SUBJECT CODE ENG 111

SUBJECT DESCRIPTION Purposive Communication

MODULE DESCRIPTION Communication in the Twenty-first Century
OBJECTIVE OF THIS 1. understand the importance of communication in
MODULE: society.
2. know the principles and processes of communication
as embodied in the communication models provided.
3. relate the communication models to their experiences
and apply them to their own communication process.
4. know how to communicate in an ethical manner; and
5. apply these ethical principles to their communication
process.
6. understand the implications of globalization on
communication.
7. explain the notion of World Englishes in the context of
English being a global language.
8. use Standard English and bias-free language in
writing.

DURATION 4 weeks

A. LESSON PROPER
Lesson 1: Communication Models

Introduction

“The art of communication is the language of leadership.” (James Humes)

It is a mistake to believe that communication is a simple process. Although people
communicate with one another every day, the real question is whether the ideas one has
expressed are truly understood by another. Communication breakdowns happen in every part
of the globe, and these have led to a plethora of problems. Effective communication can breach
peace, spark revolutions, and affect change in government. However, to communicate
properly, one cannot simply strive to express oneself and leave understanding to fate; one must
also learn how to articulate concepts and arguments, and express oneself in the best way
possible.
The art of one’s communication reflects the art of one’s thinking. According to James
Berlin (1982), one of the major proponents of The New Rhetoric, “In teaching writing ,we are
not simply offering training in a useful technical skill that is meant as a simple complement to

Page 1 of 14
the more important studies of other areas. We are teaching a way of experiencing the world a
way of ordering and making sense of it “(776).
This is also true when it comes to all the language skills essential in communication,
whether this is in writing, reading, listening, or speaking. They are tools that help us analyze,
critique, and negotiate with the world. To construct ideas and bring people to believe in one’s
vision, it is important to be able to communicate in an effective, articulate manner. On a
personal level, honing one’s communication skills can also bring about success to one’s
personal and professional life.
To lead nations or corporations, communication skills are essential. To work smoothly
as a team, communication is indispensable. And to create a vision that people will believe in,
one needs to learn how to communicate purposefully in today’s society.

Communication Models
One ways of thinking about communication processes is by looking at the different
communication models available. According to Dennis Mcquail and Sven Windahl (2013),in
their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications, “a model seeks to
show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationship between these
elements…it helps in explaining by providing in a simplified way information which would
otherwise be complicated or ambiguous.’’ (2)

Professor Ramona S. Flores (2016), in her book Oral Communication in Context, discusses
four models of communication in the chapter, “Explaining the Nature of Communication.” She
discusses the different communication models as follows (Aristotle, Shannon-Weaver,
Schramm, and White, 2016)

The earliest model comes from Aristotle at around 5 B.C. in this model, Aristotle explains that
speakers should adjust their messages according to their audience and the occasion to achieve
a particular effect. Let us apply this a modern example. After the Japanese attacked Pearl
Harbor on December 7, 1941, then US President Franklin Roosevelt delivered a stirring speech
to declare war on Japan on December 8, (National Geographic, 2017). The speaker, in this
case, was US President Franklin Roosevelt and his speech was crafted especially for the
occasion, filled with strong words that were crisp and straight to the point. The occasion was
the US President’s response to the attack on Pearl Harbor; the main audience was the US
Congress; and the effect was to persuade members of Congress to declare war on Japan, which

Page 2 of 14
they did, with only one dissenting vote. These components of speaker, speech, occasion,
audience, and effect should be considered when communicating one’s message.

The Shannon-Weaver model was created by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (Flores,
2016). According to the website Communication Theory.Org, in 1948, Shannon and Weaver
Wrote an article in the Bell System Technological Journal entitled “A Mathematical Theory of
Communication.” According to Flores (2016), this is also often called the “Telephone Model,”
since it was developed because of the technology of the telephone and the experience of “noise’’
coming from the switchboard.

