Skeletal System Axial

Chapter 7
The Axial
Skeleton
Lecture slides prepared by Curtis DeFriez, Weber State University

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Divisions of the Skeletal System
• The human skeleton consists of 206
named bones grouped into two principal

divisions:
▪ Axial skeleton
▪ Appendicular skeleton
• In this graphic, the axial skeleton is
highlighted in blue, while the

appendicular skeleton constitutes the
remainder.
• The axial skeleton consists of the bones that lie around
the longitudinal axis of the human body:

▪ Skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone,
ribs, sternum (breastbone), and bones of the vertebral

column
• The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the
upper and lower limbs (extremities) and the bones

forming the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial
skeleton.
Interactions Animation
• The Skeletal System
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Types of Bones
• Each of the 206 named bones of the axial and
appendicular skeleton can

be placed in one of 6
broad classifications
based on their
embryological origins
and their anatomical
characteristics.

Types of Bones
• Long bones are greater in length than in width and are
often slightly curved for the purpose of weight bearing.

▪ Examples include the femur, tibia, fibula, humerus,
ulna, radius, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

• Short bones (cube-shaped) include the carpals & tarsals.
• Flat bones are thin and composed of two nearly parallel
plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.

▪ They include the cranial bones, ribs, sternum, scapulae,
and clavicles.
Types of Bones
• Irregular bones include complex shapes like the vertebrae
and some facial bones.

• Sesamoid bones vary in number and
protect tendons from excessive wear:

▪ The best example is the patella.
▪ Sesamoid bones can develop fractures
due to friction, tension, and stress.

Types of Bones
➢ Sutural bones, also known as Wormian bones, are small
extra bone plates located

within the sutures of
cranial bones.
▪ These are found as
isolated examples, and

although unusual, they
are not rare.

Bone Markings
• Bones have characteristic surface markings - structural
features adapted for specific functions.

• There are two major types of surface markings:
▪ Depressions and openings
• Allow the passage of blood vessels and nerves

• Form joints
▪ Processes
• Projections or outgrowths that form joints

• Serve as attachment points for ligaments and tendons
Bone Markings
• While a process is any projection of bone (large or small),
a spinous process is a slender projection from a vertebrae.

• A foramen is an opening in
bone through which blood

vessels and/or
nerves pass.

Bone Markings
• If a bony process is large, round, and articular, it might be
called a condyle. The condyles of the humerus are the

Trochlea and
the Capitulum.
• An epicondyle is a
bony protuberance
above a condyle.
• A fossa is a shallow
depression in bone.
Bone Markings
• A tubercle is a small rounded projection.
• A tuberosity is a large bony prominence
that is not articular.

Bone Markings
• A meatus is a tube-like canal. The external auditory
meatus is a good example.

• The trochanters are two very
large bony projections on the femur.

Bone Markings

Bone Markings

Bones of the Axial Skeleton
• There are 80 bones in the central (axial)
skeleton, comprising:
▪ Skull
▪ Vertebral column (including the
sacrum)
▪ Ribs
▪ Sternum

Bones of the Skull
• The skull protects and supports the brain and special
sense organs.
• Besides forming the large cranial cavity, the skull also
forms several smaller cavities.

▪ Nasal cavity
▪ Orbits (eye sockets)
▪ Paranasal sinuses
▪ Small cavities which house organs involved in hearing
and equilibrium
Bones of the Skull
• The bones of the skull are grouped into two categories:
▪ Cranial bones
▪ Facial bones
Cranial
bones
Facial
bones

Bones of the Skull
• 8 Cranial Bones • 14 Facial Bones
(Bones of the Braincase) ▪ Mandible (1)
▪ Frontal bone (1) ▪ Maxilla (2)
▪ Parietal bone (2) ▪ Zygomatic bone (2)
▪ Temporal bone (2) ▪ Nasal bones (2)
▪ Occipital bone (1)
▪ Lacrimal bones (2)
▪ Sphenoid bone (1)
▪ Palatine bones (2)
▪ Ethmoid bone (1)
▪ Inf. Nasal conchae (2)
▪ Vomer (1)
Bones of the Skull
• The braincase
(neurocranium) has 8
bones: Single frontal,
occipital (not shown on
this graphic), ethmoid,
and sphenoid bones, and
paired temporal and
parietal bones.

