Measurement of High Voltages

4 and Currents

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Transient measurements have much in common with measurements of steady state quantities but the
short-lived nature of the transients which we are trying to record introduces special problems. Frequently
the transient quantity to be measured is not recorded directly because of its large magnitudes e.g. when
a shunt is used to measure current, we really measure the voltage across the shunt and then we assume
that the voltage is proportional to the current, a fact which should not be taken for granted with transient
currents. Often the voltage appearing across the shunt may be insufficient to drive the measuring device;
it requires amplification. On the other hand, if the voltage to be measured is too large to be measured
with the usual meters, it must be attenuated. This suggests an idea of a measuring system rather than a
measuring device.
Measurements of high voltages and currents involves much more complex problems which a
specialist, in common electrical measurement, does not have to face. The high voltage equipments
have large stray capacitances with respect to the grounded structures and hence large voltage gradients
are set up. A person handling these equipments and the measuring devices must be protected against
these over voltages. For this, large structures are required to control the electrical fields and to avoid
flash over between the equipment and the grounded structures. Sometimes, these structures are re-
quired to control heat dissipation within the circuits. Therefore, the location and layout of the equipments
is very important to avoid these problems. Electromagnetic fields create problems in the measurements
of impulse voltages and currents and should be minimised.
The chapter is devoted to describing various devices and circuits for measurement of high voltages
and currents. The application of the device to the type of voltages and currents is also discussed.

4.2 SPHERE GAP

Sphere gap is by now considered as one of the standard methods for the measurement of peak value of
d.c., a.c. and impulse voltages and is used for checking the voltmeters and other voltage measuring
devices used in high voltage test circuits. Two identical metallic spheres separated by certain distance
form a sphere gap. The sphere gap can be used for measurement of impulse voltage of either polarity
provided that the impulse is of a standard wave form and has wave front time at least 1 micro sec. and
wave tail time of 5 micro sec. Also, the gap length between the sphere should not exceed a sphere
radius. If these conditions are satisfied and the specifications regarding the shape, mounting, clearances

110
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 111

of the spheres are met, the results obtained by the use of sphere gaps are reliable to within ±3%. It has
been suggested in standard specification that in places where the availability of ultraviolet radiation is
low, irradiation of the gap by radioactive or other ionizing media should be used when voltages of
magnitude less than 50 kV are being measured or where higher voltages with accurate results are to be
obtained.
In order to understand the importance of irradiation of sphere gap for measurement of impulse
voltages especially which are of short duration, it is necessary to understand the time-lag involved in
the development of spark process. This time lag consists of two components—(i) The statistical time-
lag caused by the need of an electron to appear in the gap during the application of the voltage. (ii) The
formative time lag which is the time required for the breakdown to develop once initiated.
The statistical time-lag depends on the irradiation level of the gap. If the gap is sufficiently
irradiated so that an electron exists in the gap to initiate the spark process and if the gap is subjected to
an impulse voltage, the breakdown will take place when the peak voltage exceeds the d.c. breakdown
value. However, if the irradiation level is low, the voltage must be maintained above the d.c. break-
down value for a longer period before an electron appears. Various methods have been used for irradia-
tion e.g. radioactive material, ultraviolet illumination as supplied by mercury arc lamp and corona
discharges.
It has been observed that large variation can occur in the statistical time-lag characteristic of a
gap when illuminated by a specified light source, unless the cathode conditions are also precisely
specified.
Irradiation by radioactive materials has the advantage in that they can form a stable source of
irradiation and that they produce an amount of ionisation in the gap which is largely independent of the
gap voltage and of the surface conditions of the electrode. The radioactive material may be placed
inside high voltage electrode close behind the sparking surface or the radioactive material may form
the sparking surface.
The influence of the light from the impulse generator spark gap on the operation of the sphere
gaps has been studied. Here the illumination is intense and occurs at the exact instant when it is re-
quired, namely, at the instant of application of the voltage wave to the sphere gap.
The formative time lag depends mainly upon the mechanism of spark growth. In case of second-
ary electron emission, it is the transit time taken by the positive ion to travel from anode to cathode that
decides that formative time lag. The formative time-lag decreases with the applied over voltage and
increase with gap length and field non-uniformity.

