEK filter (Pham et al., 1998), the static error covariance estimated from an ensemble of
integrations, and the use of 3-D variational assimilation schemes with geographically varying
covariances calculated from observation minus model (and other) statistics using balance operators
(Dobricic and Pinardi, 2008). Four-dimensional variational methods have also been explored
(Stammer et al., 2003; Sugiura et al., 2008). There have also been large differences between the
centres in terms of prioritizing assimilation of different observation types, the pre-processing and
quality control of the observations, the specification of the time window for the observations, the
methods for adding increments into the models, and the methods for assimilation into models with
significant biases (whose drifts can be exacerbated by data assimilation particularly near the
equator). While each of these systems has had some success in constraining their ocean models, a
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  9

better understanding of their relative effectiveness is very desirable as it would assist in the
improvement of the systems.

Examples of prediction and assessment of forecasting systems

Forecasting centres comprise modelling and assimilation components and cover coastal and/or
basin-scale ocean forecasting. Most centres now operate systems with 1/10° or finer horizontal grid
spacing in global models; make use of community ocean models like HYCOM (Bleck, 2002,
Chassignet et al., 2003); MOM4 (Griffies et al., 2004) or NEMO (Madec, 2008) and assimilate in
situ profile data, altimeter data, some form of surface temperature data, and sea ice observations.
Product assessments and interactions with research users have been key activities since the
inception of operational ocean forecasting systems. An important component of product assessment
is procedures developed to intercompare forecasts produced by different centres. The
intercomparisons of results from the systems are being used to assess the consistency and
uncertainty of the state estimates.
Today, there are numerous ocean forecasting consortia covering the coastal-to-basin/global
scales. Many of these initiatives provide forecasts based on multiply nested models, with finer
resolution in shelf-scale and coastal models. Here, we describe two initiatives: one with a regional
focus (SOCIB) and one with a quasi-global to regional focus (Bluelink).
SOCIB, the Balearic Islands Coastal Observing and Forecasting Initiative (Tintoré et al., 2013),
started its activities in 2009 in Mallorca Island, Spain, in order to implement and operate a multi-
platform observing and forecasting research infrastructure providing streams of oceanographic data
and modelling services that could support operational oceanography at a national, European, and
international level. As part of its mission, driven by science, technology, and society needs, SOCIB
acquires, processes, analyzes, and disseminates multi-disciplinary information about the sea in a
systematic way, participates in the development and testing of new technologies, and provides
science-based tools and products for society and coastal management.
SOCIB operates a variety of observing platforms, including a coastal research vessel, two high-
frequency radar antennas, gliders, Argo floats, surface drifters, fixed moorings, weather stations,
and beach monitoring systems. Additionally, SOCIB’s modelling and forecasting facility develops
and implements operational ocean prediction systems to complement and integrate these
observations in line with the initiative’s objectives. These modelling systems aim to represent: (i)
the ocean circulation in the Western Mediterranean Sea (WMOP system), (ii) hazardous sea level
oscillations in Ciutadella (locally known as “rissaga” phenomenon, Menorca, Spain; BRIFS
system), and (iii) waves around the Balearic Islands (system operated in collaboration with Puertos
del Estado). The first two prediction systems are briefly described next.
The 2 km-resolution ocean circulation model WMOP (Western Mediterranean OPerational
System, Juza et al., 2016) is used to investigate processes and to provide short-term numerical
predictions, which are then integrated in SOCIB products and services. WMOP is a regional
configuration of the ROMS over the Western Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of
Gibraltar to the Sardinia Channel. It is initialized from and nested in the larger scale Mediterranean
Model distributed through the European Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service
10  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

