Ancient Times

SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION

Location Southernmost tip of Ancient Mesopotamia (now modern Kuwait and Iraq)

Time 4500-1900 BC

Period Neolithic, Bronzee ag

THEIR INVENTIONS

The Great Ziggurat of Ur

• “Mountain of God”

• Another engineering and architectural feat

• Sacred place of their Christ God

• Priests were allowed to enter

• Showcase not only the elaborate and intricate Sumerian architecture but also remarkable
technology used to build it.

• Still existing in Iraq (historical landmark)

Irrigation and Dikes

• Because of population increase = demand for food

• Scarce water supply; flooding

• Solution to that dilemma

• World’s most beneficial engineering

• Enjoy year-long farming and harvesting = increased food production

Cuneiform
 • Major contribution

• First writing

• Pictographs

• Transform human understanding in history

Abandonment

• 100 BCE

• Favor of alphabetic script

Cumus

 Wedge
 Owing to the wedge shaped style of writing
Uruk City (Warka, Iraq)

• 4500 BCE, King Enmerkar

• Important contribution

• First true city in the world

• Origin of writing

• Build using mud or clay

• Maid with reed, produced sun-baked brick

Abandonment

• Buried and abandoned and excavated in 1853 CE by William Loftus for the British Museum

Sailboats

• Because of transportation

• Wheel was not yet invented

• Mode of transportation: Seas and Rivers

Purpose

• Comy large quantities of products

• Increasing demand because of large populations

• Trading, fostering culture, information and technology

Wheel

• Special tool was available; bait

• Because of farm work and food processes

• Not for transportation

Benefit:
 • To mill grains with less effort in time

• Mass production, easier

The Plow

• Food gathers to farm cultivations

• Reason for Inventing: to dig the ground where seeds would be planted

Result:

• Dig the earths in a faster pace

• Drop the seed and done

• Cultivate large parcels

• Faster mass production

Road

Reason for Inventing:

• soft muddy roads

• Faster and easier travel

• Developed the first road

• Flow of traffic faster and organized

• Made of sun-baked brick

• Poured bitumen, a black sticky substance (asphalt) to smoothen the roads

BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION

• Location: Babylon (located in Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers)
• Time: 5000-3500 BCE
• Famous city under the Mesopotamia Region
THEIR INVENTIONS

Hanging gardens of babylon

Reason why they invented it:
 The great Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built the gardens for his wife, Queen Amytis.
Famous for mathematical and astronomy inventions and researches
The Tower of Babel

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

Location: North Africa

time: 3100 BC

Time: Predynastic period 5000-3100 BC

THEIR INVENTIONS
Paper or Papyrus

• A plant that grew abundantly along Nile River in Egypt.

 • Reason for Inventing: Before the Egyptian innovation, clay tablets were used; fragile, heavy
and delicate.

Major Problem:

• safe-keeping

• transportation

Ink

• Invented by Combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks of different colors.

Characteristics:

• must withstand the elements of nature

• tamper proof

• Reason for Inventing: to use for writing papyrus

• Usage: record history, culture and codified laws

Heiroglyphics

• Created by mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena

Reason for Inventing:

• For both health and aesthetic reasons

• They believe that wearing it was protecting them from evil and the beauty was the sign of
holiness

Wig

• Reason for Inventing

• Worn for wealth and wellness

• Used to protect the shaved heads of the wealthy Egyptians from harmful rays of the sun

Water/ Clepsydra

• Utilizes gravity that affects he flow of water from one vessel to the other

• Reason for Inventing: time keeping device

• Characteristics: amount of water (or its height depending on the method used) remaining in
the device determines how much time has elapsed since it is full.

GREEK CIVILIZATION

Location: Land of Greece and the Island of the Aegean Sea plus west coast of Asian Minor (modern
Turkey)

Time: Emerge in the 18th century until 146 BC

Period: beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era

THEIR INVENTIONS
 Alarm Clock

• One of the most utilized gadgets today that was invented by the ancient Greeks
• To catch attention
• Signal

Water Mill

• Considered as one of the most important contributions of the Greek civilizations to the world.

