INTERN

Introduction: ET &
The Internet is a vast, electronic network connecting many millions of computers from every corner of the

WEB
world. The Internet is a publicly-accessible network that "consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic,
business, and government networks" (Wikipedia: Internet, July 2007).

A computer connected to the Internet is commonly referred to as a host. Connections are made using telephone
TECHNO
lines, cable data lines, fibre-optic, or even wireless signals. This connected-ness allows computers to send and
receive information in the form of digitized data on demand. The data is passed back and forth between host
computers using packets and protocols, such as electronic mail (e-mail) for messaging, file transfer protocol
LOGY
(FTP) for moving files, telnet for accessing information, hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) for serving up Web
sites, custom protocols, etc. Other common services of the Internet include the World Wide Web (WWW),
Voice Over IP (VoIP), Instant Messaging (IM), streaming media, etc.

The Internet itself is decentralized---no one entity is completely responsible or has total control; however, your
connection to the Internet is probably controlled by an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

When your computer is connected to the Internet you are online. Nowadays one typically has to plug-in to a
network outlet, or select an active wireless signal, or dial into a service provider using a modem to get online.
Sometimes one must authenticate one's computer with the controlling ISP in order to gain connectivity.

The uses of Internet:

Research and homework

The internet is a fantastic place to research information for a project or piece of homework. It doesn't matter
what topic you have been set, you can guarantee that you will find something on the subject. The Internet is a
virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic under the sun is available on the
Internet. The ‘search engines’ on the Internet can help you to find data on any subject that you need. 
There is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about every subject known to man,
ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market information, new ideas and
technical support.  

Communication

The internet opens up many different possible ways to communicate with others. Here are some:

 Email

E-mail is an online correspondence system. With e-mail you can send and receive instant electronic messages,
which works like writing letters. Your messages are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the world, unlike
traditional mail that takes a lot of time. Email is now an essential communication tools in business. It is also
excellent for keeping in touch with family and friends. The advantages to email is that it is free ( no charge per
use) when compared to telephone, fax and postal services. 

 Blogs
Blog is one of those internet arrivals that have gained immense popularity and are still very commonly used
over the internet. A blog is known to be a type of website which contains entries written chronologically and
displayed in the reverse chronological order.

Blog is also said to be the act of maintaining or adding the content on the website.

Blogs, basically are focused on one particular type of topic, mostly which is on the news, commentary or even
updates. It can include the subjects like food, politics, fashion etc. It can also be more personal and can be used
to write online diaries and experiences on a more personal level.

A typical blog contains all the text, and information including the images, and links to other blogs and websites
for a particular topic. The distinguishing feature of the Blogs is that the format is quite interactive and
approachable to the reader, mostly because the style has to be casual and personal. Blogs are mostly all of them
based on texts but sometimes to support the matter the images, music and even videos are included.

There are many different types of blogging. Micro-blogging is one such type which is associated with only the
very short posts in the blog. The blogs containing the media type materials are known are categorized
differently, the one with videos are called the vlog, those which consist of the links are the linklog and in the
same way the ones containing the photos are known as the photolog.

 Social networking sites e.g. Facebook, Myspace

A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among people who, share
interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections. A social network service consists of a representation
of each user (often a profile), his social links, and a variety of additional services. Social networking is web-
based services that allow individuals to create a public profile, to create a list of users with whom to share
connection, and view and cross the connections within the system. Now a days the popular social sites are the
Facebook, twitter, Myspace, Google+ and so on.

 Chartrooms

There are many ‘chat rooms’ on the web that can be accessed to meet new people, make new friends, as well as
to stay in touch with old friends.

 Forums

An Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the
form of posted messages. They differ from chat rooms in that messages are often longer than one line of text,
and are at least temporarily archived. Also, depending on the access level of a user or the forum set-up, a posted
message might need to be approved by a moderator before it becomes visible.

 VoIP - internet telephone

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a methodology and group of technologies for the delivery of voice
communications and multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet. Other terms
commonly associated with VoIP are IP telephony, Internet telephony, voice over
broadband (VoBB), broadband telephony, IP communications, and broadband phone service. 

Shopping

Whatever you want to buy, you can pretty much guarantee that you can find it for sale somewhere on the
internet.

Leisure and Entertainment

There are many different ways that you can choose to spend your time online and amuse yourself. Here are a
few:

 Playing online games

 Listening to music (mp3 download or live streaming)
 Reading online books and e-books
 Watching online videos e.g. YouTube
 Looking for holidays or concert tickets
 Reading about your hobbies
 Keeping up-to-date with the news and sporting events
 Watching 'catch up' television from the main channels

Exploring the world

The internet has many services that help you explore the world.

 Satellite and mapping applications e.g. Google Earth

 Travel sites providing details of other places
 Live web cams showing other parts of the world
 Almanacs and encyclopaedia’s

There are always new things turning up on the internet as entrepreneurs think of the next great service that
everyone wants.

 Why Internet?

The Internet has served as the universal language of the virtual world since the beginning of the digital
era. The Internet can be described as a global system of computer networks that use the standardised
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and are usually interconnected. The creation of the
Internet started during the time-sharing of several well-known computers in the middle of the 19th
century. As the technology for Internet progressed and its presence widened, it eventually became
popular due to a number of almost endless capabilities it can offer, including electronic mail systems,
information distribution, file sharing, multimedia streaming service and online social networking. The
Internet has significantly served billions of people around the world.

The advantages of the Internet definitely outweigh its disadvantages. Some of the great benefits of the
Internet over other communication networks are its global presence, easy accessibility and wide-scale
communication. Since the presence of the Internet can be found almost everywhere across the world,
you will not have any problem accessing it. Apart from the presence and accessibility issues, the
Internet greatly offers rapid communication on a global scale. It even delivers an integrated multimedia
entertainment that any other mass medium cannot offer.

Since the Internet has become a part of the popular culture and our lives, it has been widely considered
as a necessity especially in this millennial age. The boundless communication it provides makes the
Internet an important medium of communication. Whether you like it or not, the Internet will always be
here to stay.

 Basic Internet Tools:

 This is a list of some basic Internet tools that can help teach university courses.