Specifications on Spheres and Associated Accessories

The spheres should be so made that their surfaces are smooth and their curvatures as uniform as possible.
The curvature should be measured by a spherometer at various positions over an area enclosed by a
circle of radius 0.3 D about the sparking point where D is the diameter of the sphere and sparking
points on the two spheres are those which are at minimum distances from each other.
For smaller size, the spheres are placed in horizontal configuration whereas large sizes (diameters),
the spheres are mounted with the axis of the sphere gaps vertical and the lower sphere is grounded. In
either case, it is important that the spheres should be so placed that the space between spheres is free
from external electric fields and from bodies which may affect the field between the spheres (Figs. 4.1
and 4.2).
112 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

4
B

0·5D 0·2D
0·2D 0·5D
3
3

2
2D S 2D
2D 2D
A

Fig. 4.1

4
0·5D

5
0·20 2

P B

0·2D A
0·5D 3

1·5D

Fig. 4.2
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 113

According to BSS 358: 1939, when one sphere is grounded, the distance from the sparking
point of the high voltage sphere to the equivalent earth plane to which the earthed sphere is connected
should lie within the limits as given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Height of sparking point of high voltage sphere above the equivalent earth plane.
S = Sparking point distance

Sphere Diameter S < 0.5 D S > 0.5 D

D Maxm. Min. Maxm. Min.
Height Height Height Height

Upto 25 cms. 7D 10 S 7D 5D
50 cms. 6D 8S 6D 4D
75 cms. 6D 8S 6D 4D
100 cms. 5D 7S 5D 3.5 D
150 cms. 4D 6S 4D 3D
200 cms. 4D 6S 4D 3D

In order to avoid corona discharge, the shanks supporting the spheres should be free from sharp
edges and corners. The distance of the sparking point from any conducting surface except the shanks
should be greater than
V
25 cms
3
where V is the peak voltage is kV to be measured. When large spheres are used for the measurement of
low voltages the limiting distance should not be less than a sphere diameter.
It has been observed that the metal of which the spheres are made does not affect the accuracy of
measurements MSS 358: 1939 states that the spheres may be made of brass, bronze, steel, copper,
aluminium or light alloys. The only requirement is that the surfaces of these spheres should be clean,
free from grease films, dust or deposited moisture. Also, the gap between the spheres should be kept
free from floating dust particles, fibres etc.
For power frequency tests, a protective resistance with a value of 1 /V should be connected in
between the spheres and the test equipment to limit the discharge current and to prevent high frequency
oscillations in the circuit which may otherwise result in excessive pitting of the spheres. For higher
frequencies, the voltage drop would increase and it is necessary to have a smaller value of the resistance.
For impulse voltage the protective resistors are not required. If the conditions of the spheres and its
associated accessories as given above are satisfied, the spheres will spark at a peak voltage which will
be close to the nominal value shown in Table 4.2. These calibration values relate to a temperature of
20°C and pressure of 760 mm Hg. For a.c. and impulse voltages, the tables are considered to be accurate
within 3% for gap lengths upto 0.5 D. The tables are not valid for gap lengths less than 0.05 D and
impulse voltages less than 10 kV. If the gap length is greater than 0.5 D, the results are less accurate and
are shown in brackets.
114 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Table 4.2
Sphere gap with one sphere earthed
Peak value of disruptive discharge voltages (50% for impulse tests) are valid for (i) alternating voltages
(ii) d.c. voltage of either polarity (iii) negative lightning and switching impulse voltages

Sphere Gap Voltage KV Peak

Spacing mm Sphere dia in cm.

12.5 25 50 75 100 150 200

10 31.7
20 59.0
30 85 86
40 108 112
50 129 137 138 138 138 138
75 167 195 202 203 203 203 203
100 (195) 244 263 265 266 266 266
125 (214) 282 320 327 330 330 330
150 (314) 373 387 390 390 390
175 (342) 420 443 443 450 450
200 (366) 460 492 510 510 510
250 (400) 530 585 615 630 630
300 (585) 665 710 745 750
350 (630) 735 800 850 855
400 (670) (800) 875 955 975
450 (700) (850) 945 1050 1080
500 (730) (895) 1010 1130 1180
600 (970) (1110) 1280 1340
700 (1025) (1200) 1390 1480
800 (1260) 1490 1600
900 (1320) 1580 1720
1000 (1360) 1660 1840
1100 1730 1940
1200 1800 2020
1300 1870 2100
1400 1920 2180
1500 1960 2250
1600 2320
1700 2370
1800 2410
1900 2460
2000 2490
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 115

