INTRODUCTION OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Set of rules that define by the routers in order to communicate between source and the destination
routers can define as routing protocols. These protocols only update the routing table which
contains information, they are not moving information between the source and the destination.
Typically, following shows the two types of routing protocols:

1. Dynamic routing protocols

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2. Static routing protocols

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STATIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS.

Static RP is when the administrator manually configures the path from source to destination in the
network. It is add extra secured to the network.

DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Dynamically routers choose the best route to the destination, from the source is define as dynamic
RP. It assists routers to add information regarding to their routing tables. Typically, dynamic routing
protocols maintain the topology updates every time when the topological structure change. Mainly
their purposes are to; maintain updates on routing table information, discover remote network,
choosing the best path and ability to find best new path.

pros:

 Easer to configure in larger networks.

 Useful on load balancing across multiple links
 It would be able to select a new path dynamically if a connection fails.
Cons:

 These routing protocols increase the load on the router's CPU or RAM.
 Since updates are exchanged by routers, so it consumes bandwidth.
Dynamic RP can be split up into many categories depend on their characteristics. They can be
grouped by their-

 Operation: link-state protocol, Distance vector protocol, or path-vector

 Behavior: Classless RP or classful RP
 Purpose: Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) or Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

EXTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOLS (EGP)

Also known as inter-AS routing protocol because these routing protocol used to route between
different autonomous systems. It allows data to be exchanged between gateway hosts in
autonomous systems that are neighbors. This routing protocol enables routers to communicate data
between domains. An EGP can also be used to link service providers and huge companies.
Established routers, network addresses, path costs, and neighbouring devices are all part of the EGP
protocol. Currently, Border Gateway Protocol is the only available EGP as well as the routing
protocol that use by the internet.
INTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (IGP)

IGP (Interior gateway protocol) also described as the intra-AS routing. These types of protocols used
to communicate within the autonomous system. Bandwidth, load, MTU, reliability and latency are
the metrics that are used in IGP. It is a common way for routers to share routing information within
an autonomous system. In their internal networks, organizations, companies, and also service
providers use an IGP. RIP, EIGRP, IS-IS and OSPF are the examples of IGP protocols. IGP is classified
into two types: link-state protocol and distance vector protocol.

Distance vector protocol

Distance Vector Protocols utilized to advertise their routing tables through out the two different
characteristics: distance and vector. Distance-based on metrics such as cost, hop count, bandwidth,
latency, and more, it determines how long it is to the destination network. And vector- To reach the
destination, exit interface's path or specifies the next-hop of the routers.

The entire path to a destination network is unknown to a router using a distance vector routing
protocol. When a path becomes inaccessible in the Distance Vector routing protocol, all routing
tables must be modified with new details. Ddistance vector protocol examples: IGRP, RIPv1, RIPv2,
and EIGRP.

link-state protocol

The link-state protocol takes the innovative method of collecting information from all other routers
to provide a complete view of the network's topology. In fact, it has an ability to find the best
routing path among the networks. Using link-state data, a link-state router generates a topology
map and determines the optimal path to all target networks in the topology. The route is calculated
in this protocol based on the bandwidth of the path to the destination as well as the cost of
resources. OSPF and IS-IS can classify as the link-state protocol.
”

Mainly link-state protocol manages to maintain specific routing protocols tables:

 Topology table: This table contains data about the whole topology. It provides, for
example, both the optimal and backup routes to a certain branded network.
 Neighbor table: This table only includes details about the router's neighbors. For
instance, adjacency.
 Routing table: This table keep the lists of all the best links to the advertised network.

[ CITATION Gur21 \l 1033 ][ CITATION cis14 \l 1033 ]

ROUTING PROTOCOL CHARACTERISTICS
Routing protocol can compare, based on their characteristics as following:

Scalability – The scalability of a network is determined by the routing protocol that is used. The
routing protocol must be scalable as the network grows in size.

