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Chapter8:Flowassurancemanagementinproduction
systems
Flowassuranceconsistsinensuringuninterruptedflowofhydrocarbonstreamsfrom
thereservoirtothepointofsaleaccordingtoproductionplan.Flowassuranceis
particularlyrelevantfordeepsubseasystemswithrelativelylongtransportation
distances(5Ͳ150km)andlowsurroundingtemperatures.Inthistypeofsystemsifthere
isaprobleminterventionandremediationhastobedoneremotelyanditisusuallytime
consumingandveryexpensive.

Flowassurancefocusesonthreemainaspects:

1. Avoidflowrestrictions(excessivepressuredrop,blockageorintermittent
production).
2. Safeguardthestructuralintegrityofpartsoftheproductionsystemfrom
damagescausedbyinternalflow.
3. Maintainthefunctionalityandoperabilityofcomponentsintheproduction
system.

Therearemultipleissuesthataretypicallyaddressedinflowassurance:

x Formationanddepositionofwax.
x Formationofhydrates.
x Formationandaccumulationofscale
x Flowinducedvibrations(FIV)
x Asphalteneformationanddeposition
x Slugging
x Erosion
x Emulsion
x Corrosion
x Pressuresurgesduringshutdownandstartup.

Fig.1showswheretheseissuesusuallyoccurintheproductionsystem.

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Fig.1. Flowassuranceproblemsandtheirtypicallocationintheproductionsystem

HYDRATES

Hydratesaresolidsubstanceswherewatermolecules(inliquidphase)formacageͲ
likestructurethathostssmall(<9Ådiameter)molecules(Fig.2).Thesmallmolecules
areusuallymethane,ethane,propane,butane,carbondioxide,nitrogen.ThecageͲtype
structureisformedduetohydrogenbondingofwatermolecules(thewatermolecule
tendstospaciallycreatetwopositivesandanegativepole).



(a) (b)
Fig.2. A)appearanceofahydrateplug,b)molecularstructureofamethane
hydrate

Hydratescontainsamuchhigherproportionofwaterthanthehydrocarbon
component.Forexampleamethanehydrate(calledmethaneclathrate)withmolecular
formula4CH4ͼ23H2O(MW=478)hasamolarproportionof85%(23/27)waterand15%
(4/27)methane.

However,thisdoesn’tnecessarilyindicatethattheycontainsmallamountsofgas.
Forexampleonecubicmeterofmethaneclathrate(ofanapproximatedensityof900
kg/m3)contains1.88(900/478)kmolesofhydrate,ofwhichthereare7.53(1.88*4)
kmolesofmethane.7.53kmolesofmethaneatstandardconditionscorrespondto178.4

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Sm^3!(VSC=nmolesͼRͼTSC/pSC).Foracubicmetertocontainthesameamountofgaseous
methaneatstandardtemperature,itwouldhavetobecompressedat180.4bara(p=
7.53kmolͼRͼTSC/1m3).

HydratesformonlyifALLfollowingingredientsarepresent:

x Freewater(inliquidphase)
x Smallhydrocarbonmolecules
x Particularrangeofpressureandtemperature.

AnexampleofthehydrateformationregionisshowninFig.3.Theactualline
dependsmainlyonthefluidcomposition,but,asaruleofthumb,ithappensathigh
pressureandlowtemperatures.Forexampleatapressureof12bar,thehydrate
formationtemperatureis4C.


Fig.3. Hydrateformationregion

Thehydrateformationlinecanbepredictedbyempiricalexpressions(thatarea
functionofthespecificgravityofthegas),orusingequilibriumcalculationswithan
EquationofState.HydrateequilibriumcalculationsresembletoVaporLiquidequilibria
byfindingpandtemperatureconditionsthatmakeequalthechemicalenergyofthe
componentinthehydratephaseandliquidandgasphases.

Consequencesofhydratesforflowassurance

Ifthepressureandtemperatureofthefluidflowingalongtheproductionsystemfalls
insidethehydrateformationregion,hydrateswillstarttoform.Hydratesusuallyformat
theliquidͲgasinterphasewherefreewaterandsmallhydrocarbonmoleculesarein
contact.Themixingandturbulenceoftheflowfurtherincreasesthecontactbetween
thetwothuscausingtheformationofmorehydrates.Hydratesthenstartto
agglomerateuntiltheyeventuallyplugthepipe(Fig.4).

