GLOBAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES VOL 8, NO.

2, 2010: 27-35 27
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LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-

MIXING IN BIASE
MERCY UGOT
(Received 7, August 2009; Revision Accepted 12, November 2009)

ABSTRACT
This paper examines language choice and the twin phenomena of code-switching and code-
mixing in a multi-lingual Biase Local Government Area in Cross River State, Nigeria. It looks at the
different languages spoken in Biase - from the local languages which serve as mother tongues (MT/L1)
to other languages in use in the Local Government Area, including English, Efik and the Nigerian Pidgin
(NP). It also looks at options open to the indigenes in the use of all the languages in the area and
circumstances that dictate the use of any particular language with another. This paper focuses on the
uniqueness of code-switching and code-mixing in Biase which is based on its direction and dimension
and the implication of this linguistic behaviour in Biase languages.

KEYWORDS: Code-Switching, Code-Mixing, Mother Tongue, Language Interference, Multilingual.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Cross and Upper Cross groups of languages.

In order to understand the discussion Biase languages fall within the Upper Cross
that follows, it is best to have a clear view of the Group.
people and the socio-linguistic area we are Biase languages can also be classified in status
referring to. Biase Local Government Area is one as minority languages based on demography or
of the eighteen (18) Local Government Areas in numerical strength, development and, to a lesser
Cross River State, Nigeria. Geographically, Biase extent, power/dominance as summarised by
is found within the Cross River basin. It is made Essien (2003).
up of five (5) clans, namely Ubaghara, Erei,
Umon, Egip-Ipa and Ehom. Each clan consists of 2.0 A SOCIO-LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
a number of political units ranging from four (4) to OF BIASE
an estimated twenty-four (24) communities (Attoe Udoh (2003) observes that Local
1990). Biase has an estimated population of a Government boundaries in Cross River State do
little over one hundred thousand (100,000) not exactly correspond to ethnic group
scattered over sixty (60) villages with the greatest demarcation as a result of which there are very
concentration in Egip-Ipa clan (Ministry of few linguistically homogeneous Local
Finance and Economic Planning, Cross River Government Areas. Biase falls under a
and Akwa Ibom States Population Bulletin, heterogeneous Local Government Area with
Statistics Division, Calabar 1983-1990). Umon, except for Utuma within it, being the only
The languages of Biase have variously linguistically homogenous clan. Other clans
been classified by Faraclass (1989), Williamson demonstrate purely political groupings with
and Blench (2000) and Essien (2003) as linguistic overlapping (Ugot forthcoming). For
belonging to the Benue-Congo sub-family of the example, although the Mmewhu language is
Niger-Congo larger family. Crozier and Blench spoken in Akpet-Central and Akpet 1, these
(1992) list the Cross River Group to comprise areas fall under Egip-Ipa clan, which comprises
Bendi and Delta-Cross, which together contain mainly the Nne (Agwagune Cluster) group of
the largest number of languages. The Delta- languages. Idoma also stands out in the midst of
Cross group is further divided into the Lower Mmewhu (Ukpet-Ehom Cluster) group of
Mercy Ugot, Central for General Studies, Cross River University of Technology Calabar, Cross River
State
28 MERCY UGOT
languages as Iyonginyong is spoken there. Nne (Agwagune cluster), Mmewhu or Mehu
There are six (6) main language (Ukpet-Ehom Cluster), Umon, Isangiyongo and
groupings in Biase. These include Ubaghara, Iyongiyong. See Table 1.

Table 1: Indigenous Languages Spoken in Biase

Major Towns/Villages
S/N Language Group/Cluster
(where Language is Spoken)
1 Ubaghara Biakpan, Ikun, Ugbem, Utuma, Etono 1
2 Nne (Agwagune Cluster) comprising Adim, Abayongo, Ipene, Urugbam, Ibini, Abini,
Erei, Abini, Adim (Utum), Abayongo, Okurike, Itu-Agwagune, Egbizim, Emomoro, Ibene-
Etono II, Etono Central and Agwagune Abang.
3 Mmewhu or Mehu (Ukpet-Ehom Akpet-Central, Akpet 1, Ehom, Betem, Igbofia.
Cluster)
4 Isanginyongo Iwuru.
5 Iyongiyong Ekpri-Ibami, Akwa-Ibami, Agbangana, Idoma.
6 Umon (There are 24 towns and villages Ikot-Ana, Igere, Okpo, Ufut, Amanrang, Bechei,
in Umon clan. The language is spoken Inurasu, Akpasip, Berekpe, Ikot-Abasi-Aniyom,
consistently throughout the clan except Umon Island, Enu-Ovai, Ayaba, Ikot-Ogbomdan,
in Utuma where Ubaghara is spoken) Agbana, Gany, Ikot-Okpora, Itan, Bereukpan,
Ogodim-Ufan, Ikot Anakaniyam.

