…information for program providers on

assessing and enhancing self-concept

among adolescents.
August 2008
Publication #2008-32

ASSESSING WHAT KIDS THINK ABOUT THEMSELVES: A GUIDE TO ADOLESCENT

SELF-CONCEPT FOR OUT-OF-SCHOOL TIME PROGRAM PRACTITIONERS
Alena M. Hadley, M.S., Elizabeth C. Hair, Ph.D., and Kristin Anderson Moore, Ph.D.

BACKGROUND An adolescent can make targeted self-evaluations in

Children in the United States tend to experience a de- a number of different domains. Researchers have
cline in positive self-concept during their adolescent identified the following eight domains that make up
years. This decline often begins around age 12 for an adolescent’s self-concept:4
girls and around age 14 for boys. For some, the de- • Scholastic competence
cline can become severe in early adolescence • Athletic competence
(between the ages 14 and 16) before generally recov- • Physical appearance
ering in the mid-teen years.1 Having a negative self- • Peer acceptance
concept during adolescence has been associated with • Close friendships
maladaptive behaviors and emotions. In contrast, • Romantic relationships
having a positive self-concept has been linked to • Job competence
positive social and emotional development. This brief • Conduct/morality
discusses child and adolescent self-concept and pro-
vides information for out-of-school time program An adolescent’s self-concept is dynamic, and causal-
practitioners on how to assess self-concept among ity is complex. That is, problems and difficulties
program participants. The brief also suggests ways can lower self-concept; but low self-concept can also
that program practitioners can foster positive self- cause problems. For example, researchers have
concept in adolescents. found that levels of self-worth in each of the above
domains are associated with behaviors and accom-
WHAT IS SELF-CONCEPT? plishments relevant to success in those particular
areas of development. For adolescents, having a high
Self-concept refers to self-evaluation or self- academic self-concept is associated with positive
perception, and it represents the sum of an individ- academic performance5 and having a high physical
ual’s beliefs about his or her own attributes. Self- self-concept is related to increased physical activity,
concept reflects how an adolescent evaluates himself for example.6 Positive overall self-concepts have
or herself in domains (or areas) in which he or she been linked to various markers of positive develop-
considers success important.2 An adolescent can have ment, including positive peer relationships10 and
a positive self-concept in some domains and a nega- overall happiness.11
tive self-concept in others. Research also suggests
that each individual has a global (or overall) self- Having an overall negative self-concept in adoles-
concept that reflects how the individual evaluates his cence has been associated with depression,7 drug
or her self-worth as a whole.3 use,8 and eating disorders in girls.9 Both male and
female adolescents struggle with negative self-
concepts, but female adolescents tend to worry more
© 2008 Child Trends
about physical appearance than do males.12 Ad- your paper,” bring up the adolescent’s actions
ditionally, Black adolescents tend to have more and abilities by saying “You worked so hard on
positive self-concepts than do their white coun- that paper, and you really deserve the good
terparts.13 grade that you got.”
• Strategy 2: Praise the adolescent’s efforts.
SIGNS OF NEGATIVE SELF-CONCEPT IN Research suggests that children who focus on
ADOLESCENTS improving their skills gain self-worth through
Several signs may indicate that an adolescent growth. In contrast, children who only focus on
has a negative self-concept. These may include achievements base their self-worth solely on
one or more of the following:14 their successes and failures.17 Program directors
and staff members should praise adolescents’
• Doing poorly in school; efforts and improvement in skills, in addition to
• Having few friends; the praise directed towards their accomplish-
• Putting down oneself and others; ments.
• Rejecting compliments; • Strategy 3: Work with the adolescent to
• Teasing others; improve skills in domains in which he or she
• Showing excessive amounts of anger; feels deficient. Program directors and staff
• Being excessively jealous; members must first work with youth to identify
• Appearing conceited; or and discuss elements of tasks that show room
• Hesitating to try new things. for improvement. Staff members can then pro-
vide the guidance, support, and resources
WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOU THINK AN needed to accomplish this improvement. Strate-
ADOLESCENT IN YOUR PROGRAM HAS A gies include helping adolescents practice skills,
NEGATIVE SELF-CONCEPT? giving them tips, or suggesting relevant work-
If you think that one of the participants in your shops or programs to enhance skills. Recognize
program suffers from a negative self-concept, that skill training is typically only effective
there are a number of steps that you can take. when it is used in conjunction with positive
First, program directors and staff members feedback.
should identify the particular domains in which • Strategy 4: Refrain from negative com-
the child feels inadequate (e.g., scholastic, ath- ments or feedback. Research finds that praise
letic, etc.). Helping improve self-concept in the and positive reinforcement are more effective in
domain in which the adolescent feels inadequate changing behavior and sustaining positive be-
should contribute to helping the adolescent im- havior.18 Avoid making negative comments or
prove his or her overall self-concept.15 Once giving negative feedback to a child. Instead,
program directors and staff members have iden- describe and praise what they should do, rather
tified the domains in which an adolescent has a than what they should not do.
negative self-concept, several strategies can be
used to improve that self-concept: Note: Program practitioners should pay special
attention to the gravity of the negative self-
• Strategy 1: Praise the adolescent’s ac- concepts that adolescents in their programs may
complishments in specific domains. Specifi- exhibit. If staff members notice that an adoles-
cally, praise the adolescent’s successes. Feed- cent shows signs of having an extremely nega-
back is most effective when it addresses the role tive self-concept, this may indicate that he or
that the adolescent played in producing positive she is suffering from serious mental health
outcomes.16 For example, rather than simply issues, such as depression or anxiety. Symp-
saying “It’s great that you got a good grade on toms, such as feelings of anxiety, worthlessness,