 Telnet:

In a sense, Telnet is the converse of FTP. With FTP you are using a dumb server3the server is only
providing files and all the computing is done on the client machine. With Telnet, the client machine is
nothing more than a dumb terminal. You connect to the server machine running Telnet server software
and all the computing is done on the server machine. The Telnet URL has the form
telnet://name_of_server

In order to use the Telnet protocol you need Telnet client software. You cannot Telnet using a browser
without this additional client software. When you Telnet to a server machine, you are given a command
line (not GUI) interface to the server machine. This is akin to being at the 2 o'clock position in Figure 2–
1, the old time-sharing mode of the late 1960s and early 1970s. Telnet is still widely used, especially in
Unix environments. It is a great way to access the CPU of another machine and test software. Telnet is
often used by systems administrators to connect remotely to computers they are managing.

 E-Mail

Electronic mail, better known as email, is perhaps the most popular Internet protocol. As with all
Internet software tools, you need client software and server software to use email. Indeed, when
configuring your client email software to use programs like Eudora or Microsoft Outlook, you have to
provide the name of the server where you send and receive mail. You can also send email using your
browser and the mailto protocol. There is a mail URL for the browser that has the format
mailto:[email protected]

where mailto is the service required, madhusudan is the name of the person (or whatever name the
person chooses to go by) to whom you're sending email, and company.com is the mail address. The
mailto tool is similar to Telnet and news, in that you can execute the URL in a browser, but additional
client software is needed in order to actually use the tool.

 FTP

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer computer files from
one host to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet.

FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data connections between the
client and the server. FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol,
normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server is
configured to allow it. For secure transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts
the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is
sometimes also used instead, but is technologically different.

The first FTP client applications were command-line applications developed before operating systems
had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most Windows, Unix, and Linux operating
systems. Many FTP clients and automation utilities have since been developed for desktops, servers,
mobile devices, and hardware, and FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications, such as
Web page editors.
 Usenet News

Usenet is a worldwide discussion system distributed mainly (but not exclusively) over the Internet (its
formation actually predates the Internet). It consists of thousands of publicly accessible so-called
newsgroups each of which deals with a specific topic. Everyone can post messages (or news articles, as
they are called) to any of these groups and read what others have posted. Everyone even can - observing
certain rules - create a new newsgroup dealing with a new topic.
 Newsgroups are hierarchically structured. There are general top-level hierarchies such as comp (for
computing), soc (for social) etc. There is a special top-level hierarchy alt (alternative) that is less
regulated than the others with respect to creating new newsgroups.

Hierarchy levels are separated by dots. For instance, comp.sys.next.software is a newsgroup that deals
with software for the NeXT computer system.
To make sure that only on-topic messages are posted, some newsgroups (by reader decision) are
moderated. Messages posted to moderated groups are not directly distributed but automatically emailed
to the moderator of the group, who decides if the message will appear in the newsgroup.

If you are new to Usenet, you should read the group news.announce.newusers which contains regular
postings with information for new users. Especially important are postings such as A Primer on How to
Work With the Usenet Community and Emily Post news Answers Your Questions on Netiquette that
deal with the so-called Netiquette, i.e. common rules about how to communicate with others via Usenet.

 Web Browser

A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for retrieving, presenting
and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by
a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI/URL) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of
content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related
resources.

Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access
information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems.

The major web browsers are Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, and Safari.
 Search Engines

A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide
Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine
results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of web pages, images, and other types of files.
Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories,
which are maintained only by human editors, search engines also maintain real-time information by
running an algorithm on a web crawler.

 Google
Google Search (or Google Web Search) is a web search engine owned by Google Inc. Google Search is
the most-used search engine on the World Wide Web, handling more than three billion searches each
day.
The order of search on Google's search-results pages is based, in part, on a priority rank called a
"PageRank". Google Search provides many different options for customized search, using Boolean
operators such as: exclusion ("-xx"), alternatives ("xx OR yy"), and wildcards ("x * x").

The main purpose of Google Search is to hunt for text in publicly accessible documents offered by web
servers, as opposed to other data, such as with Google Image Search. Google Search was originally
developed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 1997. Google Search provides at least 22 special features
beyond the original word-search capability. These include synonyms, weather forecasts, time zones,
stock quotes, maps, earthquake data, movie show times, airports, home listings, and sports scores. There
are special features for dates, including ranges, prices, temperatures, money/unit conversions,
calculations, and package tracking, patents, area codes, and language translation of displayed pages. In
June 2011, Google introduced "Google Voice Search" and "Search by Image" features for allowing the
users to search words by speaking and by giving images. In May 2012, Google introduced a new
Knowledge Graph semantic search feature to customers in the U.S.

 Yahoo
 Yahoo! Inc. is an American multinational Internet corporation headquartered in Sunnyvale, California.
It is globally known for its Web portal, search engine Yahoo Search, and related services, including
Yahoo Directory, Yahoo Mail, Yahoo News, Yahoo Finance, Yahoo Groups, Yahoo Answers,
advertising, online mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports and its social media website. It is one of the
most popular sites in the United States. Yahoo provides Internet communication services such as Yahoo
Messenger and Yahoo Mail. As of May 2007, its e-mail service would offer unlimited storage.

Yahoo provided social networking services and user-generated content, including products such as My
Web, Yahoo Personals, Yahoo 360°, Delicious, Flickr, and Yahoo Buzz. Yahoo closed Yahoo Buzz,
MyBlogLog, and numerous other products on April 21, 2011.

Yahoo Photos was closed on September 20, 2007, in favour of Flickr. On October 16, 2007, Yahoo
announced that it would discontinue Yahoo 360°, including bug repairs; the company explained that in
2008 it would instead establish a "universal profile" similar to the Yahoo Mash experimental system.

 Archie
"Archie" is a tool for indexing FTP archives, allowing people to find specific files. It is considered to be
the first Internet search engine. The original implementation was written in 1990 by Alan Emtage and L.
Peter Deutsch, then postgraduate students at McGill University in Montreal and Bill Heelan, who
studied at Concordia University in Montreal and worked at McGill University at the same time.

 Infoseak
Infoseek was a popular search engine founded in 1994 by Steve Kirsch. Infoseek was originally
operated by the Infoseek Corporation, headquartered in Sunnyvale, California.[1] Infoseek was bought
by The Walt Disney Company in 1998, and the technology was merged with that of the Disney-acquired
Starwave to form the Go.com network. Since then it has been replaced with Yahoo! search and is no
longer in use.