Due to dust and fibre present in the air, the measurement of d.c. voltages is generally subject to
larger errors. Here the accuracy is within 5% provided the spacing is less than 0.4 D and excessive
dust is not present.
The procedure for high voltage measurement using sphere gaps depends upon the type of voltage
to be measured.
Table 4.3
Sphere Gap with one sphere grounded
Peak values of disruptive discharge voltages (50% values).
Positive lightning and switching impulse voltages

Peak Voltage kV
Sphere Gap Sphere dia in cms

Spacing mm 12.5 25 50 75 100 150 200

10 31.7
20 59 59
30 85.5 86
40 110 112
50 134 138 138 138 138 138 138
75 (181) 199 203 202 203 203 203
100 (215) 254 263 265 266 266 266
125 (239) 299 323 327 330 330 330
150 (337) 380 387 390 390 390
175 (368) 432 447 450 450 450
200 (395) 480 505 510 510 510
250 (433) 555 605 620 630 630
300 (620) 695 725 745 760
350 (670) 770 815 858 820
400 (715) (835) 900 965 980
450 (745) (890) 980 1060 1090
500 (775) (940) 1040 1150 1190
600 (1020) (1150) (1310) 1380
700 (1070) (1240) (1430) 1550
750 (1090) (1280) (1480) 1620
800 (1310) (1530) 1690
900 (1370) (1630) (1820)
1000 (1410) (1720) 1930
1100 (1790) (2030)
1200 (1860) (2120)

For the measurement of a.c. or d.c. voltage, a reduced voltage is applied to begin with so that the
switching transient does not flash over the sphere gap and then the voltage is increased gradually till the
gap breaks down. Alternatively the voltage is applied across a relatively large gap and the spacing is
116 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

then gradually decreased till the gap breaks down. Corresponding to this gap the value of peak voltage
can be read out from the calibration tables. However, it is reminded that the calibration tables values
correspond to 760 mm Hg pressure and 20°C temperature. Any deviation from the value, a correction
factor will have to be used to get the correct value of the voltage being measured.
For the measurement of 50% impulse disruptive discharge voltages, the spacing of the sphere
gap or the charging voltage of the impulse generator is adjusted in steps of 3% of the expected disruptive
voltage. Six applications of the impulse should be made at each step and the interval between two
applications is 5 seconds. The value giving 50% probability to disruptive discharge is preferably obtained
by interpolation between at least two gap or voltage settings, one resulting in two disruptive discharges
or less out of six applications and the other in four disruptive discharges or more out of again six
applications.
Another method, simple though less accurate, is to adjust the settings such that four to six
disruptive discharges are obtained in a series of ten successive applications.
The breakdown voltage of a sphere gap increases with increase in pressure and decreases with
increase in temperature. The value of disruptive voltages as given in Tables 4.2 and 4.3 correspond to
760 mm Hg pressure and 20°C. For small variation in temperatures and pressures, the disruptive voltage
is closely proportional to the relative air density. The relative air density is given by
293b
=
760 ( 273 t )
where b and t are the atmospheric conditions (pressure in mm of Hg and temperature in °C respectively)
during measurement. The disruptive voltage V is given V = KdV0
Where V0 is the disruptive voltage as given in the Tables 4.2 and 4.3 and Kd is a correction factor
given in Table 4.4. Kd is a slightly non-linear function of a result explained by Paschen's law.
Table 4.4
Air density correction factor Kd

0.70 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.10

Kd 0.72 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.09

Some of the other factors which influence the breakdown value of air are discussed here.

Influence of Nearby Earthed Objects

The influence of nearby earthed object on the direct voltage breakdown of horizontal gaps was studied
by Kuffel and Husbands. They surrounded the gap by a cylindrical metal cage and found that the
breakdown voltage reduced materially especially when the gap length exceeded a sphere radius. The
experiments were conducted on 6.25 and 12.5 cm. diameter spheres when the radius of the surrounding
metal cylinder (B) was varied from 12.6 D to 4 D. The observation corresponding to 12.6 D was taken
as a reference. The reduction in the breakdown voltage for a given S/D fitted closely into an empirical
relation of the form.