Language is not just a symbol of nationalism but Igbo Language (spoken widely in Erei) and the
also a major badge of ethnicity, that is, racial, Nigerian Pidgin.
cultural or family origins (Stockwell 2002). This is
generally so in a multi-ethnic society like Nigeria 3.1 The English Language
and Biase, in particular. In Biase, apart from the English is the official language in
indigenous languages listed in Table 1, other Nigeria and by extension in Cross River State
languages are spoken and these include English, and consequently in Biase Local Government
Efik, Igbo and the Nigerian Pidgin (NP). Although Area. The language is used extensively in Biase:
the existence of many languages would appear it is used formally in administration at the Local
to create a barrier to communication, the fact is Government Headquarters in Akpet-Central; it is
that the situation has rather created compound used in education, in business, in religion, in the
bilinguals as everyone is forced to speak several media; and it is used in the many social activities
languages hereby making communication easier. that take place daily in and across the Local
Thus, multilingualism is, in fact, an asset, which Government Area. English is therefore, spoken,
can aid language choice for different purposes in in Biase alongside local indigenous languages
the nation (Bamgbose 1992) because different and serves as a means of communication with
languages and varieties are used for different not just other Nigerians but the rest of the world.
purposes, depending on the situation. Our focus In the multilingual society of Biase, the English
therefore is on the choices that are made in a Language is the dominant language that enjoys
multilingual situation such as exists in Biase. institutional support. We, therefore, refer to it as
the official language. It is the language of
3.0 LANGUAGE CHOICE IN BIASE instruction in schools in the area. Given the
Language choice in Biase is often heterogeneous nature of the area, English is
motivated by extra linguistic factors such as widely a trade language.
education, religion, the economy, socio-cultural
activities, politics and governance and domestic 3.2 The Efik Language
use of the language. These factors determine the The Efik language is the major Lower
choices open to the Biase speakers who may Cross language in Cross River State. It is also
speak any two or more of the languages below the most developed of all Cross River languages
fluently. The average Biase individual is a (Essien 1990). Besides English, Efik was the
compound bilingual. Apart from the local lingua franca along the Cross River basin for over
languages (MT/L1) spoken in Biase, other a century. It was also a language of religion,
languages of equal importance are also spoken which facilitated the spread of Christianity along
in the Local Government Area and these include the Cross River basin. It was the language of
the English Language, the Efik Language, the trade which served as a major economic tool in
LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING IN BIASE 29
th
the area from the eighteenth (18 ) century (Nair switches from one language or code to another,
1972). It is recorded that trade between depending on the situation, audience, subject
Agwagune and Umon was conducted in Efik as matter etc.” Similar changes in language use may
th
far back as the seventeenth (17 ) century (King also take place within a sentence. Such a switch
1844). Efik competes very strongly with NP for is known as code-mixing, which Essien
the position of L2 in Biase as most indigenes of (1995:272) defines as “a language phenomenon
Biase speak Efik fluently. in which two codes or languages are used for the
same message or communication.”
3.3 The Igbo Language Code-switching and code-mixing,
This is one of Nigeria’s three major therefore, are commonly expected phenomena,
group languages. The Erei share a common being the expression of the communicative need
border with the Igbo people at Ohafia and also at and adaptability of language, determined by the
Abiriba in neighbouring Abia state. This proximity “bounds of limitless avenues and patterns of
has resulted in Igbo competing as an L2 with Efik social interaction and the unfathomable depth of
and NP in Erei. The interplay of cultural values human creative reservoir” (Adekunle 1990:240)
among the Igbo and Erei people such as In effect, human beings are always involved in
intertribal marriages, sharing of common markets numerous efforts to make language a more
etc facilitated the incursion of Igbo into Biase. effective tool of communication. Code mixing is
usually the infusion of single words or items from
3.4 The Nigerian Pidgin (NP) the donor language into the L1 construction.
In spite of its lack of official status in Code-switching is the lifting of phrasal, clausal or