Speed of convergence|– This characteristic describes how quickly routers in a network topology
“

achieve a state of consistent knowledge and communicate routing information. When incorrect
routing tables are not informed as a result of delayed convergence in a dynamic network, routing
loops can develop. Therefore, the protocol is more preferrable if it converges quickly.”

Classless or classful – The subnet mask is not included in classful routing protocols, and variable-
length subnet masks are not supported (VLSM). Although, in the update of the routing protocols that
are classless, the subnet mask should be encompassed. Classless routing solutions offer VLSM and
improved route summarisation.

Resource usage – CPU utilization, Memory space (RAM), also connection bandwidth utilization are
all examples of resource consumption in a routing protocol. Higher resource needs required extra
powerful hardware to boost the functioning of the routing protocol as well as the packet forwarding
operations.”

Maintain and implantation – Depending on the routing protocol implemented, the amount of
expertise necessary for an administrator(network) to install and maintain the network is referred to
as implementation and maintenance. ”

ROUTING PROTOCOL METRICS

When their have multiple routes from source to destination hops, routing protocols need to learn
“

the path that define as best, RP must be able to discriminate and evaluate between the existing
paths. Therefore, by using routing metrics, is where its accomplished.”

A metric is a quantifiable value provided to distinct routes by the routing protocol depending on
“

their usefulness. When there are several routes to the exact same network, metrics of routing are
utilized to calculate the total "cost" of а route to destination. RP choose the ideal path/route depend
on the lowest cost of route.

Depend on the routing protocol type, metrics can be different. Single routing protocol's metric is not
equivalent to another routing protocol's metric. Depend on the type of the routing protocol, may
have taken different paths from source to the same destination.

[ CITATION cis14 \l 1033 ]

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIPv1)
Based on the Bellman-Ford distance vector algorithm, RIP using Distance vector protocol as the type
of the protocol. And hop count is the metric RIP use to fine the best path to destination hop.
Chooses the routers with the fewest hops; modernizes other routers by transmitting the routing
table to all other routers every 30 seconds. A b c d e f g I h j k l m n o p q r s t u w f h m I f t I o h f s g
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Pros:

 Easyito configure.
 Widely used routing protocol
Cons:

 VLSM is not supported

 A packet is limited to 15 hops. , it is rejected, if it has been through more than 15
routers to travel
 Particularly on larger network, the convergence occurs slowly.
 Does not allow numerous routes for the same route.
 Do not have fully understand of the bandwidth of link.
 Routing updates can consume a lot of bandwidth since the whole routing database is
transmitted when the status of a link changes.

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIPv2)

As mentioned earlier, this routing protocol similar features as in RIPv1. Use distance vector as the
routing protocol type. In 30 seconds, the complete routing database is multicasting to update other
routers. A b c d e f g I h j k l m n o p q r s t u w f h m I f t I o h f s g h I g f d r g v h I g

Pros:

 Configurations are easy to configure.

 Widely as well as well-known routing protocol.
 Support for VLSM or CIDR, route summarization, and MD5 authentication.
Cons:

 Limited to 15 hop counts.

 On large network, the converges is quite slow.
 Does not support for multi paths for the same route.
 Do not have the link bandwidth knowledge.
 Routing updates can waste a lot of bandwidth since the whole routing database is
transmitted when the status of a link changes.

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INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL (IGRP)
Based on the Bellman-Ford distance vector algorithm, IGRP also using distance vector as the routing
protocol. Metrics which are used in IGRP- Delay, bandwidth, reliability, and load. This routing
protocol usually Sends hello packets to neighbors every 5 seconds to see whether the neighbor is
still accessible. Additional routers are kept up to date by simply informing them when routes change.
Network cannot be sub netted beyond classful bounds. Interior gateway routing protocol only can
configure on cisco devices.

Pros:

 Its metric is the latency, bandwidth, dependability, and load of a link. As a result, it is
highly accurate in determining the best path.
 Easy to configure and use.
Cons:

 Only able to configure in Cisco devices.