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1 * 2

Fig.4. EvolutionofpandTofthefluidwhenflowingalongtheproductionsystem

Hydratescanalsoformwhentheproductionisstoppedandthestagnantfluidbegins
tocoolbytransferringheatwiththeenvironment.

Management

Thetraditionalstrategytomanagehydratesistoavoidtheirformation.Thereare
twomaintechniquescommonlyusedtopreventtheformationofhydrates:

x Keepthefluidconditionsoutofthehydrateformationregion.Thisisdone
mainlybyreducingtherateoftemperaturedropofthefluid(reducingthe
lateralspreadofthebluelineinFig.4).Thisisachievedinpracticebytwo
methods:betterinsulationorelectricalheatingofthepipe.

Pleasenotethatinsulationworkseffectivelyforaflowingsystem,butwhen
productionisstopped,usuallysomeothercontrolmethodmustbeusedasthefluidwill
eventuallycooldownduringalongperiod.
Electricalheatingisusuallynotcosteffectiveforlongtransportationdistances.

x Reducethehydrateformationregion.Theequilibriumpressureand
temperatureofhydrateformationcanbeaffectedbyaddingliquid
inhibitors(typicallyMonoͲethyleneͲglycolMEG,TriͲethyleneͲglycolTEGor
methanolMEOH)tothewaterphase.Inhibitorsinterferewiththeformation
ofhydrogenbondsbykeepingwatermoleculesapart.Asaconsequence,
thehydrateformationlinewillbeshiftedtotheleft(asshowninFig.5).

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Fig.5. Effectofinhibitorinjectiononthehydrateline

Typicalconcentrationsofinhibitorsusedare30Ͳ60inweight%.Forexamplethe
SnøhvitfieldhasaWaterGasratioof6EͲ6Sm3/Sm3.Theplateauproductionofthefield
is20MSm3/d,thusitproducesaround120Sm3/dofwater,or,equivalently,120000
kg/dofwater.Ifweassumethattheinhibitorconcentrationusedis50inweight%,then
thisgives120000kg/dofMEGthatmustbecontinuouslyinjectedonthefield.MEGis
usuallyreclaimedintheprocessingfacilities.Otherwise,itwillrepresentadailycostof
60000–180000USD(assumingaMEGcostbetween0.5–1.5USD/kg).

Pleasenotethattheinhibitormustbepresentinthewaterphaseforittobe
effective,thusevaporationtothegasphasehastobetakenintoaccountwhen
estimatingtherequiredamountsofinhibitor.

Inhibitorsarealsoinjectedwhenpreparingtoshutdownproduction,tomakesure
hydrateswillnotformduetothecoolingofthefluid.

Duringthelastyears,manyexpertshaveproposedtousealessconservativehydrate
controlstrategywhereweallowhydratestoform,butimpedetheiragglomerationand
carrytheslurrytogetherwiththeproductionfluids.Thiscanbeperformedbyinjecting
specialtypesofchemicals,orbyusingcoldflow.However,uptodatetherearelimited
fieldcaseswherethistypeofmanagementisperformed.

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SLUGGING

Sluggingconsistsonintermittentflowofgasandliquidintheproductionsystem(Fig.
6).


Fig.6. Sluginapipesection

Therearetwomaintypesofslugging:

x Hydrodynamicslugging:Itoccursspontaneouslyataparticularcombination
offlowvelocitiesofliquidandgasanditdependsstronglyonthefluid
propertiesandpipeinclination.Asanexample,Fig.7showstheflowpattern
mapforahorizontalpipeandcertainfluidproperties.Thereisaparticular
combinationofoperationalvelocitieswheretheflowwillarrangeitselfina
slugflowconfiguration.


Fig.7. Flowpatternmapforanhorizontalpipe(AfterMandhaneetal.1974)

x Terrainslugging:Terrainsluggingismainlyduetocyclicaccumulationof
liquidintheproductionsystem(especiallyinlowerpoints).Thishappensin
undulatingwelltrajectories,transportationflowlineswithvaryingtopology
oftheseabedandinrisers.
AnexampleofslugginginasͲshapedproductionriserisshowninFig.8.Liquid
accumulatesinthelowestpipesectionandblockstheflowofgas(a).Theliquidlevel

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startsincreasingandthegaspressureinthehorizontallinealsoincreases(b).Eventually,
theliquidfloodsthesecondflooroftheriser(c).Gaspressureincreasesuntilitis
sufficienttoflushoutalmostalltheliquidintheriser(d).