ROMAN CIVILIZATION

Location: city of Rome, which was located in central Italy

Time: 30 BCE to 476 CE

THEIR INVENTIONS

News Paper (Acta Diurna)

• Location: Roman Empire (753 BC to 27 BC)

• Time: 131 B.C.

• Background

• -Most powerful empire in the Ancient history when it comes to economic, cultural, political
and military forces.

• Reason why they invented it:

• To inform about the political and social happenings in Ancient Rome

• Easy access to government information in the same way we benefit from present-day
newspaper.

Bound Books or Codex

• Location: Roman Empire (753 BC to 27 BC)

• Time: 131 B.C.

• Most powerful empire in the Ancient history when it comes to economic, cultural, political
and military forces.

• Reason why they invented it: For record-keeping to write down historical events that has
happened in their time.

Roman Architecture

• Continuation of Greek architecture

• Sturdier and stronger infrastructures

Roman Numerals

• Continuation of Greek architecture

• Sturdier and stronger infrastructures

 CHINESE CIVILIZATION

Location: China

Time: 2000 BCE

THEIR INVENTIONS

Silk

• Location: Far East China

• Time: 2696 BC

• Reason for Inventing: The idea for silk first come to Leizu while she was having tea in the
imperial gardens. A cocoon fell into her tea and unraveled. She noticed that the cocoon was
actually made from a long thread that was both strong and soft.

Tea Production

• Time: 141 BCE

• Reason for Inventing: It was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a
machine that was able to shred tea leaves into strips.

Great Wall of China

• Location: 13, 171 miles (21, 196 km) Jiayuguan Pass (in the west) to Hushan Mountains in
Liaoning Province (in the east), ending at the Bohai Gulf.

• Time: Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) first construction up to (1644-1912 CE)

• Reason for Inventing: It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and controlled the
borders of China.

Gunpowder

• Time: Tang Dynasty (850 AD)

• Reason for Inventing: It was developed by a Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve
immortality.

Middle Ages

Medieval times’ Civilization

Location England: Unified Nations states, Europe: Roman Civilization

Time: 500 AD-1500 AD

Period: Middle or Dark ages

Timeline
Inventions:

Weapons Catapult, crossbow, plate armor, armor for horse, chainmail, lance, metal weapons

Gutenberg's printing press spread literature to the masses for the first time in an efficient, durable way,
shoving Europe headlong into the original information age – the Renaissance. Gutenberg often gets credit
as the father of printing. Gutenberg's invention was profoundly important. It launched a revolution
in printing. It allowed manuscripts and books to be mass-produced cheaply. It eventually helped increase
literacy throughout Europe because more people had access to literature.

Microscope and Telescope: Great Help in Addressing Health Issues and in Exploration. Zacharias
Janssen He was born in 1585 at The Hugh, Netherlands. The known inventor of Telescope and
Microscope as one of the great inventions during the Middle Age. He died in 1638. Adding one more lens
to the telescope to come up with a microscope, the key in new means of preventing and curing various
illnesses.
 Other Important Nautical Inventions: Compass, Rudder, & Oars

 Compasses were first described in medieval Europe by the English theologian Alexander

Neckam (1157–1217 AD).
 A galley is a type of ship that is propelled by rowing through the use of oars, seen on both
sides of the ship.
 A rudder is a device used to steer a ship or other watercraft. It is a flat sheet of material
attached with hinges to the ship’s stern. A tiller - basically, a stick or pole that is attached to
the top to allow it to allow it to be turned in different directions.
Modern Time

Timeline

INVENTIONS DURING THE MODERN TIMES

Electric Dynamo

 The word "dynamo" was coined in 1831 by Michael Faraday

 utilized his invention toward making discoveries in electricity
 Discovered electrical induction and magnetism.
 Discovery of the dynamo principle made industrial scale electric power generation technically and
economically feasible.
Babbage’s Computing Machine

 English mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage is credited with having conceived the first
automatic digital computer.
 Mid1830s Babbage developed plans for the Analytical Engine.
 Although it was never completed, the Analytical Engine would have had most of the basic elements of the
Charles Babbage present-day computer.
Vaccination

 Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist, and chemist

 discovered of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization.
 remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases
Petroleum Refinery

 Samuel Kier
  Petroleum refineries are marvels of modern engineering.
 pipes, distillation columns, and chemical reactors turn crude oil into liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline or
petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils.
 These refineries turn out the gasoline and chemical feedstocks that keep the country running.
Telephone

 Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor, scientist, and engineer

 invented and patented the first practical telephone.
 co-founded the American Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1885.
Plastic

 1869 Developed by John Wesley Hyatt. Hyatt was an American printer and inventor.
 cheap substitute to ivory billiard balls.
 combined cellulose nitrate and camphor = moldable versatile material – celluloid.
 Plastic is ubiquitous in packaging, homes and even clothes.
 Its causing the world to be more concerned about the effects of plastic pollution because it doesn’t
biodegrade.
Phonograph

 1877 Thomas Edison found that sound could be captured and replayed using a rotating cylinder covered
with paraffin paper and a stylus.
 December 1888, Edison applied for a patent and over the next few years helped to develop the modern
gramophone based on the wax-cylinder model.
Lightbulb

 1879 Throughout the nineteenth century, inventors produced simple electric lights.
 Joseph Swan produced a simple electric light, but, he struggled to maintain a power source and the
filament soon burned out when the vacuum was exhausted.
 Thomas Edison made the lightbulb into a practical low current version. He used a filament based on a
burned sewing thread.
Bicycle 1885

 Velocipedes were invented early in the 19th century.

 The most popular at the time was the Penny Farthing, with its huge big wheel.
 introduction of a chain to link pedals to back wheel enabled a higher speed without relying on huge
wheel.
 The key model in the chain bike was the Rover
 Safety bike developed by John Kemp Starley.
Aluminum 1886

 Until the 1890s, Aluminum was considered a precious metal because it was so hard to isolate.
 Ohio chemist, Charles Martin Hall discovered how to isolate Aluminum, through electrolysis.
 It enabled high quantities of aluminum to be produced. Its price fell from $18 a pound to 18 cents.
 Aluminum has become one of the most popular and versatile metals in industry.
Motor Car 1898

 German engineer Karl Benz produced the first modern automobile using a patented internal
combustion engine.
 The car used electrical ignition, a watercooled internal combustion engine and different gears.
Pneumatic Tyre
  1888 Invented by John Boyd Dunlop
 developed to make tricycle riding more comfortable.
 His first attempt involved using an old garden hose fitted with air.
 He later developed this idea using a rubber pneumatic tyre and filed for a patent in 1888.
 It was later used on both bikes and motor cars.
Camera

 1888 – Louis Daguerre made a camera which took imprints to be developed by chemicals.
 In 1888, George Eastman developed the first small Kodak box camera = photography accessible to
the public.
Transatlantic Telegram

 1901 G. Marconi, developed the first long distance wireless communication.

 On 12 December 1901, the first telegram was sent across the Atlantic in Morse code.
 developed into the ‘wireless’ or the radio.
 The telegram was very much the internet of its day.
 It revolutionized communication bringing the world much closer.
X-Ray Machines (1914)

 first discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895.

 Marie Curie developed this discovery and through her work by 1914 and been able to successfully
create an X-ray machine used to take images of the human skeleton.
Aeroplane 1903

 Wright Brothers piloted the first successful heavier than air aeroplane on Dec 17th, 1903.
 aeroplanes were successfully navigating long distances and soon began to transform both wartime
and global travel.
Vacuum

 1908 James Murray Spangler invented the electric vacuum cleaner.

 The first model used a broomstick, pillow and a box containing electric motor and fan. He applied for
a patent in 1908. William Hoover helped finance its development for the mass market.
Radar 1924

 Edward Appleton developed a way of detecting aircraft using sonic radar.

 useful in the second World War for the British who pioneered the use of radar and was a key factor in
the Battle of Britain where radar was able to give warnings of approaching German planes.
Automatic washing machine (1950s).