Bones of the Skull
Frontal bone
Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone

Bones of the Skull
• A suture is a “seam” – an immovable joint between
bones of the skull. Coronal Suture
Squamous Suture
Lambdoidal
Suture

Bones of the Skull
• Fontanels (“little fountains”) are soft, mesenchyme-filled
spaces between cranial bones in babies. They will become

suture joints in adults.

Bones of the Skull
• The paranasal sinuses are prominent features of the frontal
bone, ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, and maxillary bones.
Greater and lesser wings

of the Sphenoid
bone
Sphenoid
sinus
Ethmoid bone (top) showing the “air cells” that make up

the Ethmoid sinuses. Sphenoid bone (right)
Bones of the Skull
• With the exception of the ethmoid sinuses, the other
paranasal sinuses are paired.

▪ They are lined with mucus
membranes that humidify

and warm the air.
▪ Reduce weight in the skull
▪ Help to resonate the
sound of our voice

Bones of the Skull
• Of the 8 cranial bones that fit together to form the
braincase, the sphenoid bone is the “keystone”.

▪ Like the keystone of a roman arch, the sphenoid is the
“center brick” that balances the outward thrust of

the other bones.
Representation
of a Roman Arch
Bones of the Skull
The Sphenoid bone
The rest of the braincase bones are dependent for support on

the sphenoid bone (with its greater and lesser wings).
Bones of the Skull
• 14 Facial Bones:
▪ Mandible (1)
Nasal bones
▪ Maxilla (2)
Zygomatic
▪ Vomer (1)
bone
▪ Nasal bones (2) Maxilla
▪ Zygomatic bones (2) Mandible
▪ Lacrimal bones (2)
▪ Palatine bones (2)
▪ Inf. Nasal conchae (2)

Bones of the Skull
Perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid Nasal bones
bone Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Middle nasal concha
Vomer
Inferior nasal concha
Maxilla (fused)
Mandible

Bones of the Skull
Nasal bones
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer
Maxilla
Palatine bone
Mandible

Bones of the Skull
• Besides protecting the brain, the skull provides a
framework for:
▪ Attachment of muscles that move various parts of the
head
▪ Attachment for muscles that produce facial expressions
• The facial bones form the framework of the face and
provide support for the entrances to the digestive and

respiratory systems.

The Vertebral Column
• The spine is composed of a series of bones called vertebrae.
• Vertebrae typically consist of:
▪ A body (weight bearing)
▪ A pedicle and lamina
forming the vertebral arch

(surrounds the spinal cord)
▪ Several processes (points
of attachment for muscles)

• There are 7 cervical vertebrae in the
neck region labeled C1 -C7 .

• There are 12 thoracic vertebrae that
articulate with the ribs (T1 -T12).

• There are 5 lumbar vertebrae that
support the lower back labeled L1 -L5 .

• The sacrum and coccyx are single
bones that result from the fusion of

several vertebrae.
• From the cervical region to the
sacrum, each vertebra has a large

central hole, or vertebral
foramen in which the spinal
cord can travel.
• At each segmental level, on both
the right and left sides, an

intervertebral foremen is formed
for the exiting spinal nerves.
• A tough fibrocartilage intervertebral disc is found
between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae.

▪ It functions to absorb vertical shock and form joints
which are strong

yet still permit
movement
of the spine.

• When viewed from the front, a normal adult vertebral
column appears straight.

• When viewed from the side,
it has four slight bends which

constitute the normal spinal
curvatures.