   
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.8. StagesofsevereslugginginanSͲshapedriser.

Consequencesofslugging

Themainconsequenceofsluggingisthatproductionratesandpressureswill
fluctuateintimewhichisoftendetrimentaltotheproperoperationofthedownstream
processingfacilities.Ingravityseparatorsforexample,asuddeninletofliquidmight
increasesignificantlytheliquidlevel,causingliquidcarryover,activatingthewarningsfor
highliquidlevelandeventriggeringashutdownalarm.
Sluggingalsocausesvibrationinflowlines,manifolds,riserswhichcandevelopin
structuraldamagesduetoelevatedstresslevelsandfatigue.

Management

Sluggingcanbe,tosomeextent,predictedduringthedesignphaseofthefieldusing
commercialmultiphaseflowsimulatorssuchasLeda,OlgaandFlowManager.Ifitis
detectedandithashighseverity(longsluglengths,frequenciesthatcoincidewiththe
naturalfrequencyofthestructure,relevantpressurefluctuations),potentialsolutions
aretochangetheroutingoftheflowline,refillordigsomesectionsoftheseabedthat
cancauseliquidaccumulationorchangingthepipediameter.Smallerpipediameters
increasethegasvelocity,increasingthedragofthegasontheliquidthusreducingthe
liquiddeposition.However,toosmallpipediametersalsocausehigherpressuredrops
thatreduceoverallproductionrates.

Ifsluggingisoccurringinanexistingproductionsystem,someapproachesthathave
beenusedsuccessfullyinthepastaretoapplygasliftintheriserbaseortousethe
topsidechoketochangedynamicallythebackpressureonthelineand“control”the
slug.

SCALING

Scalingistheprecipitationofmineralscompounds(constitutedbyNa,K,Mg,Ca,Ba,
Sr,Fe,Cl)fromtheproducedwaterandtheirdepositiononpipewalls.Scaleoccurswhen
thesolubilityofthemineralsinthewaterdecreasesduetochangesinpressureand
temperature,duetomixingofwatersofdifferentsources,injectionofCO2.Minerals

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usuallydepositonsurfaceareasthatareroughorhaveirregularities(e.g.valve
components).


(a) (b)
Fig.9. Scaleaccumulationinaa)pipe,b)choke

Therearetwomaintypesofscalesthatusuallyoccurinproductionsystems:

x Carbonatescales.ThesescalesareformedwhenCO2dissolvedinthewater
disassociatesincarbonateionsCO3Ͳ2andjoinwithsomeofthe
aforementionedminerals(typicallycalciteCaCO3,IroncarbonateFeCO3).
Theirprecipitationismainlyduetoreductioninpressure(duetoflowin
restrictions,valves,chokes)orincreasesintemperature.Thistypeofscale
canberemovedwithacid.
x Sulphatescales:ThesescalesareformedbythesulphateionSO4Ͳ2thatis
presentinseawater(BariteBaSO4,GypsumCaSO4ͼ2H2O,AnhydriteCaSO4,
CelestiteSrSO4).Itprecipitatesoutofsolutionwhenwatersfromdifferent
sourcesaremixed(e.g.seawaterusedforinjectionandproductionwater
fromtheaquiferorformation).Thepressurehaslittleinfluenceinthe
precipitation,buttheincreaseintemperaturecanreducefurtherthe
solubility.Thistypeofscalemustberemovedmechanically.

Consequences

Scalingcausesgradualblockageoftheflowpathandlossoffunctionalityin
productionequipment(Subsurfacesafetyvalves,chokes).

Management

Studiesareusuallyperformedontheproducedwatertodetermineifitwillbeprone
toformscaleatthepressureandtemperatureconditionsencounteredintheproduction
system.Moreover,specialattentionmustbepayedtosituationswherethereismixing
ofwaterfromdifferentsources,CO2injection.

Scalingisusuallyavoidedbyusingchemicals(scaleinhibitors)thatattachthemselves
tothescaleionsandimpedegrowth.Coatingcanhelptopreventdepositiononthe
surfacesbutwhendamaged(e.g.duetoerosion)theireffectivityisreduced
dramatically.