© 2008 Child Trends 2

and disinterest in hobbies, require attention out- purposes, the IRB must approve your research
side of the out-of-school time program. Should plan.
program practitioners notice that a participant in
their program shows any of these or similar Measures of Self-Concept
symptoms, they should seek ways to inform or The five measures on the next page require indi-
involve parents to help their child and refer him viduals to rate the extent to which they person-
or her to a trained clinician. For more informa- ally agree with each of a series of six state-
tion, program practitioners may also want to ments.
refer to the Child Trends research brief on as-
sessing mental health in adolescents.19

To summarize, strategies that can be used to

improve an adolescent’s self-concept include
providing praise for accomplishments, praising
effort, working with the individual to encourage
improvement in areas where he or she feels de-
ficient, and refraining from using negative feed-
back.

ASSESSING SELF-CONCEPT
Below, we provide a series of measures that
programs may use to assess the self-concepts of
participating children and adolescents.20 We
provide items to measure each of the following
domains of self-concept: scholastic competence,
athletic competence, physical appearance, peer
acceptance, and conduct/morality. You may
wish to use one or several sets of items. With
the information provided by these tools, you
will be able to better determine services that
participants in your programs may need and to
more effectively monitor trends in self-concept
over time.

It is a good idea to involve a researcher or re-

search organization to help you learn how best
to ask sensitive questions such as these. A re-
searcher can also help you work with your local
Institutional Review Board (IRB), which will
look over the questions that you want to ask and
the way you are going to obtain the information
(e.g., paper-and-pencil survey, or in-person in-
terviews). The IRB will also make sure the chil-
dren and/or adolescents in your program have
parental permission and have agreed to partici-
pate. To use these instruments for assessment

© 2008 Child Trends 3

Instructions. Please use this list of sentences to describe yourself as accurately as possible. Describe yourself as you see your-
self at the present time, not as you wish to be in the future. Describe yourself as you are generally or typically, as compared
with other persons you know of the same sex and of roughly your same age. There is no right or wrong answer. Please choose
the number that best describes you.21