 Veronica

Veronica was a search engine system for the Gopher protocol, developed in 1992 by Steven Foster and
Fred Barrie at the University of Nevada, Reno.
During its existence, Veronica was a constantly updated database of the names of almost every menu
item on thousands of Gopher servers. The Veronica database could be searched from most major
Gopher menus. Although the original Veronica database is no longer accessible, various local Veronica
installations and at least one complete rewrite ("Veronica-2") still exist.
The name, although officially a backroom for "Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to Computer
Archives", was chosen to match that of the FTP search service known as Archie — Veronica Lodge
being the name of another character from the Archie Comics.

 World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3, commonly known as the web) is a system of
interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages
that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks.
On March 12, 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist and former CERN employee, wrote a
proposal for what would eventually become the World Wide Web. The 1989 proposal was meant for a
more effective CERN communication system but Berners-Lee eventually realised the concept could be
implemented throughout the world. Berners-Lee and Belgian computer scientist Robert Cailliau
proposed in 1990 to use hypertext "to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in
which the user can browse at will", and Berners-Lee finished the first website in December of that year.
The first test was completed around 20 December 1990 and Berners-Lee reported about the project on
the newsgroup alt.hypertext on 7 August 1991.
 How does Internet works?

To help you understand how the Internet works, we'll look at the things that happen when you do a
typical Internet operation — pointing a browser at the front page of this document at its home on the
Web at the Linux Documentation Project.

Administration of Internet:

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction.
However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not the same. The Internet is a global system of
interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the web is one of the services that runs on the Internet. It
is a collection of text documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, usually accessed
by web browsers from web servers. In short, the web can be thought of as an application "running" on
the Internet. The first thing your browser has to do is to establish a network connection to the machine
where the document lives. To do that, it first has to find the network location of the host www.tldp.org
(‘host’ is short for ‘host machine’ or ‘network host'; www.tldp.org is a typical hostname). The
corresponding location is actually a number called an IP address (we'll explain the ‘IP’ part of this term
later).

To do this, your browser queries a program called a name server. The name server may live on your
machine, but it's more likely to run on a service machine that yours talks to. When you sign up with an
ISP, part of your setup procedure will almost certainly involve telling your Internet software the IP
address of a name server on the ISP's network.

The name servers on different machines talk to each other, exchanging and keeping up to date all the
information needed to resolve hostnames (map them to IP addresses). Your name server may query
three or four different sites across the network in the process of resolving www.tldp.org, but this usually
happens very quickly (as in less than a second). We'll look at how name servers detail in the next
section.

 How to go on Internet?

For enjoy the internet service you have to go to the internet, there are some few requirements, those
are:

Requirements:

 Hardware and Software Requirements

The hardware and software needed for connecting to the Internet will involve five basic items:

 A computer
 A modem
 An Internet connection (often your existing phone jack)
 A cable for connecting the modem to the Internet connection
 Special software
 Hardware needed to connect to the Internet and a box of software.
 The required hardware and software will vary depending on the type of Internet connection that you
have selected. Before you start, you should check with your local Internet Service Provider (ISP) to
make sure your equipment will work with their services.
Many ISPs will recommend or even provide the modem for you. They may even help you learn about
wireless connections that provide Internet access without the need of a modem or home phone line.
With these, you would only need your computer and the required software to connect to your Internet
Service Provider.

 What is ISP?

Stands for "Internet Service Provider." In order to connect to the Internet, you need an ISP. It is the
company that you (or your parents) pay a monthly fee to in order to use the Internet. If you use a dial-up
modem to connect to your ISP, a point-to-point protocol (PPP) connection is established with another
modem on the ISP's end. That modem connects to one of the ISP's routers, which routes you to the
Internet "backbone." From there, you can access information from anywhere around the world. DSL and
cable modems work the same way, except after you connect the first time, you are always connected.

 Internet Account:

An Internet Service Provider will usually offer several types of Internet Accounts, each having their
own advantages and disadvantages. Each type of Internet account is discussed below.

 Shell Account:

When using a Shell Account, you do not connect directly with the Internet. Instead, you use your
modem to connect to your provdier's computer, which is directly connected to the Internet. Your
provider's computer is also equipped with all of the necessary software to use the Internet.

You access a Shell account using software that supports terminal emulation. Your computer simply
sends commands to the provider's computer. Your provider's computer then uses its own software to
carry out these commands, sending the results back to your computer. You then see these results on
your monitor. During the entire process, your computer acts as a "dumb" terminal. In other words, it
simply displays the communication that occurs between your provider's computer and other Internet
sites. And, when you download a file from a remote host, the file will first transfer to your
provider's computer, then you download it to your PC.

Using a Shell Account, you can use virtually every feature of the Intenret that would be available to
you with a SLIP or PPP account. In fact, your Internet travels will usually be faster using a Shell
account. This comes at a price, however. With a Shell account, everything is text-based, including
the World Wide Web. In other words, you won't see any graphics or hear any sound files using a
Shell account. Another downside of a Shell account is that you will spend most of your time in a
Unix shell. Although good ISP's will set up a menu for you to use, this shell can still be intimidating
if you are used to the point-and-click environment of a graphic-based operating system.

 SLIP or PPP Account:

The SLIP/PPP Account is quickly becoming the most popular type of Internet account. With the
increasing influence of the World Wide Web, users often feel that the ability to use the Internet in a
graphic-based, point-and-click environment is essential to getting the most from the Internet. With a
SLIP/PPP account, your PC becomes directly connected to the Internet. Some advantages of a SLIP/PPP
account are as follows:

 Low cost alternative to permanent, dedicated access

 A direct connection to the Internet
 You don't have to bother with transfering files to and from your service provider's
computer and you PC; download files directly to your computer
  A SLIP/PPP connection is required to benefit from the multimedia environment of the
World Wide Web, including graphics, sound, and animation

There are also some disadvantages to using a SLIP/PPP account. First, this type of
account is usually slightly more expensive than a Shell account. In addition, much
more software is required. You will need communications software capable of using
TCP/IP protocol, as well as all of the programs required to actually use the Internet,
like a web browser, an e-mail client, and so on.

 How to use Email services on internet:

Electronic mail, most commonly referred to as email or e-mail since ca. 1993, is a method of

exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across
the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the
recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today's email systems are
based on a store-and-forward model. Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither
the users nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need connect only briefly,
typically to a mail server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages.

Historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic document transmission.
For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to describe fax document transmission. As
a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it
has today. There are many email providers in today’s market we discuss about those below:

 HoTMaiL (the capital H,T,M, and L are an homage to HTML) was a free online e-mail service started
by Jack Smith and Sabeer Bhatia in 1995 that was later acquired by Microsoft on December 1997. By
2001, Hotmail had over 100 million users and today is still one of the most popular online e-mail
services available that allows users to read and send e-mail wherever there is Internet access. In the
picture below is an example of what Hotmail looked like in 1998.

 Yahoo! mail is one of many e-mail providers on the Internet. Yahoo offers members a service of
sending and receiving e-mail, using a web-based interface and portal. Members can also opt for pay-for
services, including a larger storage capacity, increased e-mail attachments, POP e-mail forwarding, e-
mail archival to a hard drive for offline access and other services. Today, Yahoo mail is one of the most
popular e-mail providers, with over 300 million subscribers as of October 2011.
Yahoo mail was launched in 1997 as a free e-mail service provider and offered a single version of its
interface for use by subscribers. Yahoo introduced a second version in 2005, which included a new Ajax
interface, drag-and-drop capabilities, improved search functionality, tabs, and other features. In May
2011, Yahoo officially introduced a third version, featuring another new design and performance
improvement, as well as an improved Facebook integration capability. This third version also became
the default user interface for all users. Subscribers can still opt to use the Yahoo Mail Classic interface,
which was the original interface.

 Email Address:

An email address identifies an email box to which email messages are delivered. The universal standard
for the format and meaning of an email address today is the model developed for Internet electronic
 mail systems since the 1980s, but some earlier systems, and many proprietary commercial email
systems used different address formats.
An email address such as [email protected] is made up of a local part, an @ symbol, then a
domain part. The domain part is not case-sensitive, but local-parts may be. In practice, the mail system
at example.com may choose to treat suzain.suiz as equivalent suzain.suiz or even Suzain Suiz. Mail
systems often limit their users' choice of name to a subset of the technically valid characters, and may in
some cases also limit which addresses it is possible to send mail to.

 Now Let’s we discuss about how to use Email Address:

Creating and sending an e-mail message is, in many ways, similar to writing a letter without a stamp. In
fact sending an e-mail is much the same as sending a letter. The main difference is that the e-mail is
delivered almost instantly, although there can be delays caused by server problems, the fact that a
recipient's mail box might be full, and other technical problems that will occur from time to time. This is
noted because you absolutely cannot assume that an e-mail message will go through 100% of the time.
So, if you want to be sure that the message is received, ask the recipient to write back a short note
confirming this receipt.

 How to send Email Address:

At first you log in your email account then you click to the compose mail button, your new message
appears. You must fill in the To line. Provide the recipient's address (no blank spaces allowed). An e-
mail address consists of the username (example: jonesg) followed by the@ sign, followed by the
domain name (example: yahoo.com). All three elements must be present for the e-mail to be sent. It is a
good idea (but not absolutely necessary) to also fill in the Subject line, since that gives your recipient an
idea of why you are writing. Your message then goes in the blank space. Cc sends a copy to another
person(s). Bcc sends a copy to another person, but hides that fact from the original recipient.
You might or might not receive a message like this confirming that your e-mail has been sent. Whether
you receive this depends on how your e-mail server is configured by the administrator. Regardless, if
you really need to know that your message is received, then ask the recipient to confirm that fact to you!

 Forwarding Email:

Email forwarding generically refers to the operation of re-sending an email message delivered to one
email address on to a possibly different email address. The term forwarding has no specific technical
meaning.[1] Users and administrators of email systems use the same term when speaking of both server-
based and client-based forwarding.
Email forwarding can also redirect mail going to one address and send it to one or several other
addresses. Vice versa, email items going to several different addresses can converge via forwarding to
end up in a single address in-box.

 Reading & Saving Email:

Once you read a new e-mail message or send an e-mail message to a friend, it is moved to your online
Old mailbox or your Sent mailbox. Once new mail has been read it will remain in your Old mailbox 1 -
7 days (3 is default); once sent mail has been read it will remain in your Sent mail box for 27 days. By
default, e-mail is saved to your computer permanently in the Saved on My PC mail folder, although you
can change your mail controls to prevent that.
 To save e-mail as a file on your computer manually

1. On the AOL toolbar, click Read.

2. Click the Old or Sent tab.
3. Double-click the message you want to save to open it.
4. On the File menu, click Save As.
5. In the Save As window, navigate to the folder on your computer where you want the e-mail to be stored.
6. Type a filename for your e-mail in the Filename: box. (Make a note of where you store the mail and the
name you give it so that you can find it easily later.)
7. Click Save.

To save e-mail to your Saved on My PC mail folder manually

1. On the AOL toolbar, click Read.

2. Click the Old or Sent tab.
3. Click a piece of e-mail to select it.
4. Click Save underneath the mail list and then click Mail. You can also save the e-mail to a subfolder
(such as Incoming/Saved Mail) or to a new subfolder (Create Folder).

 To attach file ine Email:

To attach a file to a message you're composing, follow the steps below:

1. In Gmail, click the Compose button.

2. Click the paperclip icon at the bottom of the compose window.
3. Gmail Compose Attach files icon
4. Browse through your files and click the name of the file you'd like to attach.
5. Click Open.
6. To attach multiple files, hold the Ctrl (PC) or ⌘ (Mac) key while selecting your files. Selecting
multiple files at once is not possible using Internet Explorer 9.
7. When you drag and drop images, you can add the images inline in the message or as attachments.

Remove attachments

If you'd like to remove a file you've attached to a message, click the x to the right of the file name at the
bottom of the message.
 Web Technology

A: HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language):

HTML or HyperText Markup Language is the standard markup language used to create web pages.

HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting of tags enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>).
HTML tags most commonly come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>, although some tags represent empty elements
and so are unpaired, for example <img>. The first tag in a pair is the start tag, and the second tag is the end tag
(they are also called opening tags and closing tags).
The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML documents and compose them into visible or audible web
pages. The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses the tags to interpret the content of the page.
HTML describes the structure of a website semantically along with cues for presentation, making it a markup
language rather than a programming language.
HTML elements form the building blocks of all websites. HTML allows images and objects to be embedded
and can be used to create interactive forms. It provides a means to create structured documents by denoting
structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. It can embed
scripts written in languages such as JavaScript which affect the behavior of HTML web pages.