 It does not support VLSM and is prone to routing loops.
 Slow convergence; slower than RIP

ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL

(EIGRP)
As the protocol type, its use Hybrid distance vector. Bandwidth, Delay, load, reliability, and using the
DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm) used as the metrics of this protocol. Typically, EIGR sends hello
packets to neighbors every five seconds to check whether they are still available. Furthermore, other
routers are kept up to date by simply informing them when routes change.

Pros:

 Routing changes need only a little amount of bandwidth.

 DUAL is used to achieve highly fast convergence and a loop-free network.
 Supports VLSM or CIDR as its metric, it applies the latency, bandwidth, burden of a
link and dependability; this makes it extremely exact in determining the best path.
 IP and IPX protocols are supported. It uses less CPU than OSPF (see next section)
 Backward compatibility with IGRP is provided.
Cons:

 Only can configure in CISCO devices.

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[ CITATION Dav02 \l 1033 ]

OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF)

OSPF is an IP routing protocol which categorized as a link-state routing protocol that used to send
routing information within the AS. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) established Open
Shortest Path First (OSPF) as one of the Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP). Since it is a link-state
protocol, routers communicate topological information with their neighbors. In order to providing
each router а complete image of the AS's topology, router distribute the topology information round
the Autonomous system. Dijkstra algorithm, where it used to calculate end-to-end path throughout
the AS using that image. Then concluded by decide on the best end-to-end route to the last
destination, the next destination to which data is dispatched in а link-state routing protocol is
selected.

OSPF utilizes 224.0.0.6 for updates to designated routers (DRs), the multicast address 224.0.0.5 for
regular data transfer and backup designated routers (BDRs) (BDR). “It is а network layer protocol that
operates on protocol 89 and employs the D value 110. ”

OSPF MESSAGES

In order to communicate information between the routers, OSPF uses certain types of messages:

Hello message – This type of messages work as alerts that are used to discover and restore
neighbors. Every ten seconds, they are exchanged. This includes the following details: Area ID,
Router priority, Hello/dead interval, Router id, and authentication details, DR and BDR IP addresses,

Database description|(DBD) – ОSРF path of the router. Describes the entire topology of an area or
autonomous system.

Link state request|(LSR) – Once the router receives the DBD of neighbor routers, then the router
equates it to its particular DBD. But the DBD receives additional changes than its own DBD, LSR is
transmitted to its neighbor.

Link state update|(LSU) - LSU message used to respond to the LSR messages. When a router gets an
LSR message, it sends back LSU message with the ask for information.

Link|state acknowledgment - It is submitted as LSU’s Acknowledgement in order to assures the

reliability of the connection state exchange data.

Link|state advertisement|(LSА) - Only exchanged with the routers with which has been established
the adjacency. It contains the link-state routing information.

Advantages:

 Have the complete knowledge of the topology.

 Load balancing for the same destination using equal-cost routes.
 Both IPv4 and IPv6 routed protocols.
 Classless protocol
 Rout summarization and VLSM
 Eligible on most of the routers
 Trigger updates for fast convergence
 Unlimited hop count
Disadvantages:

 Requires extra CPU process.

 Involves more RAM store adjacency topology.
 Complicated to troubleshoot.

DEFAULT ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCES FOR PROTOCOLS

[ CITATION Tet11 \l 1033 ] [ CITATION Com18 \l 1033 ]

PROPOSITION OF THEORETICAL ROUTING PROTOCOL
This section describes the details of proposing design of routing protocol. As we all know, an OSPF
router creates an any update in routing information or LSA upon initialization. This Link State
Advertisement (LSA) includes an all the link states related list on that router. Before flooding it to
other routers, each router that receives this LSA saves a copy of it in its LSA database. After update
the database, the router chooses the best path from all available routes for each destination. As we ”

discussed earlier, among the other routing protocol metrics algorithm, this is the highest advance
and reliable routing protocol. A b c d e f g I h j k l m n o p q r s t u w f h m I f t I o h f s g h I g f d r g v h
Ig

Therefore, as my proposing routing protocol I used this method as my core method to develop a
further metric calculation method to the routing protocol. Logically, crossing a 56Kbps serial link will
incur greater overhead than passing a 100Mbps Ethernet link. Crossing a higher bandwidth link will
take less time than crossing a lower bandwidth link.