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Agree Strongly
Disagree Nor Disagree Agree

Athletic Competence
___ 1. I think that I could do well at just about any new sports activity that I haven’t tried before.
___ 2. I do very well at all kinds of sports.
___ 3. I feel that I am better than others my age at sports.
___ 4. I wish that I could be a lot better at sports.*
___ 5. I don’t do well at new outdoor games.*
___ 6. In games and sports, I usually watch instead of play.*

Conduct/Morality
___ 1. I behave very well most of the time.
___ 2. I usually do the right thing.
___ 3. I do things that I know I shouldn’t do.*
___ 4. I usually act the way that I am supposed to.
___ 5. I usually get into trouble because of the things that I do.*
___ 6. I often do not like the way that I behave.*

Peer Acceptance
___ 1. I would like to have a lot more friends.*
___ 2. I am popular with others my age.
___ 3. I am always doing things with a lot of kids.
___ 4. I wish that more people my age like me.*
___ 5. I have lots of friends.
___ 6. I find it hard to make friends.*

Physical Appearance
___ 1. I am happy with my height and weight.
___ 2. I am happy with the way that I look.
___ 3. I wish my physical appearance (how I look) were different.*
___ 4. I wish my body were different.*
___ 5. I wish that something about my face or hair looked different.*
___ 6. I think that I am good-looking.

Scholastic Competence
___ 1. I feel that I am very good at my schoolwork.
___ 2. I often forget what I learn.*
___ 3. I feel like I am as smart as other kids my age.
___ 4. I do very well in my classwork.
___ 5. I am pretty slow in finishing my schoolwork.*
___ 6. I have trouble figuring out the answers in school.*

When scoring each item, first check to see if there is an asterisk (*) following the statement. For items with asterisks, apply
the following rules:

• A value of “1” will be changed to “5”

• A value of “2” will be changed to “4”
• A value of “4” will be changed to “2”
• A value of “5” will be changed to “1”
© 2008 Child Trends 4
Next, add up the total number of points received on the scale or scales. A score of 17 or less on a scale indicates a negative
self-concept in the relevant domain.
ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENT OPTIONS
22
• Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). The SPPA is a 45-item domain-specific
self-concept scale. This scale is especially appropriate when attempting to measure all eight
domains of self-concept, because it contains questions on job competence, close friendships,
and romantic relationships, in addition to the five domains addressed in the scale above. The
SPPA also has a measure of overall self-worth.
23
• Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, Second Edition. The Piers-Harris 2 is a
60-item scale that measures an adolescent’s general self-concept, as well as the following
six domains: behavioral adjustment, intellectual and school status, physical appearance and
attributes, freedom from anxiety, popularity, and happiness and satisfaction.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ON SELF-CONCEPT FOR YOUR PROGRAM

• KidsHealth: Nemours Foundation
For information about enhancing an adolescent’s self-concept, go to
www.kidshealth.org.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ON MENTAL HEALTH FOR YOUR PROGRAM

• National Institute of Mental Health
Find additional information on depression and anxiety by going to www.nimh.nih.gov
or e-mailing [email protected]. You can also use the institute’s Web site to find local
treatment options for depression and anxiety.
• National Alliance on Mental Illness
Find local treatment and program options by calling 1-800-950-NAMI or going to
www.nami.org. The Web site also sponsors online discussion groups, which serve as
sources of support for teens, parents, and providers.
• National Mental Health Association
For additional information on mental health issues, available in both English and Span-
ish, call 1-800-969-6642 / TTY: 1-800-433-5959 or go to www.nmha.org.
• Suicide Hotlines
This Web site provides local resources and hotlines for each state. Call 1-800-SUICIDE
(784-2433), or visit www.suicidehotlines.com.
• Anxiety Disorders Association of America
For information on specific forms of anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety dis-
order and obsessive compulsive disorder, visit www.adaa.org.