V = m ln
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 117

650
S/D = 0.6
600

550

500
S/D = 0.4

450

400

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
A/D (diameter)

Fig. 4.3 Breakdown voltage as a function of /

Where V = per cent reduction in voltage in the breakdown voltage from the value when the
clearance was 12.6 D, and m and C are the factors dependent on the ratio S/D.
Fiegel and Keen have studied the influence of nearby ground plane on impulse breakdown
voltage of a 50 cm diameter sphere gap using 1.5/40 micro sec. negative polarity impulse wave. Fig. 4.3
shows the breakdown voltage as a function of A/D for various values of S/D. The voltage values were
corrected for relative air density.
It is observed that the voltage increases with increase in the ratio A/D. The results have been
compared with those given in Table 4.2 and represented in Fig. 4.3 by dashed lines. The results also
agree with the recommendation regarding the minimum and maximum values of A/D as given in Table 4.1.

Influence of Humidity
Kuffel has studied the effect of the humidity on the breakdown voltage by using spheres of 2 cms to
25 cms diameters and uniform field electrodes. The effect was found to be maximum in the region 0.4
mm Hg. and thereafter the change was decreased. Between 4–17 mm Hg. the relation between breakdown
voltage and humidity was practically linear for spacing less than that which gave the maximum humidity
effect. Fig. 4.4 shows the effect of humidity on the breakdown voltage of a 25 cm diameter sphere with
spacing of 1 cm when a.c. and d.c voltages are applied. It can be seen that
(i) The a.c. breakdown voltage is slightly less than d.c. voltage.
(ii) The breakdown voltage increases with the partial pressure of water vapour.
It has also been observed that
(i) The humidity effect increases with the size of spheres and is largest for uniform field elec-
trodes.
(ii) The voltage change for a given humidity change increase with gap length.
118 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Fig. 4.4 Breakdown voltage humidity relation for a.c. and d.c.
for 1.0 cm gap between 25 cms diameter spheres

The increase in breakdown voltage with increase in partial pressure of water vapour and this
increase in voltage with increase in gap length is due to the relative values of ionisation and attachment
coefficients in air. The water particles readily attach free electrons, forming negative ions. These ions
therefore slow down and are unable to ionise neutral molecules under field conditions in which electrons
will readily ionise. It has been observed that within the humidity range of 4 to 17 g/m3 (relative
humidity of 25 to 95% for 20°C temperature) the relative increase of breakdown voltage is found to be
between 0.2 to 0.35% per gm/m3 for the largest sphere of diameter 100 cms and gap length upto
50 cms.

Influence of Dust Particles

When a dust particle is floating between the gap this results into erratic breakdown in homogeneous or
slightly inhomogenous electrode configurations. When the dust particle comes in contact with one
electrode under the application of d.c. voltage, it gets charged to the polarity of the electrode and gets
attracted by the opposite electrode due to the field forces and the breakdown is triggered shortly before
arrival. Gaps subjected to a.c. voltages are also sensitive to dust particles but the probability of erratic
breakdown is less. Under d.c. voltages erratic breakdowns occur within a few minutes even for voltages
as low as 80% of the nominal breakdown voltages. This is a major problem, with high d.c. voltage
measurements with sphere gaps.

4.3 UNIFORM FIELD SPARK GAPS

Bruce suggested the use of uniform field spark gaps for the measurements of a.c., d.c. and impulse
voltages. These gaps provide accuracy to within 0.2% for a.c. voltage measurements an appreciable
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 119

improvement as compared with the equivalent sphere gap arrangement. Fig. 4.5 shows a half-contour
of one electrode having plane sparking surfaces with edges of gradually increasing curvature.

Fig. 4.5 Half contour of uniform spark gap

The portion AB is flat, the total diameter of the flat portion being greater than the maximum
spacing between the electrodes. The portion BC consists of a sine curve based on the axes OB and OC
and given by XY = CO sin (BX/BO . /2). CD is an arc of a circle with centre at O.
Bruce showed that the breakdown voltage V of a gap of length S cms in air at 20°C and 760 mm
Hg. pressure is within 0.2 per cent of the value given by the empirical relation.
V = 24.22S + 6.08 S
This equation, therefore, replaces Tables 4.2 and 4.3 which are necessary for sphere gaps. This
is a great advantage, that is, if the spacing between the spheres for breakdown is known the breakdown
voltage can be calculated.
The other advantages of uniform field spark gaps are
(i) No influence of nearby earthed objects
(ii) No polarity effect.
However, the disadvantages are
(i) Very accurate mechanical finish of the electrode is required.
(ii) Careful parallel alignment of the two electrodes.
(iii) Influence of dust brings in erratic breakdown of the gap. This is much more serious in these
gaps as compared with sphere gaps as the highly stressed electrode areas become much
larger.
Therefore, a uniform field gap is normally not used for voltage measurements.