 The automatic washing machines saved housewives countless hours of unpaid labour and freed many
women to consider other activities, such as work.
 Early washing machines were developed in the late nineteenth century.
 But, post-war the electric automated washing machine made a huge difference.
Artificial intelligence (AI) 1955

 Artificial intelligence or machine learning is defined as the situation where machines can learn by
themselves and improve their method of working overtime.
 In 1955, Newell and Simon pioneered AI by creating a programme which sought to solve a problem
by choosing the branch which was most likely to solve it.
 Over time AI has evolved, especially with the use of mass data and improved computer processing.
 AI is being used in fields from medicine to selfdriving cars.
 Email 1972

 first true email system was MIT’s CTSS MAIL, in 1965.

 Email networks included the first ARPANET email sent in 1972 developed by Ray Tomlinson.
Internet – 1973

 In 1973, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn developed Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP)
 an important landmark in creating a global network of interconnected computers able to share
information.
The Mobile Phone 1980s

 enabled people to take calls on the move, rather than be tied to a landline.
 Mobile phones also enabled text messages to be sent.

GPS – Global Positioning System (1973)

developed by the US military in 1973,

enables a user to know the precise location of an object or person.
In the 1980s, use was opened to civilians and has led to effective sat-nav systems and combined with
the internet has led to very precise Apps, like Google Maps.
World Wide Web 1990

 Tim Berners Lee wrote software for the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1990.
 provide a permanent store for information on webpages which were easily accessible.
The personal computer 1980s

 In the 1980s, the microchip enabled households to have their own personal computer.
 This enabled people to print letters, use for relaxation and multiple other uses, such as working from
home.
The Smartphone (2007)

 The Smartphone combined many technologies in one.

 The modern smartphone has enabled calls, texts, internet access, camera and a variety of apps.
 Steve Jobs played a key role in developing the first smartphones.

Intellectual revolution

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS

What was the paradigm shift instilled/given/developed by the scientist?

“Copernican Revolution.”
One of the most important contributions of Copernicus was to the field of astronomy.
Galileo used more advanced technology to find stronger observational evidence than
Copernicus was ever able to provide.
 invented a model of the universe with the Sun instead of the Earth (Geocentric theory) at the
center of the universe.
Historical background: Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

 Renaissance polymath/ mathematician and astronomer

 One of the great astronomers of the 16th century.
 Born in Feb 19, 1473
 1491 university of Cracow.
  1496 University of Bologna to study law. By then, Copernicus had become interested in
astronomy.
 left Bologna in 1501, studied medicine at the University of Padua
 His first theory was the theory of heliocentric system; but many questioned this theory.
 Second, published the theory which was the revolutions of heavenly bodiesdedicated to Pope
Paul III.
 After his death, he became known throughout Europe for his theory of Heliocentric Systems.
 17th century the Copernican Heliocentric Theory was accepted by all people.
The Antagonists

 THE CHURCH (Catholic/ Christian Faith)

 MARTIN LUTHER (Religious Leader)

CHARLES DARWIN

What was the paradigm shift developed by the scientist?

 ORIGIN OF SPECIES: creation vs. evolution

 Charles Darwins’s “On The Origin of Species” in 1859
 created a paradigm shift from creation to evolution.
 introduced the Theory of Evolution, which posited that populations pass
 a process of natural selection in which only the fittest would survive.
 organisms have ability to adapt to their environment and gradually change into something
more competitive to survive (process of evolution).
What was the knowledge of the time replaced by the paradigm shift?

 Showed that humans are part of nature, not above it, and that all animal life, including
human, is related by descent from a common ancestor.
 His mechanism of evolution via natural selection provided an explanation for the diversity of
life.
 This dramatic change in world view from super naturalism to methodological naturalism has
allowed staggering scientific advances in the past 150 years that transcend science and made
impact on the human psyche.
The protagonist to the scientist