 HTML Elements:
An HTML element is an individual component of an HTML document or "web page", once this has been
parsed into the Document Object Model. HTML is composed of a tree of HTML elements and other nodes,
such as text nodes. Each element can have HTML attributes specified. Elements can also have content,
including other elements and text. HTML elements represent semantics, or meaning. For example, the title
element represents the title of the document. Some characteristics of HTML elements:
o An HTML element starts with a start tag / opening tag
o An HTML element ends with an end tag / closing tag
o The element content is everything between the start and the end tag
o Some HTML elements have empty content
o Empty elements are closed in the start tag
o Most HTML elements can have attributes

In the html there are so many elements those are:

 Html Element:
♦ The <html> element defines the whole HTML document.
♦ The element has a start tag <html> and an end tag </html>.
♦ The element content is another HTML element (the body element).
 Head Element:
The HEAD element has no attributes and the start and end tag can always be safely omitted as they can be
readily inferred by the parser. Information in the HEAD element corresponds to the top part of a memo or mail
message. It describes properties of the document such as the title, the document toolbar, and additional meta-
information. There is no intended significance to the order of elements in the document head.
 Title Element:
The title of a document is specified by the TITLE element. The TITLE element should occur in the HEAD of
the document.
There may only be one title in any document. It should identify the content of the document in a fairly wide
context.
The title is not part of the text of the document, but is a property of the whole document. It may not contain
anchors, paragraph marks, or highlighting. The title may be used to identify the node in a history list, to label
the window displaying the node, etc. It is not normally displayed in the text of a document itself. Contrast titles
with headings . The title should ideally be less than 64 characters in length. That is, many applications will
display document titles in window titles, menus, etc where there is only limited room. Whilst there is no limit
on the length of a title (as it may be automatically generated from other data), information providers are warned
that it may be truncated if long.
Example: <TITLE>Web Technology</TITLE>

 Base Element:
The BASE element allows the URL of the document itself to be recorded in situations in which the document
may be read out of context. URLs within the document may be in a "partial" form relative to this base address.
The default base address is the URL used to retrieve the document.
Example: <base href=" http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/defaultinterstitial.cms ">

Which resolves to “http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/defaultinterstitial.cms”

 Link Element:
The LINK element indicates a relationship between the document and some other object. A document may
have any number of LINK elements. The LINK element is empty (does not have a closing tag), but takes the
same attributes as the anchor element. The important attributes are: REL, REV, HREF

 Meta Element:
The META element is used within the HEAD element to embed document meta-information not defined by
other HTML elements. Such information can be extracted by servers/clients for use in identifying, indexing and
cataloging specialized document meta-information.
Although it is generally preferable to used named elements that have well defined semantics for each type of
meta-information, such as title, this element is provided for situations where strict SGML parsing is necessary
and the local DTD is not extensible.
In addition, HTTP servers can read the contents of the document head to generate response headers
corresponding to any elements defining a value for the attribute HTTP-EQUIV. This provides document
authors with a mechanism (not necessarily the preferred one) for identifying information that should be
included in the response headers of an HTTP request.

The META element has three attributes: NAME, CONTENT, HTTP-EQUIV

Example: <META HTTP-EQUIV=Expires CONTENT="Wed, 05 Dec 1993 17:59:59 GMT">

The server will include the following response headers Expires: Wed, 05 Dec 1993 17:59:59 GMT
  Style Element:

The STYLE element provides a means for including rendering information using a specified style notation.
Information in the STYLE element overrides client defaults and that of linked style sheets. It allows authors to
specify overrides, while for the most part using a generic style sheet, and as such improves the effectiveness of
caching schemes for linked style sheets. There is one attribute - NOTATATION - which specifies an entity
identifying an SGML notation in the HTML 3.0 DTD, for example:

<style >

Height:100%;

Width:50%;

</style>

 Source Element:
The HTML <source> tag is used to specify multiple media resources on media elements (such as <audio> and
<video>).This element allows you to specify alternative video and audio files which the browser may choose
from based on its media type or codec support.The <source> tag was introduced in HTML 5.

 Rules for nesting Elements:

 Docktype: The <! DOCTYPE> declaration must be the very first thing in your HTML document, before the <html> tag. The
<!DOCTYPE> declaration is not an HTML tag; it is an instruction to the web browser about what version of HTML the page
is written in. In HTML 4.01, the <! DOCTYPE> declaration refers to a DTD, because HTML 4.01 was based on SGML. The
DTD specifies the rules for the mark up language, so that the browsers render the content correctly.

 HEAD: into the head element there are few elements which are nested those are: Title tag, Style tag,
Script tag, where into the script or style tag the CDATA will be nested.
 BODY: this is the main tag or element in which the main contain of the page is placed, so here are so
many nested tags are used those are: INS, DEL ,P, H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6,UL, OL,LI,DIR, MENU, DL, DT ,DD
,PRE ,IMG, OBJECT, APPLET, BIG, SMALL, SUB, SUP, FONT, BASEFONT ,DIV, CENTER, BLOCKQUOTE,
,FRAME ,FORM ,TABLE ,TR ,TH, TD ,IMG etc…

 HTML Catagories:
It is important to be aware, when using HTML and style sheets that HTML elements are categorized into
several categories. Some style properties apply to some categories of elements and not to others. The following
types of elements exist:

 Block - Include a line break before and after the element.

 Inline - Included with the text as part of a line.
 List Item - Elements that support providing a list of items. List item elements are block level
elements.
BLOCK HTML ELEMENTS

A block with centered contents is defined

Name Description Comment

ADDRESS Supplies contact information for the document -

BLOCKQUOTE Used to quote in block form -

CENTER Depreciated -

DIV A container allowing specific style to be added to a block of text. -

DIR A container allowing specific style to be added to a block of text. -

A container allowing multiple frames (HTML documents) to be placed on a web

FRAMESET -
browser.

H1, H2, H3, H4, H5,

Headings -
H6

HR Horizontal rule -

ISINDEX An input prompt for a single line of text Depreciated

NOFRAMES Alternate content for browsers that do not support frames. -

NOSCRIPT Alternate content for browsers that cannot run script programs -

Paragraph - Should not contain other block elements including tables, but may
P -
contain list elements

PRE Preformatted text is rendered with spaces and carriage returns as typed. -

Includes table sub

TABLE Used to present an ordered set of data. Table subelements work as block elements.
elements

FORM Used to present a form to the client. Form subelements work as block elements. -

List item elements are also considered to be block elements.