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Ifscaleformsinacomponentoftheproductionsystem,theremovaltechnique
dependsonthetypeofscale.Carbonatescanberemovedbyacidinjectionand
sulphatescanonlyberemovedmechanically.

EROSION

Erosionisthegradualdamageandlossofmaterialfromthewallofcomponentsof
theproductionsystem(valves,pipes,bends,etc.Fig.10)duetotherepeated
impingementofsolidparticles(sand)ordropletsathighvelocity.



Fig.10. ErosiondamageinacageͲtypechoke.

Consequences

Structuraldamage,vibration,leaksandcorrosion(duetotheremovalofthe
protectivecoating).

Management

Erosionisusuallyaccountedforinthefielddesignphase.Thedesignprocesssizes
theequipmentsuchthatthevelocitiesarebelowcertainlimitvaluethatgivesan
acceptableerosionalrate.Thesecalculationsusuallyconsiderthevelocityof
impingement,theangleofimpingement,theamountofsolidparticlesandthewear
resistanceofthematerial.
Therearesomestandardsthatgiveguidelineshowtoestimateerosivewearfor
commonpipecomponents(e.g.DNVRecommendedPracticeRPO501).However,
complexgeometriesusuallyrequireinͲdepthstudies(e.g.usingcomputationalfluid
dynamics,CFD)toestimateerosionproneareas,fluidvelocities,angleofimpingement,
etc.AnexampleisshowninFig.11.

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Fig.11. CFDsimulationoferosioninaproductionheader

Iferosionisdetectedinanexistingproductionsystemthen,whenpossible,
componentsmightbereevaluatedandreplacedwithgeometriesthatareless
susceptibletoerosion.Alternatively,ifcorrosionisduetoexcessivesandproduction
fromthereservoir,theonlyalternativeisthenreducethewellratetolimitsand
production.

CORROSION

Corrosionisanelectrochemicalreactionwheresteelisconvertedtorustandoccurs
whenmetalisincontactwithwater.Twolocationsareestablishedinthemetal,a
cathodeandananode.Intheanode,ironloseselectronsandbecomesapositively
chargedion.Thisionfurtherreactswithwaterandoxygeninthesurroundingmediato
formrust.ThecathodereceivestheelectronsoftheanodeandgeneratesbyͲproducts
(suchashydrogenH2)withotherions.


(a) (b)
Fig.12. a)Ilustrationoracorrosionreactionb)corrosiononthetubingsurface

Corrosioncanoccurvirtuallyanywhereintheproductionsystemwherewaterisin
contactwithmetal(casing,tubing,flowlines,pipelines,tanks,pumps,etc.).In

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transportationpipes,corrosionusuallyoccursatthepipebottomwherewateris
transported,inlowpipesectionswherewateraccumulatesoratthetopofthepipedue
tosplashingandcondensationofwaterdroplets(alsoknownasTLC,Topofline
corrosion).


Fig.13. Wetgasflowinahorizontalflowlinedepictingtopoflinecondensation

Consequences

Corrosiononanunprotectedpipecancauselossesof1Ͳ20mmofpipethicknessper
year,leadingultimatelytostructuraldamageandleakages.Rustparticlescanalsotravel
downstreamandcauseproblemssuchaspluggingothercomponents.

Management

Themeasurestomitigatecorrosioncanbedividedintotwomainprinciples:

x Eliminatethecontactbetweenwaterfromsteel.Thiscanbedonebyapplyinga
protectivelayeronthesteelsurface,forexamplewithcoating(whichmightbe
eventuallydamagedduetosanderosion),creatingalayerofprotectiveoxide
onthesteel(Fig.14a)orbyusinginhibitors(Fig.14b).

(a) (b)
Fig.14. ProtectivelayerofFeCO3formedonthemetalsurfaceb)inhibitorsattached
tothemetalsurface

x Usesteelmaterialswithhigherresistancetocorrosion.Forexamplealloysteels.
Thisisusuallyfeasibleforwells,butitbecomestooexpensiveforflowlinesand
pipelines.