Vertebral Column
• Relative to the front of the
body, the cervical and lumbar

curves are convex (bulging
out),
• The thoracic and sacral curves
are concave (cupping in).

• Various conditions may exaggerate the normal spinal
curves, sometimes causing severe disability.


• The cervical vertebrae comprise the bony spine in the
neck:
▪ C1 is called the Atlas because it holds up the head the
way the Titan of Greek mythology supported the

world.
▪ C2 is called the Axis because it provides a pivot,
allowing the head to turn on the neck.

• Without these first two
specialized cervical
vertebra, the head-on-
neck range of motion
would be very limited.

• Below the neck, each of the 12 pairs of thoracic vertebrae
articulate with a rib to
form the posterior part
of the thoracic cage.

• Because the lumbar vertebrae (5) bear greater loads, they
are much stouter than their more superior cousins (the
cervical and thoracic vertebrae).

• The sacrum is a single triangular body formed from a
fusion of 5 separate vertebrae in-utero (during fetal
development).

• The coccyx, commonly referred to as the tailbone, is the
final segment of the bony spine.
▪ It is also an in-utero fusion of 3–5 separate vertebrae.

The Thorax
• The thoracic cage is the final part of the axial skeleton.
• In addition to the thoracic vertebrae, it is formed from:
▪ The sternum
▪ The ribs and costal cartilages
• Its functions are to enclose and protect the organs in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities:

▪ Provide support for the bones of the upper limbs
▪ Play a role in breathing

The Thorax
• The sternum or “breastbone” is located anteriorly in the
center of the thoracic wall.

▪ Consists of the manubrium, body, xiphoid process
• The 12 pairs of ribs give structural support to the sides of
the thoracic cavity.

• The costal (having to do with the ribs) cartilages are bars
of hyaline cartilage connecting the sternum to the ribs.

▪ Contribute to the elasticity of the thoracic cage

The Thorax

The Thorax

The Thorax
• The upper 7 rib pairs are called true ribs because they
attach “directly” to the

sternum (with just a
small piece of costal
cartilage).

The Thorax
• The bottom 5 pairs of ribs (and this number can vary from
one individual to another) are called

false ribs.
▪ They attach indirectly to the
sternum with an elongated piece

of costal cartilage…
▪ … or not at all (ribs 11 and 12
are called floating ribs.)

The Thorax

End of Chapter 7
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Chapter 7

Lecture slides prepared by Curtis DeFriez, Weber State University

named bones grouped into two principal

• In this graphic, the axial skeleton is

highlighted in blue, while the

the longitudinal axis of the human body:

ribs, sternum (breastbone), and bones of the vertebral

upper and lower limbs (extremities) and the bones

You must be connected to the internet to run this animation

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

appendicular skeleton can

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

often slightly curved for the purpose of weight bearing.

ulna, radius, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

• Flat bones are thin and composed of two nearly parallel

plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.

and some facial bones.

protect tendons from excessive wear:

▪ Sesamoid bones can develop fractures

due to friction, tension, and stress.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

extra bone plates located

▪ These are found as

isolated examples, and

are not rare.

features adapted for specific functions.

▪ Depressions and openings

• Allow the passage of blood vessels and nerves

• Projections or outgrowths that form joints

a spinous process is a slender projection from a vertebrae.

bone through which blood

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

called a condyle. The condyles of the humerus are the

• A tuberosity is a large bony prominence

that is not articular.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

meatus is a good example.

large bony projections on the femur.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

▪ Vertebral column (including the

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

forms several smaller cavities.

▪ Orbits (eye sockets)

▪ Small cavities which house organs involved in hearing

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

bones of the skull. Coronal Suture

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

spaces between cranial bones in babies. They will become

Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

bone, ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, and maxillary bones.

Greater and lesser wings

Ethmoid bone (top) showing the “air cells” that make up

paranasal sinuses are paired.

membranes that humidify

▪ Help to resonate the

sound of our voice