The sender would be the person giving the message, while the encoder would be the
transmitter which converts the message into signals. Let us use the modern example of the
mobile phone. With our modern example, the example, the encoder would be the cellphone
and the sender of course would be the person calling. The decoder, on the other hand would
be the reception place of the signal which converts signals into message which is why in
modern parlance, when there is “no signal” there is difficulty in decoding the message. The
receiver would be the destination of the message by sender which would be the person who is
being called and when there are problems or “noise” that interferes with the message, then the
receiver would give feedback, which is usually phrased as “choppy” when the message cannot
be heard because of the signal. The messages are transferred through the use of a channel; in
the case of the telephone, the channel would be the cables, while in the case of the cellphone,

Page 3 of 14
the channel would be radio frequencies ( Communication Theory .Org).This model can also be
used in other situations ,and can tell us how the message may sometimes get lost because of
the noise, which can be physical or psychological and how feedback is an essential component
of communication to ensure that the message is successfully received.

On the other hand, when it comes to Schramm’s model of communication, there are two
primary models involved. The first one is built on the theories of Osgood, which is why this is
also known as the Osgood –Schramm model.

In this model, pay attention to the role of the interpreter. Encoding and decoding are not
automatic process both go through the filter of the interpreter. Therefore, the message may
succeed or fail, based on the interpreter’s appreciation of the message. There are times when
the sender and receiver may apply different meanings to the same message, and this is termed
“semantic noise” (Communicative Theories .Org).His second model, on the other hand builds
this theory about the interpreter into the different fields of experience of the sender and the
receiver.

For the message to reach the receiver, there must be a common field experience between the
sender and the receiver. Although the receiver might not fully appreciate the nuances of the

Page 4 of 14
message as there parts of the sender’s experience that the receiver has no knowledge of the
receiver may still understand the core meaning of the message. According to Sneha Mishra
(2017), this field of experience may constitute “culture, social background, beliefs, experience,
values and rules.”

The last model is Eugene White’s Stages of Oral Communication. According to White, it is
possible to begin at any of the stages outlined in his model. People are under the mistaken
impression that when we communicate, we usually start with thinking, but that is not
necessarily the case. Since it is a circular model, it means that oral communication is
contribution from Eugene White’s model is the concept of feedback, which can only be
processed by the speaker if he or she has been monitoring the audience or the listener. Hence,
the speaker must also pay attention to the listener’s verbal and non-verbal cause (Flores,
2016).

In conclusion, communication is not a simple process that starts with the speaker and ends
with the listener – there are many factors that should be considered. When it comes to the
message, how the message is organized and what field of experience it comes from should be
taken into consideration. When it comes to the sender, the best communication is the one that
involves feedback. Furthermore, there are several kinds of “noise” that may severely affect the
reception of the message and thus, should be considered and avoided. Cultural difference,
technology, and interpretation need to be considered as well. To be good communicators, one
needs to pay attention to how people are responding to the message, and adjust accordingly,
rather than being preoccupied with simply expressing oneself.

Page 5 of 14
Lesson 2: Communication Ethics

“Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision–making, and the

development of relationships and communities within and across context, cultures, channels,
and media.Morever, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering
truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity and respect for self and others. We
believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and
consequently the well- being of individuals and the society in which we live.

In their Credo, there are four ethical principles of communication that are especially relevant
for students today.
Firstly, they “advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty and reason as essential to the integrity
of communication” (NCA, 1999).
Secondly, “freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve
the informed and responsible decision-making fundamental to a civil society” (19990.
Thirdly, “condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through
distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of tolerance and
hatred” (1999).
Lastly, “accept responsibility for the short - and long – term consequences of our own
communication and expect the same of others.”

Page 6 of 14
Lesson 3: Communication and Globalization
Communication and Globalization
Globalization has affected us in numerous ways. Airfare has become cheaper, and one can
travel internationally more than one could in the past. Many Filipinos have decided to work or
live abroad, with some of them migrating to other countries. The free trade of goods and
services all over the world has brought multinational companies and foreign investors to our
shores. Because of all of these factors, it is imperative to be aware of the difference between
our culture and the rest of the world’s cultures.