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WAXDEPOSITION

Waxdepositionoccurswhenlongalkanechains(C18+)precipitateoutofsolution
fromtheoil,agglomerateanddepositonthepipewalls.
Inawaxycrude,whentemperatureisreduceddowntoacertainvalue(forNorthsea
crudesthishappensaround30Ͳ40C),somewaxcrystalswillstarttoprecipitateand
becomevisible.ThetemperaturewhenthisoccursiscalledcloudpointorWAT(wax
appereancetemperature).



(a) (b)
Fig.15. a)WaxcrystalsvisibleinacrudeatWAT,b)WATsatdifferentpressuresin
thephasediagram

TheWATdependsonoilcomposition,typeandmolaramountsofalkanes,pressure,
coolingrate.Waxcrystalstypicallyattachtonucleatingagentspresentintheoil
(asphaltenes6,finesand,clay,water,salt),formwax“clusters”andgrow.

Ifthetemperatureisreducedfurtherdowntothepourpoint,theoilbecomessolidͲ
likeandstopsflowing.


6
AsphaltenesarecoalͲlikesolidsthatalsohavethetendencytoprecipitateoutofthe
crude.TheyarehighmolecularweightcompoundscontainingpolyͲaromaticcarbon
ringswithnitrogen,sulphur,oxygenandheavymetalssuchasvanadiumandnickel.

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Fig.16. Crudeoilnotflowingoncethepourpointisreached

WaxdepositionoccurswhenALLthefollowingingredientsarepresent:
x WaxͲpronecomponentsintheoilcomposition(longalkanechains).
x TemperaturebelowWAT.
x Pipewallcolderthanthefluidsuchthatthereisatemperatureprofileinthefluid
reducingtowardsthepipewall(temperaturegradient).
x Irregularitiesonthewallwherewaxclustersattach.

Waxdepositsagewithtimeandbecomemorerigid(thusmoredifficulttoremove).

Consequences

Inflowlinesandpipelines:
‡ Increasespressuredropduetotheincreaseinpiperoughness.
‡ Reductionofcrosssectionarea.
‡ Pipeblockage.



(a) (b)
Fig.17. a)waxplugretrievedtopside(StatfjordB),b)evolutionofthewaxthickness
inapipelinewithtime.

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‡ Thepresenceofwaxcrystalsinthefluidschangesitsrheology(e.g.makingit
nonNewtonianorwithahighereffectiveviscosity).
‡ DuringshutͲdowns,thetemperatureofthefluidcanreachthepourpointof
thecrude,causingitnottoflow(gelling).

Management

Thefirststepindevelopingawaxmanagementstrategyistotestthecrudeoilinthe
laboratoryandmeasureandquantifyallofitspropertiesrelevantfordeposition.

Acommonmanagementmethodforwaxistoperformfrequentpigging.Pigging
consistsinsendingadevice(pig)insidethepipethatscrapsthewaxdepositsandpushes
themforward.Pigsareusuallysentandreceivedfromtheprocessingfacilitiesthustwo
pipelinesmustbeinstalled.Therearealsosubseapiglaunchers,butthisiseconomic
onlyforsystemswithverylowpiggingfrequency.

Piggingfrequencyisusuallyestimatedbyperformingnumericalsimulationsto
computetheprofileofdepositedwaxalongtheflowlinewithtime.Withthis,thetotal
amountofwaxdepositedinthesystematanygiventimeisestimated.Thereisa
maximumlengthandweightofwaxthatcanbepushedthroughthepipe,givenbythe
maximumallowablepressurethatthepipecantolerate.Therequiredpiggingfrequency
isgivenbythetimeatwhichthatwaxamountisreached.

Othertechniquesusedarekeepingthefluidoutsideofthewaxformationregion.
Thisisdonebythermalinsulationorelectricalheating.However,forlongflowlines,
electricalheatingisusuallyveryexpensiveandinsulationaloneisnotenoughtokeep
temperaturehigh.Thusinmostcasesinsulationorelectricalheatingareoftenusedto
reducewaxdepositionratestogetherwithpigging.

Chemicalinhibitorsthatarealsoofteninjected.Chemicalinhibitorsworkbyreducing
thecloudpointofthecrudeorbypreventingfurtheragglomerationofwaxcrystals.As
withinsulation,inmanysystemsthisdoesn’teliminatecompletelytheproblembutit
helpsslowingdownthedepositionrate.Pleasenotethatchemicalinhibitorsare
expensive.