(CMEMS-MED). High-resolution atmospheric model outputs are used to force the system (Spanish
National Meteorological Agency HIRLAM model), with a 0.05o spatial resolution and a 1h
temporal resolution. Due to the lack of data assimilation in the present operational WMOP system
and to avoid a drift from realistic conditions, the model restarts every week from the outputs of a
three-week spin-up simulation initialized from CMEMS-MED model fields, which include
assimilation of sea level anomalies and temperature and salinity profiles. Data assimilation
algorithms based on a local Ensemble Optimal Interpolation approach have recently been developed
and tested in the model. They will soon be implemented in the operational chain, allowing models
to ingest observations from satellites and in situ platforms, including altimeter sea level anomaly
(gridded or along-track), SST, temperature and salinity profiles from Argo, CTDs and gliders, as
well as high-frequency (HF) radar sea surface currents.
The operational system is run once a day, starting at 07:30 local time and delivering model
outputs (72-hour forecasts) in the morning. In recent years, WMOP model outputs have been used
to support efforts to deal with emergencies at sea related to oil spills, search-and-rescue, or for
forensic purposes. Moreover, WMOP hindcast simulations over the period 2009-2015 have also
been used to investigate ocean variability, regional connectivity, larval and plastics drifts, and to
simulate future SWOT altimeter measurements and virtual observations to study innovative high-
resolution multi-tracer analysis methods.
SOCIB has developed a second ocean forecasting system (BRIFS; Renault et al., 2013, Licer et
al. 2017) aimed at representing the occurrence and magnitude of meteotsunamis (Monserrat et al.
2006; locally also known as “rissagues”) in Ciutadella harbour, Menorca, Spain. A meteotsunami
or meteorological tsunami is a tsunami-like wave of meteorological origin. Meteotsunamis are
generated when rapid changes in barometric pressure cause the displacement of a body of water,
which is amplified under specific resonant conditions. The representation of such phenomena
requires high-resolution ocean simulations forced by very high temporal resolution atmospheric
forcing. As a consequence, BRIFS is an atmosphere-ocean modelling system using a very fine
horizontal grid resolution (10 m) around the Menorcan harbour of Ciutadella, and a two-minute
temporal resolution of atmospheric pressure forcing. WMOP and BRIFS outputs are illustrated in
Fig. 1.2.
The atmospheric part is based on the WRF model with a 4 km resolution in the inner grid. The
atmospheric pressure outputs of the WRF model are used to force two nested configurations of the
ROMS model.
The Australian ocean forecasting initiative Bluelink operates two systems: a global system
called OceanMAPS and a relocatable regional system called ROAM. OceanMAPSv3 represents a
major upgrade in operational ocean forecasting for Australia over the previous version, with near-
global (75oS-75oN) 0.1° horizontal resolution and improved vertical resolution. OceanMAPSv3 was
declared operational in April 2016. The model is an implementation of the Modular Ocean Model
version 4p1 (MOM4; Griffies et al., 2004). The data assimilation system is based on an Ensemble
Optimal Interpolation (EnOI) implementation of an Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF-C; Sakov,
2014). The analysis assimilates all available altimetry, satellite SST, and in situ profiles of
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  11

temperature and salinity. The forecast cycle is a three-day cycle with an analysis window for all
observations of three days. A behind real-time analysis is performed -6 days behind real-time with
a near real-time analysis performed at -3 days behind real-time. The surface is forced by the Bureau
of Meteorology’s global numerical weather prediction system (ACCESS-G) based on the UMv8.2
(UKMetOffice). Boundary conditions are based on GAMSSA and NCEP 1/12° sea ice analysis.
The ocean model is forced by the atmospheric fluxes for wind stress and total heat flux (solar
radiation, longwave radiation, sensible heat and latent heat). A climatological river discharge is
applied based on Dai and Trenberth (2002).

Figure 1.2. Top: WMOP prediction of SST and currents around the Balearic Islands, valid for 19 September
2017. Bottom: BRIFS prediction of sea level anomalies associated with a meteotsunami event in Ciutadella on
9-10 September 2017.

The Relocatable Ocean Atmosphere Model (ROAM) can be configured to have a high grid
resolution (variable, resolution as high as one km horizontally, resolving tides and other high-
frequency events) and output to file multiple times per day. This high spatial and temporal resolution
12  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

allows in the ocean component for complex topography, tidal dynamics, and short-lived sub-
mesoscale features to be modelled. The ROAM system is presently nested within OceanMPAS
(data-assimilating) near-global models run on a 0.1° grid (≈ 10 km). ROAM-SHOC is initialized
from fields derived from OceanMAPS and is subsequently forced with boundary conditions from
the same model. OceanMAPS does not have tides, it has a coarse bathymetry due to the near-global
grid resolution, and it is primarily designed for use in the deep ocean. ROAM is primarily designed
for use over the continental shelf and slope, including areas with complex bathymetries or if a high
temporal resolution is needed.