 Thomas Malthus- Studied numbers and patterns. He said, “the size of the human population
is directly limited by resources such as food”. He also said, “population sizes would increase
exponentially if all individuals born and lived to be able to reproduce”.
 Alfred Russell Wallace - He wrote a letter to Darwin and in it, he proposed the exact same
idea of natural selection. Wallace had independently come to the same theory from his
observations of nature.
 Charles Lyell - Darwin took Lyell’s book, “Principles of Geology” with him on the beagle. It
helped Darwin because he studied fossils and found that some were like living species while
some were very different. He learned that even though some countries had the same
geography they had different animals there. and realized that earth changes slowly overtime.
The antagonist to the scientist

 Darwin’s theory became very controversial as people perceived it to be contradictory to the

church’s teachings that the source of life is the powerful creator.
 Because of the conflict, the people were divided – some believed that the theory explained
the origin of life but the religious and the faithful strongly refuted it.
SIGMUND FREUD

 The basic premise of the psychoanalytic approach is that human personality expressed in the present
is the result of unconscious motives formed by childhood experiences.

Two basic factors which drive an individual and help in shaping his or her personality:
 Love (Eros) – intimate and passionate love between two partners
 Aggression (Thanatos) – symbolizes death
Three Components of personality

 Id - irrational needs and demands, something which has nothing to do with the reality of the
situation.
 Ego - develops when individuals start interacting with people around. Ego helps in the fulfillment
of id, taking into consideration the reality of the situation.
 Superego - includes the moral constraints imposed on an individual by his parents or family.
The psychosexual stages of development

ERIK ERIKSON (1902-1994)

 He is a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on

psychological development of human beings.
 Erikson contended that cognitive development was independent of gratification needs.
 Freud’s developmental stages are based on sexuality: Erikson’s are based on a series of social
conflicts one must master.
The psychosocial stages development
 Contributors to the innovation

 Alfred Adler (1870 – 1937) He was a physician, psychotherapist, and the founder of
Adlerian psychology, sometimes called individual psychology. In 1907 Adler was invited to
meet with Sigmund Freud. Adler and Freud, along with Rudolf Reitler and Wilhelm Stekel,
began meeting weekly during “Wednesday Night Meetings” that eventually grew to begin the
psychoanalytic movement. Together, they formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, of
which Adler was the first president.
 Carl gustav Jung (1875 – 1961) He was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who
founded analytical psychology. Freud’s work was continued, although in altered form, by his
student Carl Jung, whose brand of psychology is known as analytical psychology. Jung’s
work formed the basis for most modern psychological theories and concepts.
Neo-Freudians

 Erich fromm (1900 – 1980) German-born American psychoanalyst and social philosopher
who explored the interaction between psychology and society. By applying psychoanalytic
principles to the remedy of cultural ills, Fromm believed, mankind could develop a
psychologically balanced “sane society.”
 Karen horney (1885 – 1952) German-born American psychoanalyst who, departing from
some of the basic principles of Sigmund Freud, suggested an environmental and social basis
for the personality and its disorders.
 Harry stack sullivan (1892 – 1949) American psychiatrist who developed a theory of
psychiatry based on interpersonal relationships. He believed that anxiety and other
psychiatric symptoms arise in fundamental conflicts between individuals and their human
environments and that personality development also takes place by a series of interactions
with other people.

Philippine Inventions: Filipino Inventors and Inventions that addressed to solve the country’s problems.

Salamander Amphibious Tricycle

 Filipino-made amphibious tricycle / floating trike

 answer to the needs of Filipino living in perennially flooded areas & as low-lying communities near
water.
 called the “Salamander” was launched by H2O Technologies
  launched at Capitol Commons Center in Pasig City.
 H2O technologies: Filipino custom car master, Atoy Llave of A-Toy Body Kits and well-known boat
maker Dominic Chung.
SALt lamp

 “To light up the rest of the Philippines sustainably”

 Filipina scientist Aisa Mijeno
 SALt: Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp.
 environment-friendly light source that runs on saltwater, suitable for those who live in coastal areas.
 function well in remote barrios: two table spoons of salt and one glass of tap water, this ecologically
designed lamp can run for eight hours.
 “It is made of tediously experimented and improved chemical compounds, catalysts, and metal alloys
that when submerged in electrolytes will generate electricity,”
 received various awards and recognition from organizations in the Philippines, Singapore, Japan, and
South Korea.
 It has also won in several competitions here and abroad.
Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System