Iftheseabedtemperatureisbeloworequalthepourpointoftheoil,thenitis
necessarytoinjectchemicalinhibitorsbeforeshuttingdownthesystemtoavoidgelling.

Inrecentyearspipecoatinghasbeenproposedasatechniquetoavoidwax
attachingtopipewalls.Howeveritisnotyetfieldtested.


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InsystemswithwaxͲproneoilsthepressuredropbetweenendpointsofflowlines
shouldbecloselymonitored.Anyunexplainedincreasemightindicatewaxdepositionand
mustbeimmediatelyaddressed.

OILͲWATEREMULSIONS

OilͲwateremulsionsarefineandstabledispersionsofoildropletsinwaterorwater
dropletsinoil(Fig.18).Theformationofemulsionsdependsonavarietyoffactorssuch
asthedynamicsofmultiphaseflow,thepropertiesofoilandwatersuchasviscosityand
interfacialtension,theshearstress(mixing)experiencedbythemixture,chemical
compoundspresentintheoilͲwaterinterface.Inproductionsystems,themixingis
typicallygeneratedwhencomminglingproductionfromdifferentsources,duetothe
violentexpansionacrossthechoke,flowthroughmultiphasepumps,etc.

 
(a) (b)
Fig.18. a)oil(red)andwater(White)originallyseparated,b)oilandwateremulsion
aftervigorousstirringinablender

Consequences

Inpipeflow,emulsionsoftenexhibitthebehaviorpresentedinFig.19.Forafixed
volumetricrateofthemixture(qo+qw),ifonemeasuresthepressuredropalongapipe
segmentforseveralwatervolumefractions,itwillincreasewithwatervolumefraction
untilamaximumisreachedandthenitwilldeclineabruptly.Thewatervolumefraction
thathasthehighestpressuregradientiscalledtheinversionpoint.Pleasenotethatthe
increaseinpressuredropissignificant(more2.5timestheoneforpureoilinthefigure).
Whenincreasingthewaterfraction,attheinversionpointthedispersionchanges
fromanoilinwaterdispersiontoawaterinoildispersion.

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Fig.19. Measuredpressuredropinahorizontalpipekeepingthetotalflowrate
constantandchangingwatervolumefraction,qw/(qw+qo)

Usinganhomogeneousmodel(singlefluidwithaverageproperties)onecanbackͲ
calculatetheeffectivemixtureor“emulsion”viscositythatthemixtureshouldhaveto
providethepressuredropmeasured(Fig.20).Fortheparticularcase,theemulsion
viscosityattheinversionpoint(570cp)is7.1timestheviscosityoftheoil(80cp).


Fig.20. Mixtureviscositybehaviorversuswatervolumefractionexhibitedbytheoil
watermixture

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TherearemanyexpressionsusedtorepresentthebehaviorshowninFig.20thatare
laterusedinemulsionpressuredropmodels.Mostofthemrequiredatameasuredin
thelabtotunetheircoefficients.Asanexample,theRicharsonmodelisshownbelow.

 Foroilcontinuous
Pm Po ˜ e n ˜D 
o w

Eq.1.
Forwatercontinuous
Pm P w ˜ e n ˜D
w w 

Consequences

Emulsionscancauseexcessivepressuredropsinpipesegmentsandcomponents,
whichcanreducedramaticallyproductionrates,pumpingcapacityofelectric
submersiblepumps,etc.Moreover,stableemulsionsaredifficulttoseparatein
processingfacilitiesthuscreatingbottlenecksandfluiddisposalproblems.

Management

Duringthefielddesignphase,thecapacityoilandwatersystemtoformemulsions
canbesomewhatstudiedwithlaboratorytests(shakingbottletests).However,these
resultshavesometimeslimitedapplicabilitypartlybecausetheshearmagnitudes
(mixing)appliedinthelaboratoryconditionsareverydifferentfromthemixing
experiencedinthefield.

Whenthereismixingofstreamswithdifferentwatercut,theinversionpointmust
beavoided.

Often,chemicalsubstancessuchasdemulsifiersandlightoils(diluent)areinjected
intothestreamtoreducethestabilityoftheemulsion.Lightoilsreducetheviscosityof
theformationoil,thushelpingseparation.Demulsifiersarechemicalsthatattach
themselvestotheinterfacebetweenoilandwaterpromotingseparation.

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