World Englishes
David Crystal (2003) begins the first chapter of the book English as a Global Language with
the assertion that English is, in fact the global language. After giving various examples to
support this statement, he questions the assertion by asking “What does it mean to say that a
language is global? (Crystal, 2003). In asking this, he considers the implications of English
having this status, especially for its many users who speak different mother tongues.

In The Story of English, Robert McCrum et al. (1986) discuss the “success story” of the rise of
English. They also provide a variety of examples that demonstrate the global presence of
English. The questions that follow help the reader explore the implications of the languages
wide reach.

Reading in World Englishes

Read “Speak English: The Story of a Once-obscure Language and How It Became the Last
World in Global Communication,” excerpted from the Chicago Tribune from The Story of
English (McCrum et al.,1986).You may access the full excerpt via the following
link:http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-09-07/features/8603070293_1_official-
language-mother-tongue-speak).Read only up the first paragraph of page 2 of the article.The
first and final paragraphs of your assigned reading are given below for your reference.

(First paragraph)

Page 7 of 14
The rise of English is a remarkable success story. When Julius Caesar landed in Britain nearly
2,000 years ago, English did not exist. Five hundred years later, English, incomprehensible to
modern ears, was probably spoken by about as few people as currently speak Cherokee--and
with about as little influence. Nearly a thousand years later, at the end of the 16th Century,
when William Shakespeare was in his prime, English was the native speech of between 5 and
7 million Englishmen, and it was, in the words of a contemporary, ''of small reach, it stretched
no further than this island of ours, naive not there over all.''

(Final paragraph)
The emergence of English as a global phenomenon--as either a first, second or foreign
language--has recently inspired the idea (undermining the above claims) that we should talk
not of English but of many Englishes, especially in Third World countries where use of English
is no longer part of the colonial legacy but the result of decisions made since their
independence. Throughout the history of English there has been a contest between the forces
of standardization and the forces of localization, at both the written and the spoken levels. The
appearance of the first substantial English dictionaries in the 18th Century was a move towards
written standardization. It was Victorian England that realized the idea of ''the Queen`s
English,'' a spoken standard to which the ''lesser breeds'' could aspire. The industrial
revolution meant roads, canals and, above all, trains: People traveled more, both
geographically and socially. The pressures of class ambition speeded the emergence of a
standard form of English speech.

These features include differences in spelling, punctuation, favored words and expressions,
and sometimes, grammatical constructions. The table that follows gives an example of some
of these differences for American English and British English.
Aspect American English (US) British English (UK)
Punctuation She said, “I‘ll be at work by 8 a.m.” She said, “I’ll be at work by 8 a.m.”

Date March 2, 2017 2 March 2017

Spelling Center,color,organize,program Centre,colour,organise,programme
Words Elevator,pants,diaper Lift,trousers,nappy
Expression/Local Ruffled feathers(agitated) Knickers in a twist (aginated)
Idiom
Grammar Do tou have that book? Have you got that book?

Page 8 of 14
 Pronunciation Vase/vãs/-sounds like VEYZ Vase/va:z/] – sounds like VAHZ
(irrelevant in
writing)

Thus, two English speakers – one from the US and the other from the UK – may become
confused when encountering the other’s unfamiliar accent and word choices in a conversation
an when seeing different spelling and punctuation conversation in writing.

Culturally Sensitive and Bias-Free Language

To write in a culturally sensitive way means to be aware that cultural differences and
similarities between people exist and that these should not be assigned a positive or negative
value via words and descriptions selected in writing. Academic and professional writings are
characterized by bias-free language. Students, scholars, professionals, and anyone wishing to
maintain harmonious communicative relations should be careful in using words and phrases
that do not discriminate against particular groups, whether in terms of race, ethnicity, gender,
social class, age, and disability. The essential point is to communicate in a way that is respectful
of diversity.

Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or categories.
1. Race and Ethnicity
Racism – is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of a different race. In
general, it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group. Race is an
emotionally charged topic ,so it is best to tread carefully with the language used and to
refer to race ,as a Patricia Arinto (2001) asserts in English for the Professions, “ only if
it is relevant to what you have to say. “ Words that reinforce stereotypes and that imply
all people of a particular race or ethnic group are same should be avoided .For example,
although the assessment is positive in the sentence “naturally, the Asian students won
the math contest,” the word “naturally” reinforces the stereotype or generalization that
Asians have superior aptitude in math.

Next, one must be attuned to the current terminology by which racial and ethnic groups
refer to themselves. This may be done by reading national newspapers and watching
television news, which typically are good indicators of current and preferred usage.
According to Kitty Locker and Donna Kienler (2013), one should “refer to a group by

Page 9 of 14
 the term it prefers,” which means some research is required to find out about
acceptable and preferred terms. For example, for a long time, “Native American” has
been considered the politically correct term for the indigenous peoples of the
Americans, over the label “Red Indian”. But today, most native American people prefer
to be referred to by their specific nation or tribe .In the Philippine context, there have
been shifts in the preferences for terms that Filipinos of Chinese ancestry use to
describe their identity: from Tsino, to Chinoy ,to Filipino Chinese

It is also important to be sensitive to religion when referring to various ethnic groups.

Assumptions should not be made that stereotype a race, nationality, or ethnic group
with a specific religion. For example, not all Arabs are Muslims, not all Indians are
Buddhist, and not all Filipinos are Roman Catholics.

2. Gender and Sexual Orientation

Sexism –refers to the prejudice and discrimination based on sex or gender .To be
inclusive of all people in general references, one should favor gender-neutral words and
phrases over gender –biased words .For example ,rather than “ man-made” one can
say “manufactured,” “synthetic,” or artificial.” Instead of “layman’s terms,” one can use
“ordinary terms.” Neutral words should also be chosen over words with “man” and
“woman” in job titles or descriptions. For example, it is more appropriate to use
“chairperson” in place of “chairman” “flight attendant “ in place of “stewardess,” and
“labor” in place of manpower. “One should also avoid sexist terms like “woman lawyer”
and “male nurse” and simply use “lawyer” and “nurse”

Pronouns may also be gender –biased, for example, when the masculine “he” pronoun
is used as a generic one for both genders. Gender – biased pronouns can be avoided by
(a) dropping pronouns that signify gender and restating the sentence, (b) changing the
plural construction and (c) replacing masculine of feminine pronouns with “one” or
“you” .Example of alternative gender-neutral constructions are provided here.

Gender –biased example: Each students should submit his term paper by Monday.
Restatement Each student should submit a term
paper by Monday.

Page 10 of 14
 Plural Construction Student should submit their term
papers by Monday.
Use of “you” You should hand in your term paper by
Monday.

Other gender –related terms may have to do with gender orientation or sexual
orientation. It is important to be sensitive to new attitudes about homosexual,
transsexual, and transgender people. For example ,most gay people prefer the term
“gay” to the more clinical “homosexual “as a labor. “Lesbian” is currently the term
preferred by gay wonen.Transgender people prefer to be referred to as being the gender
they identity as, not their birth gender. Again, as a matter of principle, one should refer
to societal groups in the way that members of these groups prefer to be referred to.
Note also that terminology in this area is developing, and that not everyone agrees.

3. Social Class
Class discrimination or classism is a form of prejudice against a person or people
because of their social class. An example of language with a bias against class is the
American term “white trash” which is not only a racial slur but a classist one that refers
to white people, usually from the rural Southern United States, coming from a lower
social class inside the white population. The term is negative not just because of the
words that comprise it but because of its connotation of danger; white trash people are
seen as criminal, unpredictable, and without respect for authority. In the United States
and other cultures, there may also be a kind of classism against those who are
economically privileged. The rich are sometimes referred to by the derogatory terms
“preppie” and “yuppie” both of which connote not just wealth but arrogance.