 The stick, moistened by the solution through capillary action, is highly attractive for mosquitoes to
lay eggs on.
 Ovicidal and larvicidal effect prevent the next generation of mosquitoes from reaching adulthood,
thus curbing the Aedes mosquito’s population.
 This species is responsible for Dengue in the country that caused deaths across ages prior to the
invention of this trap system by scientists in the DoST.
E-Jeepney

 To address problems related to air pollution, traffic congestion, dependence on fuel imports, and
carbon emissions.
 provides a sustainable, clean form of public transportation
Medical Incubators

 Dr. Fe Del Mundo made major breakthroughs in immunization & treatment of jaundice, and
providing healthcare to thousands of poor families.
 She is credited with studies that led to the invention of the incubator and a jaundice relieving device.
 makeshift incubator was composed of two native laundry baskets made of bamboo.
 known to be “A woman of many first”.

Martin Heidegger’s ‘The Question Concerning Technology’The Essence of Technology

• Technology can be viewed as a means to an end (instrumental).

• Or it can be viewed as human activity (anthropological).

• Both are correct, but neither touches the essence of technology.

• What is the essence of technology?

• We are blinded to it when we think of it as something neutral.

Causality

• Technology brings about change causally.

 • The cause is what is responsible for the effect, and the effect is indebted to the cause.

• According to Aristotle, there are four ways in which this relation holds.

• The unifying notion is that of starting something on its way to arrival.

• Being responsible is an inducing to go forward.

A. CAUSA MATERIALIS

B. CAUSA FORMALIS

C. CAUSA EFFICIENS

D. CAUSA FINALIS

Bringing Forth

• The bringing forth – poeisis – which underlies causality is a bringing out of concealment.

• This revealing is what the Greeks call truth –aletheia.

• Technology brings forth as well, and it is a revealing.

• This is seen in the way the Greeks understood techne, which encompasses not only craft, but other acts
of the mind, and poetry.

Modern Technology

• Both primitive crafts and modern technology are revealing.

• But the revealing of modern technology is not a bringing-forth, but a challenging-forth.

• It challenges nature, by extracting something from it and transforming it, storing it up, distributing it,
etc.The essence of modern technology

• Not a bringing forth (in the sense of poiesis)

• Too impatient/violent/urgent we might note here that this violence applies as much to the information-
age as to the machine-age

• Instead it is what Heidegger calls a challenging forth into revealing.

Standing-Reserve

• Modern technology takes all of nature to stand in reserve for its exploitation.

• Man is challenged to do this, and as such he becomes part of the standing reserve.

• Man becomes the instrument of technology, to be exploited in the ordering of nature.

Enframing

• It is not man that orders nature through technology, but a more basic process of revealing.

• The challenge of this revealing is called “enframing”.

• In enframing, the actual is revealed as a standing reserve.

• This is “historically” prior to the development of science.

• Enframing is the essence of technology.

 This enframing that challenges forth and sets upon nature in a way of looking at reality. This is like
putting nature in a box or in a frame so that it can be better understood and controlled according
topeople’s desires. Poeisis is concealed in enframing as nature is viewed as an orderable and calculable
systems of information.

Art As A Way Out Of Enframing

Enframing, as the mode of revealing in modern technology, tends to block Poeisis. The poetry that is
found in nature can no longer be easily appreciated when nature is enframed. In modern technology, the
way of revealing is no longer poetic; it is challenging. Heidegger proposes art as a way out of this
enframing. With art, we are better able to see the poetic in nature in reality. It leads us away from
calculative thinking and towards meditative thinking. Through meditative thinking, we will recognize that
nature is art par excellence.

Hence, nature is the most poetic. The Poeisis of the fine arts was also called Techne.

Destining

• Men are sent upon the way of revealing the actual as a standing-reserve.

• So enframing, and hence technology, is a “destining”.

• The destining of man to reveal nature carries with it the danger of misconstrual.

The Danger

• Man is in danger of becoming merely part of the standing-reserve.

• Alternatively, he may find only himself in nature.