Service Delivery and Dissemination 
Ocean forecasting systems deliver a broad range of products and services. Here we provide an
overview of one of the most advanced systems, the European Copernicus Marine Environment
Monitoring Service (CMEMS) (http://marine.copernicus.eu). CMEMS provides regular and
systematic reference information on the physical state, variability, and dynamics of the ocean and
marine ecosystems for the global ocean and the European regional seas. Some variables extracted
from the global high-resolution forecasting system are shown as an example in Fig. 1.3. Other
products, such as wave parameters and biogeochemistry variables, are also available at a global
scale and for the European seas based on dedicated regional forecasting systems. Reanalyses, which
are long time series produced based on homogeneous analysis systems, are available from the 1990s
when altimetry observations first became available.
The CMEMS service is based on a network of production centres (Le Traon et al., 2017) with a
cross-cutting coordination and strong links to scientific research to ensure a continuous evolution
of the service (Fig. 1.3). The observations and forecasts produced by the service support all marine
applications (Fig. 1.4). For instance, the provision of data on currents, waves, winds, and sea ice
helps to improve ship routing services, offshore operations, or search and rescue operations, thus
contributing to marine safety.
The products delivered by the CMEMS are provided free of charge to registered users through
an interactive catalogue available on a web portal and with a strong support for all user needs
through a dedicated service desk. These products encompass a description of the current situation
(analysis), the variability at different spatial and temporal scales, the prediction of the situation a
few days ahead (forecast), and the provision of consistent retrospective data records for recent years
(reanalysis). The web portal allows for global and regional searches and includes over 40 variables,
including physical variables (e.g., temperature, sea ice, waves) and biological variables (e.g.,
plankton, nutrients, turbidity).
CMEMS also contributes to the protection and the sustainable management of living marine
resources, especially aquaculture, fishery research, and regional fishery organisations. Physical and
marine biogeochemical components are useful for water quality monitoring and pollution control.
Sea level rise helps to assess coastal erosion. SST is one of the primary physical impacts of climate
change and has direct consequences on marine ecosystems. As a result, the service supports a wide
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  13

range of coastal and marine environment applications. Many of the data delivered by the service
(e.g., temperature, salinity, sea level, currents, wind, and sea ice) also play a crucial role in the
domain of weather, climate, and seasonal forecasting.

Figure 1.3. Organization of the CMEMS service with the four Thematic Assembly Centres (TACs for the Sea
Level, In Situ, Ocean Colour, Ocean and Sea Ice observations) in charge of the observations and the seven
Monitoring and Forecasting Centres (MFCs for the global ocean, the Arctic Ocean, the Baltic Sea, the North
West Shelf area, the Iberian Biscay and Irish Seas, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea) in charge of the
models reanalysis, real-time analysis and forecast.
14  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

Figure 1.4. Example of variables from the global high-resolution forecasting system available in CMEMS. Ice
thickness (top left), temperature (top right), salinity (bottom left), and current (bottom right) are available at
1/12° of resolution from the surface to the bottom, in the past (from 2007) and in the future (10-day forecast
are provided daily).
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  15

Client Applications and Benefits 
Broadly speaking, the primary sectors supported by ocean forecasting and reanalysis products are
marine operations and activities with a focus to make these safer and more efficient. Exploitation
of products is also heavily dependent on their fitness for purpose, the information that is provided
with them on their expected accuracy, and the robustness and reliability of the service. Data policies
for service and access conditions to the products are also believed to have a significant impact on
their uptake in downstream services by small-to-medium enterprises and by the research sector.
Open access to freely available products, free of charge at point of use, with minimal restrictions
on their use, has been promoted strongly by the GEO (Group on Earth Observation) and by the
European Copernicus programme. From its inception, GODAE also strongly supported open
exchange of information.