Nigeria or even in Cross River State, NP is sentential structures. In syntactic terms, code-
spreading and becoming more acceptable within switching occurs in a discourse which is made up
the State as a necessary language of of sentences in languages A and B.
communication. Its acceptability in the State is According to Bentahila and Davies
further enhanced by the heterogeneous nature of (1983) code-switching has sometimes been used
the State’s sociolinguistic landscape. NP is to register the bilingual’s ability to choose one or
widely used, even if informally, in politics, in trade the other of these two languages in a particular
and the mass media. It is also used in social situation. Code-mixing on the other hand is the
interaction. In Biase, NP is used as an essential random alternation of two languages within a
communication medium: most, if not all, linguistic sentence. Pfaff (1983) says this language
communities in Biase speak and understand NP. behaviour is governed by linguistic and
It competes with Efik as a second language (L2) sociolinguistic factors. Banjo (1983) calls it
in the Local Government Area. The NP that is language mixing, and that it occurs in a sentence
spoken is highly versatile, it conveys cultural made of elements of languages A and B. Code
meaning and values in Biase’s multilingual switching is the result of a speaker’s movement
pluralistic society. It is basically the most from one language or dialect of another language
favourable language of choice in the Local to another. This movement is conditioned by
Government Area. The pidgin, according to Todd social as well as linguistic constraints. Linguistic
(1978), is essentially a communication system constraints are those of proficiency and mastery
that develops among people who do not share a of both systems. Social constraints are primarily
common language. Politically, it is viewed as a those of topic, situation, participants, education,
self-imposed language that cuts across ethnic, sex etc. The basic difference between code-
cultural, political and psychological barriers (Ejele switching and code-mixing is the composition of
2003). the elements intermingled and the arrangement
of such intermingling.
4.0 CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING Essien (2000) observes that code-
IN BIASE switching in Nigeria should be viewed as a
From the options discussed one can normal sociolinguistic phenomenon in
see that language choice depends very much on communities in which more than one language or
the prevailing situation and the business at hand. dialect is spoken. As a result of increased trade
There is, however, constant overlapping in and communication, Nigerians are speaking
language use, again, depending on the prevailing other languages. In Biase, one can hardly
situation in the environment. Essien (1995:271) separate the twin phenomena of code-switching
defines code-switching as “the process by which and code-mixing as they are commonly found
the speaker or the initiator of speech, changes or within the speech community. The twin
30 MERCY UGOT
phenomena of code-switching and code-mixing Sometimes in order not to offend the
are particularly high in Biase owing to the third party who does not understand the L1, the
multiplicity of languages/dialects in the Local pivot speaker not only code-switches between
Government Area coupled with the use of the L1 and English for both listeners he may also
English, Efik, NP and even Igbo. code-mix for the listener (A) who shares his L1,
In Biase, there are coordinate bilinguals using both the L1 and English. This way the other
and the languages used function independently listener (B) does not feel completely isolated
side by side, expressing distinct backgrounds when the pivot speaker communicates with
and ways of life. Code-switching and code-mixing listener (A). Sometimes, the pivot speaker may
are, therefore, viewed as natural linguistic feel somewhat embarrassed and may apologize
behaviour of the people. For example, where to one or the other party as he moves from one to
three parties may understand the common the other party. However, this kind of bi-
language, English, as long as there are two dimensional communication is being increasingly
participants in the speech situation who share a understood and accepted as part of
common L1, socio-cultural practice or norm sociolinguistic and socio-cultural norms as we try
demands that these two speak in their L1 which to cope with multilingualism in Biase in particular
the third party may not understand. In such a and Nigeria in general. See example below. Data
situation code-switching and even code-mixing for the Biase language (Agwagune) have been
serve both a linguistic function as well as a socio- provided by native speakers.
cultural one.

