Data Collection in Qualitative Research

Unit 3 : Data Collection, measurement

and scaling
• Qualitative methods of data collection,
• attitude measurement and scaling-
• types of measurement scale,
• attitude,
• classification of scales –
• Single Item v/s Multi Item Scales,
• Comparative v/s Non-Comparative scales,
• Continuous Rating Scales;
• Criteria for Good Measurement,
• questionnaire design
 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary,

transdisciplinary, and sometimes counter
field. disciplinary
It crosses the humanities and the social and physical
sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the
same time.
It is multi-paradigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are
sensitive to the value of the multi method approach.
They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and
to the interpretative understanding of human experience.

At the same time, the field is inherently political and

shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.
 Qualitative Research (Contd…)

Qualitative Research involves finding out what

people think, and how they feel? or at any rate,
what they say? they think? and how they? And
what they feel about a particular thing?

This kind of information is subjective.

It involves feelings and impressions, rather than

numbers.
 Qualitative Research (Contd…)

Qualitative research involves the studied use and

collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study,
personal experience, life story, interview, observational,
historical, interactional, and visual texts

It describes the routine and problematic moments and

meanings in individuals lives.

Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping

always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Contrast
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Multiple realities Single reality

Reality is socially constructed Reality is objective

Reality is context interrelated Reality is context free

Holistic Reductionistic

Strong philosophical perspective Strong theoretical base

Reasoning is inductive Reasoning is deductive and

inductive
Discovery of meaning is the basis Cause-and-effect relationships are
of knowledge the bases of knowledge
Develops theory Tests theory
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted
(contd…)
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

Theory developed during the study Theory developed a priori

Meaning of the concepts Measurement of variables

Process oriented Outcome oriented

Control unimportant Control important

Rich descriptions Precise measurement of variables

Basic element of analysis is words Basic element of analysis is
numbers
Uniqueness Generalization
Trustworthiness of findings Control of error
Research Methods in Qualitative
Steps in Quantitative and Qualitative Studies (contd…)

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada

 Overview of Data Collection Techniques in
Qualitative Research

Data collection techniques allow us to systematically

collect information about out objects of study (people,
objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which
they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If

data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to
answer our research.
Main Activities in Qualitative Research

Qualitative approaches on:

Literature review

Explicating researcher’s beliefs

Role of participants: subject or informant?

Selection of participants

Setting for data collection

Approach to data analysis

Saturation
 Literature Review

Conducted after the data have been collected

and analyzed

Rationale for delaying the literature review:

To avoid leading the participants in the direction of
what has already been discovered

Purpose of literature review:

To show how current findings fit into what is
already known
 Explicating Researcher’s
Beliefs
Bracketing – setting aside one’s biases and
personal views on a topic

Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts

and feelings about the topic

Purpose: the researcher is made aware when

interpretations of the data reflect personal
beliefs rather than those of the participants
 About Subject or Informant

People being studied are viewed as participant or

informant, not “subject”

Viewed as active participants in the research

They “inform” the researcher about their culture

Researcher seeks to understand the participants’
cultural knowledge

Hence, requires learning about the participants’

culture through on-going discussion and
involvement with them
 Selection of Study
Participants
Method is called “purposive sampling” Participants must
have first-hand experience with the research topic (e.g.,
homelessness, gang involvement, attending medical
school) and be able to talk about it.

Researcher establishes clear criteria and rationale

for sample selection (Sampling Methods).

Goal is not generalization of findings but rich

descriptions of phenomenon by those who have
experienced it.
 Setting for Data Collection

“Informant-driven” rather than “theory-driven”

Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or
experience being studied

Informant teaches the investigator

Data is collected in the “field” – the natural world where
people live and experience life. Investigator should:

be nonintrusive

spend a prolonged time in the field

 Data Analysis(Introduction)

Researcher involves self in data to bring

order and meaning to vast narrative
Come to truly understand what the data
are saying?
Cyclical process – data collection occurs
simultaneously with data analysis
Analysis begins when data collection begins
Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing,
synthesizing, and reporting on data
Sometimes called theoretical sampling
(collect data until saturation is reached)
 Saturation

Refers to a situation in data analysis where

participants’ descriptions become repeated
and then confirm with the previously
collected data.