Therefore, I used following logic to calculate the cost. The cost is approximately equal to the
“

bandwidth. Lower bandwidth comes at a higher cost and higher bandwidth is less cost. And for
further calculation, I used hop count to calculate the best path for the network. The hop count is the
number of routers (number of hops) from the source router that data must transit through in order
to reach the destination network. A b c d e f g I h j k l m n o p q r s t u w f h m I f t I o h f s g h I g f d r
gvhIg

Hence, I used following formula to calculate the cost:

(Reference bandwidth )
Cost = +hop count
Interface bandwidth∈bps .

Note: As a reference bandwidth, use 100Mbps (10 8) bandwidth.

As defined in the table above, once the first part of the cost calculation is done, it adds up the hop
counts. Because if two paths have the same cost value, it is difficult to define as the best path. So,
we add hop counts to figure out what the best route. Then when the route has less hop count its use
as the best path to send packets. However, among these cost values, the route has the lowest
possible cost has chosen as the best route for routing.
PACKET STRUCTURE

As in OSPF and EIGRP, proposed routing protocol also has the entire view of the network. Therefore,
they exchange different type of messages to update the whole view of the network.

1. Alert message - Every 30 seconds, routers will send these messages in order to
restore and discover neighbors.
2. Database of paths – These types of messages used to identify the paths as in
topology of the network.
3. Request message – Once the routers received the database of paths, it compares the
database of their own. If routers have made more changes than its own database,
router send request message to its neighbors.
4. Update message – When a router gets a request message, it sends back an update
message containing the desired information.
5. Received message – This type of message sends to assures the reliability of the
connection state interchange procedure.

IVersion (8) Type (8)\ |Packet length (16)

Router ID
Autonomous System Number (32)
Hop count
checksum (16) Au Type
Value (32)
Authentication (32)

Field Description
Version This function determines the process version.

Identifies the packet type from 1-5 corresponding to – Alert message, Database
Type
of paths, Request message, Update message, Received message

Packet length “ The checksum|of the entire packet|excluding the IP headeri.”

Router ID |ID of the advertising|router.
AS number |ID of the autonomous system where|the advertising router resides.
Authentication category ranging 0 to 2. Which means: i0 – non-authentication, 1
Au type
- Isimple (plaintext) authentication, 2 - IMD5 authentication.
The information is defined by the kind of iauthentication.
Type 0 for authentication, it is not defined. Type 1 for authentication, it is
Authentication
specified as password information; Type 2 for authentication, it is defined as Key
ID, MD5 authentication data length, and sequence number.
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qrstuwfhmIftIohfsghIgfdrgvhIg

[ CITATION Hew16 \l 1033 ]

REFERENCES
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[Accessed 10 april 2021].

ComputerNetworkingNotes, 2018. OSPF Metric cost Calculation Formula Explained. [Online]

Available at: https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/ospf-metric-cost-
calculation-formula-explained.html
[Accessed 12 7 2021].

Davis, D., 2002. Select the right routing protocol for your network. [Online]
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network/
[Accessed 10 7 2021].

Guru99, 2021. Routing Protocols Types: Static, Dynamic, IP, CISCO. [Online]
Available at: https://www.guru99.com/routing-protocol-types.html
[Accessed 10 April 2021].

Hewlett Packard Enterprise Development LP, 2016. OSPF packet formats. [Online]
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ip-rtng_cg/content/442284154.htm
[Accessed 13 july 2021].

Tetz, E., 2011. Routing Protocol Selection Criteria. Dummies, Volume I, p. 720.