There are examples from Philippine culture as well, in the informal terms “conyo” and
“jologs” both derogatory terms referring to class. The first, used to describe young
people from the upper class who speak an idiosyncratic mix of English and Tagalog,
connotes vanity and consciousness about social status. The second, now perhaps
replaced by the term “jejemon” as used in reference to an idiosyncratic spelling or
writing style is used to describe persons who look poor and out of style.

Page 11 of 14
 Classism may also appear even in more formal terminology. Sociologist/Activist Betsy
Leondar – Wright, argues in a video interview that classist terms “attribute favorable
traits to the wealthy and powerful” and “those in poverty or near –poverty are similarly
cast in a negative light” (Classism Exposed, 2014). A more sensitive vocabulary uses
terms that more precisely portray the actual circumstances of people within the class
structure. For example, instead of “the owning class,” one can use “the upper class” or
“the privileged class” and instead of “the underclass,” one can say “the less privileged”
or describe a condition of “chronic poverty.” In the Philippines, informal settlers” is
now the more politically correct term for “squatters”

4. Age
Ageism – is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age, or
assuming that older people are less physically ,intellectually, or emotionally able than
other age groups. The capabilities of younger people should also not be underestimated
on the basis of their age. Again, it is important to refer to a person’s age only when that
information is pertinent to what is being discussed. When referring to a generic group,
one should also ask their subjects what wordings they prefer: Do they wish to be called
“older persons” or senior citizens”? Do they prefer the label “youths,” teenagers,” or
“young people”?

Lastly, according to The American Psychological Association, writers should be specific

when referring to males and females in terms of their age: females 18 years or older are
women, not girls. “Girls” refers to those in high school or younger (under 18).The same
true for “boys” and “man”

5. Disabilities
Discrimination in this area often arises because of lack of understanding and
awareness. Therefore, first it is important to distinguish some terms that are
mistakenly understood to be synonymous. Various guides on bias –free
communication and often –confused terminology are available online. One example is
“A Guide to Bias-Free Communications” published by the University of Wisconsin –
Madison. It defines the terms “impairment,” “disability,” and “handicap” as,
respectively, (1) “a physiological condition,” (2) “the consequence of an impairment”
which “may or may not be handicapping,” and (3) “the social implication of a disability;

Page 12 of 14
a condition or barrier impose by society, the environment or oneself.” Thus, according
to these definitions, a “limp” is an impairment in which a leg or foot is damaged or stiff.
A disability that may result from arthritis is difficulty in walking, or walking unevenly
and haltingly. People who limp may be handicapped by having to climb stairs in
buildings with no elevators. Other guides from other cultural contexts may provide
different definitions and examples; it is essential when writing to do research on these
definitions
Finally, when referring to people with disabilities ,the focus should be on the person
,not the condition(Arinto,2009).In Patricia Arinto’s English for the Professions
(2009),she advises writers to avoid hurtful expressions such as “retards” or even the
seemingly neutral description “the mentally retarded” and to use instead “people with
mental retardation”. “Similarly, instead of “the blind” and “cancer patients,” one
should instead use “people with vision impairments” and “people being treated for
cancer,” respectively. These examples demonstrate the importance of identity –first
language or the importance of putting the person or people first. Note the difference in
the following sentences:

Disability first: The blinds student used a special keyboard during the exam.

Person first: The student, who is visually impaired, used a special keyboard during
the exam.

Next, Arinto (2009) suggest considering the negative implications of usages such as
“confined to a wheelchair “and “AIDS victim.” For the former, one should instead write
or say “uses wheelchair ”because wheelchair enable people to escape confident, while
for the latter, one should use “person with AIDS “ as someone who can acquire a disease
without being victimized by it.Arinto(2009) also notes that the word “abnormal” may
be replaced with “atypical” because “people who have disabilities are atypical but not
necessarily abnormal”(Arinto,2009).These latter examples demonstrate the
importance of not representing people with disabilities as unfortunate, and helpless
victims.

Page 13 of 14
B. INQUIRY

If you have questions regarding this module, you may reach me through my email at
[email protected] call consultations via zoom can be scheduled (limited
in our class hours only). Thank you.

Page 14 of 14