1. Pivot Speaker: Tani èdànáñ? Abìn árá rèm ódòm gá CALCEMCO?

‘Tani, how are things? Are you still working at CALCEMCO?

Listener A: É.Ódòm énènèb

‘Yes. Work is fine.’
Pivot Speaker: Peter, it’s been a long time. Hope everything’s fine?

Listener B: Perfect, my brother. How is your family?

Pivot Speaker: Everyone’s fine. Tani gwááòá? I haven’t seen her in a long
while.
Everyone’s fine. ‘Tani, what of your wife?’ I haven’t seen her
in a long while.
Listener A: Úkpòkpórì.
‘She is fine.’ Source: Agwagune language speakers

Code switching is therefore sanctioned especially Nsàñ jìbéjìjì ‘I want to eat’

by those who do not understand the L1 of the At school with his mates using NP
pivot speaker and that of other hearer/listener. I wan chop o ‘I want to eat’
. An equally common type of code-switching At, school to his teacher using SE
takes place as one moves from one environment, Sir, please I want to eat.
place, group or society to another. For example,
a Biase child living in Calabar the Cross River Speakers may often switch for emphasis; or
State capital with his parents speaks his Biase L1 because a word in another language may be
at home, Efik, English or NP with his classmates more appropriate; or because of their perceptions
at school. A young Biase adult in the University of of the speech situation, changes in content, the
Calabar would speak his L1 to his fellow students linguistic skills of their interlocutors, degrees of
of the same ethnic group, NP to others informally intimacy etc. In (3) we see a code mix of Efik,
and English to his lecturer as a sign of respect English and Agwagune. Code-mixing involves
and formality (Okon 2003). deliberate mixing of 2 or more languages (as in
One could have a situation therefore where a Biase) without an associated topic change. It is
child says the same thing in three different primarily used as a solidarity marker. It requires
languages in the same day. that the conversants have good knowledge of the
grammar of the 2 languages and to be well aware
2. At home using the Agwagune language
LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING IN BIASE 31
of societal norms. (Wardhaugh1986) Data have been provided by native speakers.
Will you come?’
3. Émènýènè ìzép, my sister? We’re going to Mary’s house. Mààfu?
→‘Do you have any message, my sister? English Agwagune
Émènýènè ìzép, my sister?
Efik Agwagune English This is a code-switch of English and Agwagune.
‘Do you have message my sister?’
In the same way we have the situation of
Code-mixing in Biase may even involve words tag-switching where a stock element in one
from other Nigerian languages that have been language (often interlocutory) is joined to an
incorporated into everyday speech in the utterance in another language. (Stockwell 2002)
community as shown in (4)

4. ‘Don’t do that. Haba, you are very stubborn.’ 7. It was like that, kè èné? →‘It was like that, not
‘Don’t do that. Haba, you are very stubborn. so?’
English Hausa English It was like that, kè èné?
English Mmewhu
This is a code-mix of English and Hausa
(a major Nigerian language which is spoken This is a combination of English and Mmewhu (of
predominantly in northern states of the country). Ukpet-Ehom Cluster) in tag-switching.
Haba is commonly used in Nigeria as an
exclamation showing disgust. We also have intra-sentential mixing where
Code-mixing according to Essien (1995: 280) words from two or more languages are mixed.
serves a linguistic function for those who cannot
immediately find a word or expression in a 8. Dómè súfù ínàng quick, quick, ágóbónì?
language and so revert to one they are → ‘Tell him to come here quickly, have you
comfortable with or understand better. Again this heard?’
serves an intimacy function among friends and Dómè súfù ínàng quick, quick, ágóbónì?
relations. This is a socio-psychological function. Etono Central NP Etono Central

5. He died? Ébíábù! → ‘He died?!!!’ Here we have a code-mix of Nne (spoken in

He died? Ébíábù! Etono Central), NP and Nne (spoken in Etono
English Agwagune Central).