LIST-ITEM ELEMENTS

Name Description Comment

DIR Directory List Depreciated

 DL Definition List -

LI List Item -

OL Ordered (numbered) List -

UL Unordered List -

BLOCK/INLINE HTML ELEMENTS

The elements in this list may be considered block or inline elements, depending on how they are
used. They are considered inline elements if used inside a paragraph (P) or another inline element.

Name Description Purpose Comment

APPLET For placing Java applets in the page. - (Depreciated)

BUTTON Used to define a FORM submit, reset, or push button. - -

DEL Used to indicate deleted content Phrase Both a block and inline element

IFRAME Inline frame - (Depreciated)

INS Marks inserted content Phrase Both a block and inline element

MAP Establishes an image map to be used with an IMG or OBJECT element - -

OBJECT Used to include applets, images, videos and sound on the web page. - -

SCRIPT Defines a script to be run on the client computer. - -

INLINE HTML ELEMENTS

Name Description Purpose Comment

A Anchor - -

ABBR Denotes an abbreviation Phrase -

ACRONYM Denotes an acronym. - -

AREA Define a map region in an image. Inside the MAP element -

B Bold Font -

BASEFONT Allows font changes - Depreciated

BDO Overrides text direction with values of ltr (left to right) or rtl (right to left). - -

BIG Sets size of text to big Font -

BR Break Treated special by style sheets. -

CITE Used to mark titles of articles or other publications. Phrase -

CODE Denotes computer program code. Phrase -

DFN Denotes a definition. Phrase -

EM Denotes emphasis Phrase -

FONT Allows font changes. - (Depreciated)

I Sets text to italics Font -

IMG Allows placement of a graphical image in the page. - -

INS Denotes inserted text. Phrase -

KBD Denotes information typed from the keyboard. Phrase -

PARAM Used to add additional parameters to the object or applet elements. - -

Q Used for short quotations - -

S Strike through text Font Depreciated

SAMP Denotes a sample. Phrase -

SMALL Sets text size to small Font -

SPAN A container used to set special style to specific areas of the page. - -

STRIKE Sets text to have a line struck through it Font -

STRONG Denotes Phrase -

SUB Subscript - -
SUP Superscript - -

TEXTAREA A form for multiline text input. - -

TT Sets text style to monospaced teletype Font -

U Sets text underlined Font Depreciated

VAR Denotes a variablein a program. Phrase -

TEXT TAGS
For editing a text file there are different types of text tags those are:

1. <FONT COLOR="blue">Test text.</FONT>

Test text.

2. <FONT FACE="terminal">Test text</FONT> compared to default text.

Test text compared to default text.
3. <BIG>Big Text</BIG>, compared to normal text.
Big Text, compared to normal text.
4. An example of the <ADDRESS>Mail Address tag</ADDRESS> in a document.

An example of the
Mail Address tag
in a document.

5. <CITE>Citation Text</CITE>, compared to normal text.

Citation Text, compared to normal text.

6. <DFN>Definition Text</DFN>, compared to normal text.

Definition Text, compared to normal text.

7. <EM>Emphasized Text</EM>, compared to normal text..

Emphasized Text, compared to normal text.

8. An example of the <LISTING>Listing Tag</LISTING> compared to normal text.

 An example of the
Listing Tag

compared to normal text.

9. <SMALL>Small Text</SMALL>, compared to normal text.

Small Text, compared to normal text.

10.<STRONG>Strong Emphasis</STRONG>, compared to normal text.

Strong Emphasis, compared to normal text.

HTML Images - The <img> Tag and the Src Attribute

In HTML, images are defined with the <img> tag.

The <img> tag is empty, which means that it contains attributes only, and has no closing tag.

To display an image on a page, you need to use the src attribute. Src stands for "source". The value of the src attribute is the URL of
the image you want to display.

Syntax for defining an image:

<img src="url" alt="some_text">

The URL points to the location where the image is stored. The browser displays the image where the <img> tag occurs in the
document. If you put an image tag between two paragraphs, the browser shows the first paragraph, then the image, and then the
second paragraph. The required alt attribute specifies an alternate text for an image, if the image cannot be displayed.The value of the
alt attribute is an author-defined text:

<img src="smiley.gif" alt="Smiley face">

The alt attribute provides alternative information for an image if a user for some reason cannot view it .

Image attributes:
When you use IMG you are using a HTML tag. The SRC part is called an attribute. There are lots of other
attributes you can add to the IMG tag. Here are the image attributes in HTML 5:

ALT
SRC
HEIGHT
WIDTH
USEMAP
ISMAP

In previous versions of HTML, you also had these:

ALIGN
BORDER
HSPACE
VSPACE

However, these have now been deprecated (no longer valid). You can still use them, though. But the HTML 5
way is to apply these with CSS. You'll see how to do that shortly.
 The ALT Attribute

The first attribute is ALT. You use it like this:

<IMG SRC="york_images/york_minster.jpg" ALT="York Minster">

ALT means "alternative text". If the image does not display then users will see the text between the double quotes of ALT. Try it out.
Change your HTML code to this:

<IMG SRC="york_images/york_min.jpg" ALT="York Minster">

Height and Width Attributes

Another thing you can do with the Image tag is specify a new height and width. This one is quite easy. Change your image tag to this
(we've left the ALT tag off):

<IMG SRC="york_images/york_minster.jpg" HEIGHT="512" WIDTH="384">

The original image was 2048 pixels high by 1536 pixels wide. By changing the Height and Width, we can decrease the size of the
image. The image itself will still take the same amount of time to load into a browser because we haven't changed the size of the
JPEG file. All we've done is to change the height and width attributes of the IMG tag.