• Most importantly, he may think that the ordering of the world through technology is the fundamental
mode of revealing.

• So the real threat of technology comes from its essence, not its activities or products.

The human person being swallowed by technology

The Saving Power

• The poet Hölderlin writes that the saving power grows where danger is.

• The saving would allow a bringing-forth that is not a challenging-forth (things would reveal themselves
not just as standingreserve).

• Both technology and bringing-forth grow out of “granting,” which allows revealing.Art as Saving Power

• Poetry and other arts have the power to reveal, in the sense of “bringing-forth”.

• Poetry is included in the Aristotelian techne, and is akin to modern technology.

• But it is also fundamentally different from technology.

• It may be the best means for getting at the essence of technology itself. Because the essence of
technology is nothing technological, essential reflection upon technology and decisive confrontation with
it must happen in a realm that is, on the one hand, akin to the essence of technology and, on the other,
fundamentally different from it.

Such a realm is art. But only if reflection upon art, for its part, does not shut its eyes to the constellation of
truth, concerning which we are questioning… For questioning is the piety
 of thought.

Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics

Aristotle (384-322)
 Originally from Macedon
 Arrived Athens in 367, Student of Plato
 Left Athens in 347, taught Alexander
 Returned to Athens 334, founded Lyceum
 Left Athens in 323, after death of Alexander
 Works on topics: biology, physics, logic, music and art, politics, ethics, etc.
 Wrote dialogues, but only lecture notes survive
 Considered “The Philosopher” in Middle Ages
Nichomachean Ethics
 A treatise on the nature of moral life and human happiness, based on the unique essence of human
nature
 Named after one of Aristotle’s sons who is thought to have edited it from lecture notes.
Outline
 The Greatest Good: Eudaimonia
 Eudaimonia and the Human Soul
 The Virtues
 “The Golden Mean”
The Greatest Good: Eudaimonia
Every action aims at some good
Some actions aim at an instrumental good
Some actions aim at an ultimate good
Ultimate goods are better than instrumental goods
Instrumental goods (ends) are aimed at only insofar as they are for the sake of something else
Ultimate goods (ends) are aimed at for their own sakes.
Ultimate Good?

Candidates
1. Pleasure
2. Wealth
3. Fame & Honor
4. Happiness

Critiques
 Transient, not complete
 Only instrumental, not self-sufficient
 Depends on others, not self-sufficient
 Complete and self-sufficient
Happiness?
 Eudaimonia
1. Well-being or doing well
2. “activity of the soul in accordance with virtue or excellence” (EN I.7)
 More complete than merely feeling good or joyful
 Feeling well in all aspects of life
Eudaimonia and the Human Soul
  Human happiness must be uniquely human, or a distinct human function.
 Consider the structure of the psyche:
1. nutritive, sensitive, and rational parts
2. Which is uniquely human?
 Only the rational element is distinctive of humans.
 So, human happiness consists of a rationally directed life…a whole life…
Aristotle’s Tripartite Soul

The Virtues
 A virtue (areté) is what makes one function well; usually understood as a disposition or state of a person.
 Conditions for virtue: fortune and success
 Basic necessities, good birth, friends, wealth, good looks, health, etc.
Types of virtue
 Virtues of thought: wisdom, comprehension, etc.
 Achieved through education and time
 Virtues of character: generosity, temperance, courage, etc.
 Achieved by habitual practice
 Both should be in accord with reason and are needed for Eudaimonia.
“The Golden Mean”
 Virtue is ruined by excess and deficiency (in feelings and action)
 Consider health
 So, is learned by the mean of excess and deficiency
 A balance or intermediate between extremes
 But a “relative” mean*
 Not a geometric or arithmetic average…
 A mean relative to the person, the circumstances, as well as the right emotional component (EN II.3 and
II.6)
Courage

 The right action and emotional response in the face of danger

 Fool-heartiness or rashness is an excess of the emotional and/or proper action; (doesn’t properly
appreciate the danger, not fearful)
  Cowardice is the deficiency of proper emotion (motive) and action; (the danger is over-appreciated,
too fearful)

Some Virtues & Means

Basic Model