An indication that data analysis is complete

When data analysis is complete, data
collection is terminated.
 Three Qualitative Methods
TABLE COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE METHODS

METHOD STUDY FOCUS ANALYTIC DISCIPLINES

FOCUS

Ethnography culture/cultural describe a Cultural

group culture/cultural Anthropology
group
Grounded cultural groups Sociology/
generate theory
Theory Symbolic
about a basic
Interaction/
social process Criminology

Phenomenology individual discern the Philosophy/

experience essence of the Psychology/
lived Sociology
Data Collection Methods in Qualitative
Studies

Three data collection strategies introduced:

1. Participant observation

2. In-depth interviews

3. Focus group interviews

Qualitative researchers may combine more than

one method
 Data Collection Methods:
1. Participant Observation
Intensive, usually long term, examination of a social
group, an organization, etc.
Researcher becomes a participant in the lives
of group members
Observes their behaviour and learns meaning
systems (which are tied to language)

Most closely associated with Ethnography,as

developed in Classical Anthropology
Now done in a variety of disciplines
 Steps Involved in
Participant Observation Research

A. Gaining entry into the group

B. Developing and maintaining rapport

C. Developing a method for taking field notes

D. Integrating data collection and data analysis

 Steps in Participant Observation:
(A). Gaining Entry into the Group

Take into consideration the type of group

formal organizations require formal entry; involves
letter writing, permission requests, etc.

Informal groups – different strategy needed

Access may be gained through a gatekeeper (an
individual with special status)

Want to involve key informants (those who are most

knowledgeable about the group)
 Steps in Participant Observation:
(B). Developing/Maintaining Rapport

Researcher must work hard to develop and maintain

good relationships in the field

E.g., be sure not to become associated with one

part in a group or an organization

Researcher could be blamed for problems that arise

in the setting or group.
 Steps in Participant Observation:
C. Strategies for Taking Field Notes

Field notes – integral to participant observation

Include descriptions and interpretations of individuals, interactions,
and events

Distinguish descriptions from interpretations

Record time and location of observations, as well as key information
(weather, events happening and their significance)

Keep theoretical memos – which are the tentative

interpretations emerging and being assessed through further data
collection
 Field Notes (cont’d)

May not be possible or advisable to take notes while

in the field

Important that they be done as soon after field

observation as possible

Note-taking is time-consuming because it is integral to

guiding the data collection and continuing the analysis
 Steps in Participant Observation:
D. Integrating Data Collection and Analysis
Organizing field notes into different types of files
facilitates data analysis

Master field file – complete journal of field notes; number pages and
include entry dates

Background, history file – sub file organizing background material

Key character files– sub fileson key players in the group
or organization

Analytic files– sub filesfor different types of observations

or relationships
 Data Collection Methods:
2. In-depth Interviews

Some studies cannot employ the

participant

observation method.
In-depth interviews allow participants to describe

their experiences and the meaning of events

taking place in their lives.

Interviews are flexible and allow for investigation.

 Data Collection Methods
3. Focus Group Interviews
Interview format, but in a group setting

6-12 participants with common experience

Dates back to the 1940s – used to assess effectiveness of
morale-boosting radio shows

1970s onward – used by market researchers

1980s onward – used by academics

Transcript of discussion is the data

Plus accompanying notes

Use content analysis or grounded theory approach to analyze
the data
 3. Focus Group Interviews (cont’d)

Strengths: Open-ended
question
Spontaneously deal with issues as they
arise
Cost-effective method of collecting data

Less time consuming

Weaknesses:

One or two participants may dominate

Not done in a natural setting, so little
“observation” to help understand the
experience of the participants
 Advantages and Limitations
Focus on the whole of the human experience and the
meanings ascribed to them by participants

They provide the researcher with deep insights

that would not be possible using quantitative
methods

The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of

the data it produces

Participants true reality is likely to be reflected

Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and