INTRODUCTION TO FORMS
Note  As of December 2011, this topic has been archived and is no longer actively maintained. For more information,
seeArchived Content. For information, recommendations, and guidance regarding the current version of Windows Internet
Explorer, see Internet Explorer Developer Center.
Forms provide an interface for collecting, displaying, and delivering information, and are a key component of HTML. By
providing different controls such as text fields, buttons, and checkboxes, forms can enhance Web pages with a means to
exchange information between a client and a server. The various controls allow authors and users to perform actions, make
choices, and quickly identify and enter information. When the form data is submitted to the server- or client-side script, the
information either is parsed and cataloged, or redirected in response to the submission. Forms are prevalent throughout all
graphics-based operating systems and Web pages.
Web-based forms are supported in most browsers, and including forms in a Web page is relatively straightforward. This
overview introduces form controls, discusses form design and accessibility, and provides a first step to submitting and
managing form data.
ADVANTAGES OF FORMS

Using forms is advantageous because they are:

 Easy to implement. There are several controls that provide a means to exchange information with a user.
 Extensible. Dynamic HTML (DHTML) allows an author to update and modify forms and controls as needed.
 Accessible. Using the Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) attributes, supported as of Microsoft Internet Explorer 4.0 and
later, allows authors to tailor form controls with specific styles.

Forms provide a convenient interface for exchanging information between a server and a client, and allow an author to quickly
create and distribute an HTML interface to a large audience. With DHTML, Web authors can enhance forms using CSS and
client-side scripting languages, such as Microsoft JScript and Microsoft Visual Basic Scripting Edition (VBScript).
To enhance a form's visibility and make its controls easier to use, an author can apply CSS attributes, such
as positioningand dynamic styles. Combined with robust client-side scripts, forms also can be enhanced to provide validation or
masking, or even to perform calculations once reserved for the server.
FORM CONTROLS
Form controls allow authors to provide Web sites with benefits similar to other graphics-based programming languages. The
following table provides a list of the supported form controls, when they were first available in Internet Explorer, what
attributes are submitted, and a description.

Element/Control Availability Submitted Description

button 4.0 NAME, VALUE Rich button control that can include DHTML is
rendered. When submitted, Internet Explorer 4.0
submits the innerText property, and Microsoft
Internet Explorer 5 and later submits
theNAME/VALUE pair.

input 3.0 NAME, VALUE input element is rendered as a button. Events such

type=button as onclickcan be included with the button to provide
action when it is clicked.

input 3.0 NAME, VALUE input element is rendered as a check box. The check

type=checkbox box is useful for selecting multiple groups of topics
(for example, selecting favorite magazines) and
Boolean decisions (for example, adding your e-mail
to the mailing list). Events such asonclick can be
used in conjunction with the checked property to
determine conditions (for example, displaying a
hidden object).

input type=file 4.0 NAME, VALUE(encoded Nonscriptable text field and Browse button are
) rendered. TheENCTYPE attribute for a form must
be set tomultipart/form.data for this control to work
properly. For security reasons, the VALUE attribute
is not accessible in script on the client.

input 3.0 NAME, VALUE Hidden control is rendered, and is useful for

type=hidden submitting additional information that does not need
to be displayed to the user.

input 3.0 NAME Submit control is rendered as an image. The image

type=image control is a useful alternative to using buttons. When
the image control is clicked, it is the only image
control submitted for the form. In addition, an image
control is submitted only if the NAMEattribute is
specified.

input 3.0 NAME, VALUE Text field masked with asterisks is rendered. The
type=password password field is useful on the client for shielding
private information from anyone looking at the same
screen.

input type=radio 3.0 NAME, VALUE Radio control is rendered, and is useful for selecting
 one item from a set. Selecting one radio control
clears any other radio controls with the
same NAME attribute value.

input type=reset 3.0 Button that resets all form values is rendered.

input 3.0 NAME, VALUE Button that sends all the information for a particular
type=submit form to the script or program specified in
the ACTION attribute is rendered.
The METHOD attribute specifies the way in which
the form information is delivered.

Submit controls are sent only if

the NAME attribute is defined. If more than
one submit control exists in a particular
form, only the control that is clicked is sent.

input type=text 3.0 NAME, VALUE Single-line text field is rendered.

select 3.0 NAME,option(selected) Drop-down list box or list box is created, comprised
of includedoption elements, or created dynamically
using the optionscollection and add method. A list
box is created by specifying a value greater than 1 for
the SIZE attribute. Multiple options in a list box can
be selected by including the MULTIPLE attribute. If
the MULTIPLE attribute is included, a list box is
created. If theSIZE and MULTIPLE attributes are
not present, a drop-down list box is created.

textArea 3.0 NAME, VALUE Text field with multiple lines is rendered.

The VALUE attribute of the textArea element is
equivalent to the innerText property, and is located
between the opening and closing tags.

 
IMPLEMENTING FORMS

Before implementing forms on a Web site, the need for the form element must be determined. The form element is necessary
for submitting form controls to a server. When a form is submitted, only the name/value pairs for the controls within the
submitted form element are sent. The form element is not necessary if form controls are being used only for client-side
scripting. However, other browsers may require the element before the controls are rendered.
When using the form element, the ACTION and METHOD attributes specify how and where the data in the form controls is
delivered. The two methods used are get and post.

 The get possible value specifies that the form data is appended to the URL specified in the ACTION attribute, and
limits the amount of data to 256 characters. This method is deprecated due to the size limitation and visibility in the document
location. However, it is useful for debugging transactions, because the submission string is visible as a part of the path.
 The post possible value sends form data as a post transaction, is not limited in size, and is the preferred method for
delivering data to the server.
A form action is any script designed to process the delivered information and reply to the HTTP server, so that results can be
returned to the client. The following sample demonstrates the syntax of the form element that sends form data as a post
transaction to an ASP.

HTML Table Fundamentals

 
<table><tr><td>
Table content goes here...
</td></tr></table>

Next to the hyperlink, one of the most widely used HTML elements is thetable element. Take a
peek at the source code of any big corporate website and you are bound to see a plethora of tables,
table rows and table data cells, and then nested inside many of the cells you will find
even moretables with their respective rows and cells. 

Effectively then, one would imagine to find most of these web pages stuffed from margin-to-
margin with tabular data but such is not the case, or rather, to the untrained eye, the use of tables is
not readily apparent. This is because tables are used on web pages primarily for layout and design
as opposed to being used for their original purpose, i.e. presenting a collection of related data in
neatly organized rows and columns.

Thus, by way of introduction, we will focus on exploring the use of HTML tables as they were
originally intended, or in other words, using tables astables since this will serve better to illustrate
exactly how they work. 