Data access and visualisation

State-of-the-art information technology and visualisation techniques are being developed and
updated by forecasting centres and intermediary service providers to facilitate uptake of products
by end users.
For example, the 3-hourly WMOP forecasts (temperature, salinity, currents, and sea level)
produced by the SOCIB system are made available through the SOCIB Thredds server. The SOCIB
website (www.socib.es) also provides access to plots and animations of oceanic surface conditions,
as well as interactive visualizations allowing users to superpose model results with other datasets
such as the present platform deployments. Operational model validation based on observations from
satellite SST, surface geostrophic currents, Argo, moorings, glider, and HF radar is also performed
operationally and provided on the SOCIB website. Regarding the local meteotsunami phenomenon,
BRIFS predictions are available on the SOCIB website as pictures of sea level time series in four
points of interest, including Ciutadella harbour. Moreover, figures and videos are provided,
illustrating the evolution of atmospheric pressure over the whole domain of the WRF model so as
to visualize the occurrence of small-scale instabilities responsible for the generation of
meteotsunamis. BRIFS outputs are used to complement the official warning system from the
Spanish Meteorological Agency based on the analysis of synoptic atmospheric conditions.
The European Commission has launched an initiative to develop Copernicus Data and
Information Access Services (DIAS) that facilitate access to Copernicus data and information from
the Copernicus services (http://copernicus.eu/news/upcoming-copernicus-data-and-information-
access-services-dias). By providing data and information access alongside processing resources,
tools, and other relevant data, this initiative is expected to boost user uptake and stimulate
innovation based on Earth observation data and information.

Marine transport, search and rescue, oil and gas industry

All of these industries rely on predictions of near-surface conditions, in particular the surface
currents. Predictions of transit times and advice on route choice support the efficiency of the
shipping industry. Information on ocean surface temperatures can also be valuable as they affect
16  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

the efficiency of the ship engines and the durability of some cargoes. Most search and rescue
operations are confined to coastal waters, but some operations occur in deeper waters and in these
cases information on currents and temperatures is required very rapidly to optimize the search
radius.
Responses to spills of oil, chemicals, hazardous substances, and other ship cargo also require
rapid initial predictions of the expected drift and dispersion and more detailed, longer period
simulations later in the response cycle. Some nations also use surface currents to trace spills
resulting from illegal discharges back to individual ships. Again, the surface temperatures are
relevant and, in the case of sub-surface releases (e.g., from well heads), the sub-surface temperatures
and currents are critical.
In the oil and gas sector, there are a number of key players who require products from ocean
forecasting centres (such as government regulators and agencies, major oil companies, commercial
operators, and environmental service suppliers). Generally speaking, environmental support is
required throughout the life cycle of oil and gas production including exploration, production, and
decommissioning. In addition to its impact on the environment, the oil and gas industry require
information to predict the impact of the environment on their operations so they can adapt them to
optimize their safety and efficiency. For example, subsurface current shears can generate severe
stresses on risers (the pipes conveying oil from the well to the surface), which affects operations.

Naval defence operations

Naval defence operations have a diverse range of requirements for information (Jacobs et al., 2009)
the most well-known being that the temperature variations in ocean mesoscale phenomena have a
major impact on sonar propagation. Ocean prediction systems are now used to generate sonar
predictions for the shelf seas as well as the open ocean. They are also used to produce hindcasts and
re-analyses for the last 20–50 years, as well as real-time predictions.

Environmental protection and fisheries

The reanalyses for shelf seas has great potential to support important, widely held aspirations for a
more holistic ecosystem-based approach to the management of the marine environment (European
Parliament, 2008) and fisheries. Adapting the ocean prediction systems to meet these demands and
to exploit the potential of biogeochemical models provides a number of important challenges for
the future (Berx et al., 2011). Real-time ocean prediction systems can also help to improve the
efficiency of fisheries by giving guidance on the best areas for fisheries (e.g., regions of frontal
upwelling).