CONCLUSION
Because negative self-concept in adolescence has been associated with various maladaptive be-
havioral and emotional problems, it is important to address signs of negative self-concept in
youth. This brief emphasizes the importance of assessing the various domains that make up an
adolescent’s self-concept. Furthermore, by determining the specific causes of a negative self-
concept, program directors and staff can use a variety of techniques to help adolescents combat
any negative views that they may hold about themselves. By intervening to improve adoles-
cents’ self-concepts, out-of-school time programs hold the potential to influence the social, aca-
demic, and behavioral adjustment of adolescents at a critical time in their development.

© 2008 Child Trends 5

REFERENCES
1
Baldwin, S. A., & Hoffmann, J. P. (2002). The dynamics of self-esteem: A growth-curve analysis. Journal of
Youth and Adolescence, 31, 101-113.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
4
Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: The Guilford Press.
5
Byrne, B. M. (1996). Academic self-concept: Its structure, measurement, and relation to academic achievement. In
B. A. Bracken (Ed.), Handbook of self-concept: Developmental, social, and clinical considerations (pp. 287-316).
New York: Wiley.
6
Marsh, H. W., Papaioannou, A., & Theodorakis, Y. (2006). Causal ordering of physical self-concept and exercise
behavior: Reciprocal effects model and the influence of physical education teachers. Health Psychology, 25, 316-
328.
7
Lewinsohn, P. M., Gotlib, I. H., & Seeley, J. R. (1997). Depression-related psychosocial variables: Are they spe-
cific to depression in adolescents? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 365-375.
8
Andrews, J.A., & Duncan, S.C. (1997). Examining the reciprocal relation between academic motivation and sub-
stance use: Effects of family relationships, self-esteem, and general deviance. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20,
523-549.
9
Crowther, J. H., & Chernyk, B. (1986). Bulimia and binge eating in adolescent females: A comparison. Addictive
Behaviors, 11, 415-424.
10
Tarrant, M., MacKenzie, L., & Hewitt, L. A. (2006). Friendship group identification, multidimensional self-
concept, and experience of developmental tasks in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 627-640.
11
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2004). Perceived parental rearing style, self-esteem and self-criticism as predictors of
happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 1-21.
12
Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: The Guilford Press.
13
Ibid.
14
Children’s Hospital. (2007). Self-esteem for adolescents. Retrieved online October 5, 2007, from http://
www.chsomaha.org/body.cfm?id=1006
15
Ibid.
16
O’Mara, A.J., Marsh, H.W., Craven, R.G., & Debus, R.L. (2006). Do self-concept interventions make a differ-
ence? A synergistic blend of construct validation and meta-analysis. Educational Psychologist, 41, 181-206.
17
Dweck, C.S., & Leggett, E.L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological
Review, 95, 256-273.
18
Maag, J.W., & Kotlash, J. (1994). Review of stress inoculation training with children and adolescents: Issues and
recommendations. Behavior Modification, 18, 443-469.
19
Martin, L., & Milot, A. (2007). Assessing the mental health of adolescents: A guide for out-of-school time pro-
gram practitioners. (Research to Results brief). Washington, DC: Child Trends. Available online at http://
www.childtrends.org/Files//MentalHealth.pdf
20
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the self-perception profile for children (revision of the Perceived Competence Scale
for Children). Denver: University of Denver.
21
Ibid.
22
Harter, S. (1988). Manual for the self-perception profile for adolescents. Denver: University of Denver Press.
23
Piers, E.V., & Herzberg, D.S. (2002). Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, Second Edition. Los Angeles,
CA: Western Psychological Services.

SUPPORTED BY: The Atlantic Philanthropies

Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research center that studies children at every stage of development. Its
mission is to improve outcomes for children by providing research, data, and analysis to the people and institutions
whose decisions and actions affect children. For additional information on Child Trends, including a complete set
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© 2008 Child Trends 6