HTML TABLE CODES

Tables are created using the table element which uses both a start and an end tag.
The <table>...</table> tags are required to contain at least one set of <tr>...</tr> tags which themselves
are required to contain at least one set of <td>...</td> tags. Each set of <tr>...</tr> tags creates
onetable row while each set of <td>...</td> tags creates one table data cell. 
The following represents an HTML table in its most fundamental state defining one row which
itself contains one data cell:
Example 1
<table><tr><td>Cell content goes here... </td></tr></table>

INTRODUCTION TO FRAMES

HTML frames allow authors to present documents in multiple views, which may be independent
windows or subwindows. Multiple views offer designers a way to keep certain information visible,
while other views are scrolled or replaced. For example, within the same window, one frame might
display a static banner, a second a navigation menu, and a third the main document that can be
scrolled through or replaced by navigating in the second frame.

Here is a simple frame document:

<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN"

"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/frameset.dtd">

<HTML>

<HEAD>

<TITLE>A simple frameset document</TITLE>

</HEAD>

<FRAMESET cols="20%, 80%">

<FRAMESET rows="100, 200">

<FRAME src="contents_of_frame1.html">

<FRAME src="contents_of_frame2.gif">

</FRAMESET>

<FRAME src="contents_of_frame3.html">

<NOFRAMES>

<P>This frameset document contains:

<UL>

<LI><A href="contents_of_frame1.html">Some neat contents</A>

<LI><IMG src="contents_of_frame2.gif" alt="A neat image">

<LI><A href="contents_of_frame3.html">Some other neat contents</A>

</UL>

</NOFRAMES>

</FRAMESET>

</HTML>

that might create a frame layout something like this:

---------------------------------------

| | |

| | |

| Frame 1 | |

| | |

| | |

|---------| |

| | Frame 3 |

| | |
 | | |

| | |

| Frame 2 | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

---------------------------------------

XHTML:
XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup Language) is a family of XML markup languages that mirror or extend versions of the
widely used Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), the language in which Web pages are written.

While HTML (prior to HTML5) was defined as an application of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), a very flexible
markup language framework, XHTML is an application of XML, a more restrictive subset of SGML. Because XHTML documents
need to be well-formed, they can be parsed using standard XML parsers, unlike HTML, which requires a lenient HTML-specific
parser.

XHTML 1.0 became a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Recommendation on January 26, 2000. XHTML 1.1 became a W3C
Recommendation on May 31, 2001. The standard known as XHTML5 is being developed as an XML adaptation of the HTML5
specification.

XHTML Syntax:

XHTML syntax is very similar to HTML syntax and almost all the valid HTML elements are valid in XHTML
as well. But when you write an XHTML document you are have to pay a bit extra attention to make your
HTML document compliance to XHTML.

Here are the important points to remember while writing a new XHTML document or converting existing
HTML document into XHTML document:

♦ XHTML document must have a DOCTYPE declaration at the top of the document.
♦ All XHTML tags and attributes should be written in lower case only.
♦ All the XHTML tags will have their closing tags.
♦ All the attribute values must be quoted.
♦ Attribute minimization is forbidden.
♦ The id attribute replaces the name attribute.
♦ The language attribute of the script tag is deprecated
♦ All the tags should be properly nested
♦ Element Prohibitions

Here's a more detailed explanation of the above XHTML rules:

DOCTYPE Declaration:
All XHTML documents must have a DOCTYPE declaration at the top of document. There are three types of
DOCTYPE which are discussed in detail in XHTML Doctypes chapter. Below is one of the examples of using
DOCTYPE.

Case Sensitivity:

XHTML is case sensitive markup language, more strictly all the XHTML tags and attributes should be written
in lower case only. Here is the example, this is wrong because Href and anchor A are having characters which
are not in lower case.

<!-- This is invalid in XHTML -->

<A Href="/xhtml/xhtml_tutorial.html">XHTML Tutorial</A>

<!-- Correct XHTML way of writing this is as follows -->

<a href="/xhtml/xhtml_tutorial.html">XHTML Tutorial</a>

Closing Tags:
Each and every XHTML tag should have an equivalent closing tags, even empty elements should also have
closing tags. Here is the example showing the difference:

<!-- This is invalid in XHTML -->

<p>This paragraph is not written according to XHTML syntax.

<!-- This is also invalid in XHTML -->

<img src="/images/xhtml.gif">

Below is the correct way of writing above tags in XHTML. Difference is that, here we have closed both the tags
properly.

<!-- This is valid in XHTML -->

<p>This paragraph is not written according to XHTML syntax.</p>

<!-- This is also valid now -->

<img src="/images/xhtml.gif" />

Attribute Quotes:

All the XHTML attribute values must be quoted otherwise your XHTML document will be assumed as an
invalid document. Here is the example showing the difference.

<!-- This is invalid in XHTML -->

<img src="/images/xhtml.gif" width=250 height=50 />

<!-- Correct XHTML way of writing this is as follows -->

<img src="/images/xhtml.gif" width="250" height="50" />

Attribute Minimization:
XHTML does not allow attribute minimization. It means you have you should explicitly state the attribute and
the value. Following is the example showing the difference:

<!-- This is invalid in XHTML -->

<option selected>

<!-- Correct XHTML way of writing this is as follows -->

<option selected="selected">

XML:
Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents
in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. It is defined in the XML 1.0 Specification
produced by the W3C, and several other related specifications, all free open standards.

The design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability over the Internet. It is a textual data
format with strong support via Unicode for the languages of the world. Although the design of XML focuses on
documents, it is widely used for the representation of arbitrary data structures, for example in web services.

Many application programming interfaces (APIs) have been developed to aid software developers with
processing XML data, and several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages.

What is SQL(Structured Query Language)?

Abbreviation of structured query language, and pronounced either see-kwell or as separate letters. SQL is a
standardized query language for requesting information from a database. The original version called SEQUEL
(structured English query language) was designed by an IBM research center in 1974 and 1975. SQL was first
introduced as a commercial database systemin 1979 by Oracle Corporation.

Historically, SQL has been the favorite query language for database management systems running on
minicomputers and mainframes. Increasingly, however, SQL is being supported by PC database systems
because it supports distributed databases (databases that are spread out over several computer systems). This
enables several users on a local-area network to accessthe same database simultaneously.

Although there are different dialects of SQL, it is nevertheless the closest thing to a standard query language
that currently exists. In 1986, ANSI approved a rudimentary version of SQL as the official standard, but most
versions of SQL since then have included many extensionsto the ANSI standard. In 1991, ANSI updated the
standard. The new standard is known as SAG SQL.