Here the translation of Ébíábù is almost 9. Fù áfù lèbè óvèn. I go sell am cheap for you.
meaningless in English. Perhaps it could best be → ‘Come and buy something, I will sell it
translated as “Good Lord!” However, in its strict cheaply to you.’
sense Ébíábù is the name of a highly placed Fù áfù lèbè óvèn. I go sell am cheap for you.
male association in Agwagune, it is used here to Erei NP
convey ethnic affinity, deep emotion and Come you come buy something.
sympathy. Code-mixing arises from “an inner
drive that cannot find a ready expression by This is a code-switch from Erei (of
remaining within a single language” Lipski Nne/Agwagune Cluster) to NP. The switch from
(1982:192). However, most code-mixing in Biase Erei to NP signals a desire by the speaker to
is a combination of this “inner drive” and to show communicate with someone he perceives as not
solidarity with a speaker, particularly if his L1 is sharing his L1which he spoke initially. His next
different from yours. By throwing in words from option is to switch to NP which is widely spoken
his L1, you show some form of solidarity with and understood. He could have switched to Efik
him. but perhaps some non verbal clue in the listener
suggested that he may not understand Efik
This is often reflected in inter-sentential either. It is therefore more appropriate to switch
mixing/switching, where the change in language to NP, which is the most neutral, most likely to be
occurs at a clause or sentence boundary. understood and least likely to cause offence.
Code-switching in Biase also involves a
6. We’re going to Mary’s house. Mààfu? speaker moving from one domain into another,
→ ‘We’re going to Mary’s house. and changing their codes as a result. This is
32 MERCY UGOT
referred to as situational code-switching. Thus we Sometimes, there is code-switching
have; between indigenous languages of the area.
Code-switching from other languages to
10. We have English at two o’clock. Várì jè áfìà Agwagune (dialect of Nne) is common as
yèpíá. → ‘We have English at two o’clock. Agwagune is the most central of all the
Let us go to the market now.’ languages spoken in Biase because all others
We have English at two o’clock. Várì jè áfìà command native speakers’ competence in it
yèpíá. (Udoh 2003) (Ugot 2008). Thus, the switch in
discourse is done as a mark of solidarity,
The example here is of a switch from English, the intimacy, formality or as a tool for persuasion. In
more prestigious of the languages used as a (12) the switch from Mmewhu to Agwagune by a
medium of teaching, to Ubaghara, the local seller in the open market to prospective female
intimate language. English is used to discuss the buyers expresses the mark of solidarity and it
formal announcement of an English class at two serves as an emotional tool of persuasion.
o’clock and Ubaghara is used to persuade the
listener to go to the market with the speaker, a 12. Mama Gbènyàm úkè. Wákààm fàrèbè óvèn.
more intimate activity. However if the speaker is → ‘Mama come and buy something. My
not communicating with a fellow school mate his sister, come and buy something.’
use of English initially portrays him as a social Mama Gbènyàm úkè. Wákààm fàrèbè óvèn.
climber. Mmewhu Agwagune

(11) could be referred to as metaphorical code- There is a situation where each speaker
mixing. Metaphorical code-mixing is, thus, a may use his own language or dialect in
means of changing the perceived communicating if there is mutual intelligibility
context.(Stockwell 2002) between his dialect and others, since there is a
dialect continuum in Biase, that is, a situation
11. I no bin understand that class o. The reaction whereby the spreading of dialects may be
in the test-tube bin no clear me at all. → mutually intelligible (Ugot forthcoming). Mutual
‘I did not follow that class. The reaction in the intelligibility in Biase is found among the Nne
test-tube was not very clear to me.’ group or Agwagune Cluster, which includes
I no bin understand that class o. dialects from Agwagune, Adim (Urum), Erei,
NP Abayongo, Etono II, Etono Central and Abini. The
The reaction in the test-tube bin no clear me at Mwewhu or Mehu Language or Ukpet-Ehom
all Cluster is mutually intelligible among the people
NP English of Akpet I, Akpet Central, Ehom, Betem and
Here we have an obvious conversation in Igbofia. See table 1. Four examples have been
NP which switches briefly to Standard English as taken from the Agwagune cluster. Data were
soon as the formal explanation of a chemistry collected from native speakers residing in
experiment is to be mentioned. The speaker Calabar. Languages used are of the Agwagune
moves from the domain of the informal to a more cluster or Nne group of languages.
formal speech and back to the informal to
express his lack of understanding of the lesson
taught. Code-mixing in Biase simply draws the
urgent need to enrich the vocabulary and
expression capacities of our mother tongues.
 LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING IN BIASE 33
13. Exchange of ‘good morning’ greetings:

i) Speaker A (Erei): Áyìlènì. → ‘Good morning.’

Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá (pronounced sòráyá)? → ‘Yes, good
morning, how are you?’ Literally: ‘Yes, good morning, what of
your body?’
Speaker A Sólékpòkpólì, yáyòá? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘Body is
strong, what of yours?’
Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’ Literally: ‘It is strong.’
(Agwagune also has sótékpòkpórì OR sótàmékpòkpórì
(pronounced sórékpòkpórì OR sóràmékpòkpórì). Literally:
‘Body is strong.’ OR ‘My body is strong’)

ii) Speaker A (Adim (Urum)): Áwèlèní. → ‘Good morning’

Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’
Speaker A (Adim (Urum)): Sólàmékpèkpèm, nóè? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘My body
is strong, what of yours?’
Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’
(It is interesting to note that the very expression, ékpèkpèm,
exists exactly in Agwagune but it translates to ‘it is hard,’ OR ‘it
is difficult.’)

iii) Speaker A (Abini): Áyèré. → ‘Good morning.’

Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’
Speaker A (Abini): Gbáhágbáhá étè, nóà? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘There is
no trouble, what of you?’
Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’
(In Agwagune, ‘There is no trouble’ is translated Gbáhágbáhá
érè. Very literally: ‘Trouble, it is not there.’)

iv) Speaker A (Etono Central): Áfèré. → ‘Good morning.’

Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’
Speaker A (Etono Central): Sórèm ékpèmlúkpèm, yàyòá? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘My
body is strong, what of yours?’
Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’

Situations described in (13) are typical speaker (if they can communicate fluently in
as any of the speakers (A) could exchange Agwagune. See (12)). If there is any hint of a lack
greetings with Speaker (B) the Agwagune of complete understanding for either speaker,
speaker and stick throughout to his own dialect then they abandon their L1s and use either NP or
as he is fully aware that the Agwagune speaker SE or even Efik.
(B) understands him. The Agwagune Speaker (B) In the examples in (13), it is observed that
in turn sticks to his own dialect because he Agwagune has sounds that occur in free
knows very well that he too is understood not just variation. These are allophones of the same
by the other groups in the Agwagune cluster but phonemes. Hence, [t] of sǒt at the end of a word
generally by other languages in Biase. Other becomes [r] intervocalic when followed by
speakers however defer to the Agwagune another word. Consequently;

14. sǒt + áyò + á → sòráyá?

body + your + what of → how are you?

Regressive assimilation occurs in Agwagune, 6.0 CONCLUSION

hence the ‫׀‬o‫ ׀‬in áyò is assimilated thus becoming The study has focused on Biase; a
more like the ‫׀‬a‫ ׀‬sound following it (Ugot 2003). Local Government Area in Cross River State in
Nigeria. Biase is heterogeneous, multilingual and
34 MERCY UGOT

its local languages/dialects, like most minority Ejele, Philomena. E., 2003. “Language use in a
languages in use, are forced to adopt other more multilingual society: An update on the
aggressive languages for use. We have also Nigeria situation”. In Okon Essien and
looked at the use of these languages in the twin Margaret Okon (eds.), Topical issues in
phenomena of code-switching and code-mixing sociolinguistics: The Nigerian
which will continue to feature in our multilingual perspective. 111-131. Aba: National
communities as they perform linguistic, Institute of Nigerian Languages.
sociolinguistic, socio-psychological and socio-
cultural functions. Essien, Okon. E. 1995. “The English language
Biase speakers must be commended for and code-mixing: A case study of the
use of their local languages as none of them has phenomenon in Ibibio”. In Ayo
been listed as dying or extinct as is the case with Bamgbose, Ayo Banjo & Andrew
Kiong, Bakpinka and Odut once spoken in the Thomas (eds.), New Englishes: A West
present Odukpani and Akamkpa Local African perspective. 260-283. Ibadan:
Government Areas of Cross River State (Crozier Mosuru Publishers.
and Blench 1992). A conscious organised
strategy by users, government and other Essien, Okon. E., 2000. “Code-switching and
agencies must be made to reduce these code-mixing in Nigeria”. Kiabara Journal
languages to writing and, therefore, promote of Humanities 6:2 1-8.
scholarship in more minority languages in
Nigeria. Essien, Okon. E., 2003. “National development,
language and language policy in
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