Short-range weather and seasonal prediction

Weather and seasonal prediction are closely related, the difference between them being the
timescale. Short-range weather prediction, which covers forecasts a few days ahead, requires good
surface temperature fields in part because the development of mid-latitude cyclones is strongly
influenced by them. Coupled atmosphere-ocean models have been developed for seasonal
predictions of many years. There is growing evidence that relatively high ocean model resolution
is needed to improve the skill of the seasonal forecasts (Scaife et al., 2011) and that short-range
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  17

weather forecasts can also be improved using atmosphere models coupled to sea-ice, wave, and
ocean models (Goni et al., 2009).
Some sectors, such as the oil and gas industry, have extremely demanding requirements for the
accuracy of currents at small spatial scales, which continues to challenge the ocean predictions. The
nature of the decisions based on weather forecasts has changed dramatically in the last ten years as
the forecasts and confidence in them have improved. Systems to provide ocean environmental
services such as the Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS) in Australia, the Integrated Ocean
Observing System (IOOS) in the United States, and the Copernicus marine service in Europe are
now being developed to address these challenges.

International Coordination 
International coordination facilitates progress in all functional components of operational
oceanography systems shown in Fig. 1.1 (observations, data management/provision, prediction
systems, and service delivery/products). GOV currently coordinates multiagency efforts to
optimally support the research, development, and operational implementation of physical and
biogeochemical ocean forecasting systems through its science team (www.godae-oceanview.org;
Bell et al., 2015). For example, GOV coordinates international activities in support of ecosystem
assessments (coral reef and other habitats), forecasts (harmful algal blooms, spills), and the
development of associated prediction applications (climate impacts, living marine resource
management). GOV continues the legacy of GODAE2 with collaborators from more than 50
academic and national agencies worldwide. The research focus is on improving short- to medium-
range operational ocean forecasting systems, and on enhancing and sustaining their development
and routine operations. A formal expert review of GOV in 2013 (www.godae-
oceanview.org/files/download.php?m=documents&f=150107120408-GOVStrategicPlan20152020
.pdf) recognized the enormous benefits reaped by this globally coordinated operational
oceanography effort over the last decade. The review identified areas of research where
improvement of interinstitutional scientific coordination could deliver greater societal benefits. The
recommendations have informed the GODAE OceanView Strategic Plan 2015–2020 (GODAE
OceanView Science Team, 2014), which guides internationally coordinated research in short-term
ocean prediction, data assimilation, application development, and service delivery for years to
come. The development of an operational support for end-to-end capabilities (i.e., from research
through to service delivery) is important to GOV and its sponsoring agencies, and includes routine
and sustained ocean observing, data management, and the prediction system, as well as operational
production and dissemination. The core objectives of the GOV Science Team (GODAE OceanView
Science Team, 2014) are to:

2
GODAE—Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment, predecessor of GOV from 1997 to
2008 (www.godae.org)
18  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

 assess forecast system and component performance combined with component

improvements;
 establish initiatives aimed at exploiting the forecasting systems for greater societal benefit;
and
 evaluate the dependence of the forecasting systems and societal benefits on the
components of the observation system.

These overarching objectives are aligned with those of the World Weather Research Program
(WWRP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC) Joint Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology
(JCOMM), the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS), and the Blue Planet initiative
of the intergovernmental Group on Earth Observations (GEO). In this context, GOV contributes to
the prioritization, advocacy, implementation, and exploitation of the Global Ocean Observing
System (GOOS) and the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS).

Trends and Future Developments 
There has been significant progress in ocean forecasting in recent years, which can be summarized
as follows (Bell et al., 2015; Schiller et al., 2015):
 Improvements of forecasting systems included increased resolution (horizontal and
vertical) tides, sea ice drift and thickness, ecosystem approaches, improvement to
mixing biases, and extending regional mode areas (e.g., polar regions and progress of
coupled modelling [wave coupling, sea ice, hurricane models, etc.]).
 Data assimilation schemes vary among ocean forecasting groups, ranging from
Ensemble Optimum Interpolation (EnOI) and Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF) to three-
and four-dimensional variational methods (3DVar and 4DVar). Observations
assimilated in ocean forecast systems now include ocean colour, surface velocities, sea
ice, and data from gliders. Many systems now employ multi-model approaches or
ensemble modelling techniques.
 All major numerical weather prediction systems have now transitioned to ensemble
forecast systems. Taking advantage of an ensemble in air-sea forcing within an
equivalent ocean ensemble forecast system will provide crucial uncertainty information
in the upper ocean properties.
 As the demand on forecasting products from ocean predictions is growing, the
communication and dissemination of information to downstream users has been
improved. Today, dissemination of outputs from forecasting systems is akin to the
approaches taken in numerical weather prediction.
 Most ocean forecasting systems are now investing in verification and validation efforts
to be able to show the value of their products to their users.
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  19

 Research in high-latitude (Arctic and Antarctica) operational ice and ocean prediction
has increased significantly, driven by increased demand for accurate forecasts by
industry and in support of sovereignty.
 Ocean reanalyses (three-dimensional analyses of the past) as well as the present ocean
state at global-to-coastal scales based on the same modelling and assimilation
infrastructure used for ocean forecasting are increasingly being used in, e.g., climate
research and industry applications (extreme events).
 Boundary and forcing conditions from global ocean-atmosphere climate projections are
being used in physical-biogeochemical-ecological modelling to downscale projections
at regional and local scales, based on ocean forecasting infrastructure.

With the maturing of oceanographic forecast systems and research, the core ocean forecasting
disciplines of ocean modelling, data assimilation, forecast verification, and observing system
evaluation are now enabling new research and operational areas to flourish. Some of these focus
areas for research and development are described in the subsequent subsections.

Model Development 
Model grid resolution
Horizontal ocean model grid resolution has been steadily increasing over the last two decades,
accompanied by increases in forecast skill (Tonani et al., 2015). By 2020, typical horizontal grid
resolutions will be of the order of 5–10 km for global ocean prediction systems and will approach
1 km or less for systems that resolve sub-mesoscale processes by 2025 (with local/regional
implementation much earlier). This will depend on continued growth in supercomputer power and
evolution of ocean modelling techniques to make best use of computing power. For instance, the
use of unstructured grids or grid nesting will allow models to increase their grid resolution
specifically where needed by applications. These are particularly attractive options for coastal and
regional forecasting models where there is a growing demand to provide accurate information to
decision-makers looking after increasingly populated and urbanized coastal areas (including coastal
river plumes from sediments and nutrients).
Because of the computational expense of resolving the highly energetic ocean mesoscale, most of
the ocean forecasting community has been slower to implement state-of-the-art ensemble prediction
systems than their numerical weather prediction and seasonal atmospheric counterparts. However,
it is now computationally feasible to develop global and regional ocean ensemble prediction
systems that will provide uncertainty and event predictability estimates.

Coupled prediction
Short-to-medium-term (three days to two weeks) coupled ice–ocean–wave–atmosphere prediction
to improve weather forecasts is a key research focus of the international forecasting research
community. International groups active in coupled prediction research are pursuing a wide range of
applications, including global weather forecasting systems and predictions of tropical cyclones,
hurricanes and typhoons, extratropical storms, high-latitude weather, and sea ice, as well as coastal
20  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

upwelling, sea breezes, and sea fog. In many cases, progress is being accelerated through the
developments already made in the seasonal prediction and climate projection communities.
Research has moved beyond case studies and sensitivity studies to controlled experiments to obtain
statistically significant measures of impact. Some first systems are already run in prototype coupled
prediction mode (Brassington et al., 2015). The modelling systems being employed include regional
and global coupled models of atmosphere–wave, atmosphere–ocean, atmosphere–wave–ocean, and
atmosphere–sea ice–ocean. Despite relatively unsophisticated configurations, the results obtained
thus far are generally positive and have encouraged more research and development in this area,
including coupled initialization and error propagation. Another related area of increasing interest is
that of interactions across the dynamic land–sea interface, including coupled watershed and
hydrodynamic modelling efforts for heavily populated coastal zones impacted by both natural as
well as anthropogenic phenomena.

Biogeochemical ocean forecasting

Biogeochemical, biological, and ecological forecasting, is another research focus in ocean
forecasting, noting that the maturity and reliability, at this stage, of physical ocean forecasts are
greater than those of biologically-related forecasts. However, there is a growing capability to
accurately simulate and predict key components of the marine biogeochemical cycle, including
carbon and nutrient cycles. Combined physical–biogeochemical systems will increasingly resemble
“environmental prediction systems” for end use in stock assessment, fisheries and habitat
management, marine pollution, carbon cycle monitoring, and functional ecosystem understanding.
These developments are happening because of growing demand by users for multidisciplinary
information, supported by progress in relevant science areas including new observations (satellite
and in situ) of environmental properties. Simultaneously, user demand for interoperable prediction
systems accessing a large variety of observational and modelling products to produce their own
“scenarios” of the marine environment is increasing. We can expect this area to grow significantly
as new communication technologies will open new opportunities for society to use ocean
information in a much more accessible and interactive way than experienced previously. Despite
some prototype biogeochemical ocean forecasting systems currently operating as part of integrated
biogeophysical systems, unresolved challenges to increasing skill remain. This includes appropriate
representation of ecosystem complexity and limited observations compared to physical ocean
models and observations (Gehlen et al., 2015).

Data Assimilation and Observing System Requirements 
Ensemble reanalysis and prediction also offers an opportunity for multi-model ensembles from
participating centers similar to the approach used in climate projections by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and in short-term operational weather prediction. However, this
approach has yet to be explored by the ocean forecasting community in terms of efficiency and
possible gains in forecast accuracy.
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  21

As the ocean forecast models progress in the future, it will become increasingly important to
end users that ocean forecasting centres define and project what type of events will be predictable
by their systems with useful accuracy and confidence intervals. With the implementation of
ensemble forecasts at high resolution, determining how to deliver and present the forecast and
accuracy information to the end user/decision-maker is an important challenge.
The ensemble methods allow research on prediction controllability, which includes
predictability, observability, and the ability of observations to constrain initial conditions of ocean
models. Regular increases in computing power have enabled the development of higher resolution
and ensemble models. However, while computing power versus cost ratio increases rapidly every
year, the observing network capacity versus cost ratio is relatively fixed, particularly for in situ data.
An important question to ask is what level of observation density is needed in future ensemble
prediction systems to accurately initialize features like fronts with typical scales of 1–10 km, of
currents across the shelf break, and of errors propagated in the ocean through air–sea fluxes? Sub-
mesoscale filaments and coastal eddies with horizontal scales of less than 10 km, tidal fronts, and
freshwater plumes generated by river run-off are generally well-simulated by coastal ocean
forecasting systems with horizontal grids of 1 km or less. A challenge is how to use the fine-scale
but spatially limited coastal observations, such as HF radar observations, as part of high-resolution,
shelf- and basin-scale ocean forecasting systems. The advent and deployment of new observing
systems (e.g., HF radars, gliders, and low-cost buoys) will provide the necessary in situ observations
density, at least on a regional scale. The SWOT wide-swath altimeter mission scheduled to launch
in 2021 is expected to provide high-resolution sea surface height (Fu and Ferrari, 2008). This dataset
will resolve the sub-mesoscale and improve parameterizations in and forecasts with global-, basin-
, and shelf-scale models. SWOT should also help us better understand and monitor estuaries, and
link properties and fluxes from continent to coastal ocean (and vice versa). The impact of these
planned future satellite missions (such as SWOT) on ocean forecasting systems can be tested
beforehand through Observing System Simulation Experiments (OSSEs), and is currently the
subject of research. For ocean biology and biogeochemistry, significant benefits will be realized by
incorporating a constellation of geostationary ocean colour radiometry missions into predictions
systems.
Operational ocean prediction systems transform data from satellite and sparse in situ
measurement systems into value-added comprehensive and vetted oceanographic data and
information products with "uniform-gridded" coverage (e.g., mitigating cloud cover and other data
dropout issues). They also enable Lagrangian applications, e.g., oil spill forecasting and search and
rescue activities. The increased international focus on developing shelf-scale analysis and
prediction capabilities brings with it the additional challenge of developing cost-effective in situ
coastal observing systems that enhance prediction system performance. Work currently undertaken
by GOV scientists and collaborators is paving the way for fully automated multi-model ensemble
Observing System Evaluations assessing all components of the Global Ocean Observing System
(GOOS) from global-to-shelf scales. By issuing associated Observation Impact Statements, ocean
forecasting centres will contribute to coherent, effective, and scientifically robust advocacy for the
22  ANDREAS SCHILLER ET AL.

GOOS. This effort will allow observing system agencies to assess the impact of past, present, and
future observations on forecast and (re-)analysis skills. Consequently, this will enable future
observation strategy and scenario evaluation at a fraction of the cost of implementing a new
observing system. Furthermore, this activity maximizes the return on investment for the GOOS, a
crucial need given limited funds.

New Observing System Requirements 
To further increase observation network capability, encouraging end users of prediction information
to collect and contribute ocean observations from their marine (e.g., fishing vessels, sailboats) as
well as shore-based (e.g., piers, docks) platforms on a best-effort but consistent and quality-
controlled basis will complement prediction systems in two ways. First, these "citizen science"
observations would provide a prediction validation mechanism at the end-user location of interest
and, second, they would enhance ocean forecast initial conditions. These efforts will be facilitated
by the rapid growth in wireless communication capabilities and mobile computing platforms, such
as smartphones.
A key point is the evolution of low-cost, efficient observing systems with minimal operating
costs similar to the already operating “ship of opportunity” network. As with all volunteer observing
systems (e.g., commercial ships deploying observing instruments), it will be imperative for
operational centres to develop feedback to these observation-contributing end users. This is
achieved by producing standard observation-based validation metrics (Ryan et al., 2015) from all
available prediction system output at the end user’s observation location and time. Furthermore,
this approach also addresses the need for intercomparisons of different forecast systems and their
respective forecast skill to allow for steady improvements to the systems.

Conclusion 
The above advances require an increasingly multidisciplinary effort in physics, chemistry, biology,
geomorphology (especially in the littoral zone), IT/visualization, and exploitation of “big data”
expertise, which furthers the science, engineering, and infrastructure leading to sustained and
integrated applications. GOV has already embarked on this route through specific task teams for
biogeochemical/ecological and coupled ocean–atmosphere–wave analysis and forecasting
(GODAE OceanView Science Team, 2014). Associated data assimilation tools are being extended
to other branches of marine environmental prediction but require new approaches (e.g., ensemble
and parameter estimation techniques, coupled initialization) to capitalize on an increasingly diverse
ocean observing system. There are ample opportunities for GOV scientists and collaborators to
advance the science of ocean forecasting and to improve its skill. Although speculative at this point
in time, scientific developments and prioritization will evolve over time, which might eventually
lead to reorganization of the forecasting community itself to better respond to new challenges and
societal needs. This could involve increased collaboration with international and intergovernmental
 AN OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY  23

organizations, providing recommendations and advice on questions related to the GOOS, and
expanding operational ocean forecasting capabilities and systems in developing countries (through
summer schools, training, and communication).
Apart from the scientific challenges, there are a wide range of additional factors that will
influence the progress of ocean forecasting. For operational oceanography to excel, there needs to
be mutualistic benefit across all its components (observations, data management, prediction system,
production/service delivery, and the clients). For example, prediction systems become stronger with
better observing systems and vice versa. More specifically, ocean forecasting systems are critically
dependent on both the satellite and in situ components of the physical GOOS, and the sustainability
and expansion of the biological and biogeochemical GOOS (Legler et al., 2015). New opportunities
arise in regional seas with the advent of “intelligent” new in situ sensors, sensor networks/webs,
and new and improved remote sensing technologies.
Based on the GODAE OceanView Strategic Plan 2015–2020 (GODAE OceanView Science
Team, 2014), the analysis and forecasting systems developed by GOV and partners are open to
further input from the research community, and contribute back to the research community by
providing vetted ocean information products of past, present, and near-future states of the ocean.
The facilitation of cooperation between research teams, operational groups, and the wider science
and user community will remain a key characteristic of the future GOV Science Team. These
collective activities will result in improved research, applications, and services for both developed
and developing regions, and significant socioeconomic benefits for a world that increasingly
depends on and cares for the health of its oceans.

Acknowledgements 
We thank the students of the GODAE OceanView Summer School Beatriz Perez Diaz, Safo Piñeiro
Rodríguez, and Marcel Ricker for their review of the manuscript. The comments of the students and
an anonymous reviewer helped the authors to significantly improve the manuscript.

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