4.4 ROD GAPS

A rod gap may be used to measure the peak value of power frequency and impulse voltages. The gap
usually consists of two 1.27 cm square rod electrodes square in section at their end and are mounted on
insulating stands so that a length of rod equal to or greater than one half of the gap spacing overhangs
the inner edge of the support. The breakdown voltages as found in American standards for different
gap lengths at 25° C, 760 mm Hg. pressure and with water vapour pressure of 15.5 mm Hg. are reproduced
here.
120 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Gap length in Breakdown Voltage KV Gap Length in cms. Breakdown

Cms. peak Voltage KV peak

2 26 80 435
4 47 90 488
6 62 100 537
8 72 120 642
10 81 140 744
15 102 160 847
20 124 180 950
25 147 200 1054
30 172 220 1160
35 198
40 225
50 278
60 332
70 382

The breakdown voltage is a rod gap increases more or less linearly with increasing relative air
density over the normal variations in atmospheric pressure. Also, the breakdown voltage increases with
increasing relative humidity, the standard humidity being taken as 15.5 mm Hg.
Because of the large variation in breakdown voltage for the same spacing and the uncertainties
associated with the influence of humidity, rod gaps are no longer used for measurement of a.c. or
impulse voltages. However, more recent investigations have shown that these rods can be used for d.c.
measurement provided certain regulations regarding the electrode configurations are observed. The
arrangement consists of two hemispherically capped rods of about 20 mm diameter as shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Electrode arrangement for a rod gap to measure HVDC

The earthed electrode must be long enough to initiate positive breakdown streamers if the high
voltage rod is the cathode. With this arrangement, the breakdown voltage will always be initiated by
positive streamers for both the polarities thus giving a very small variation and being humidity dependent.
Except for low voltages (less than 120 kV), where the accuracy is low, the breakdown voltage can be
given by the empirical relation.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 121

V= (A + BS) 4 . 10 –2 (h
51 8.65) kV
where h is the absolute humidity in gm/m3
and varies between 4 and 20 gm/m3 in the above relation.
The breakdown voltage is linearly related with the gap spacing and the slope of the relation
B = 5.1 kV/cm and is found to be independent of the polarity of voltage. However constant A is polarity
dependent and has the values
A = 20 kV for positive polarity
= 15 kV for negative polarity of the high voltage electrode.
The accuracy of the above relation is better than 20% and, therefore, provides better accuracy
even as compared to a sphere gap.

4.5 ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETER

The electric field according to Coulomb is the field of forces. The electric field is produced by voltage
and, therefore, if the field force could be measured, the voltage can also be measured. Whenever a
voltage is applied to a parallel plate electrode arrangement, an electric field is set up between the plates.
It is possible to have uniform electric field between the plates with suitable arrangement of the plates.
The field is uniform, normal to the two plates and directed towards the negative plate. If A is the area of
the plate and E is the electric field intensity between the plates the permittivity of the medium between
the plates, we know that the energy density of the electric field between the plates is given as,
1
Wd = E2
2
Consider a differential volume between the plates and parallel to the plates with area A and
thickness dx, the energy content in this differential volume Adx is
1 2
dW = Wd Adx = E Adx
2
Now force F between the plates is defined as the derivative of stored electric energy along the
field direction i.e.,
dW 1
F= E2 A
dx 2
Now E = V/d where V is the voltage to be measured and d the distance of separation between the
plates. Therefore, the expression for force
1 V2A
F=
2 d2
Since the two plates are oppositely charged, there is always force of attraction between the
plates. If the voltage is time dependant, the force developed is also time dependant. In such a case the
mean value of force is used to measure the voltage. Thus

1 T 1 1 V 2 (t ) 1 A 1 1 V2
F= F(t )dt A dt . V 2 ( t )dt A rms
T 0 T 2 d2 2 d2 T 2 d2
122 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Electrostatic voltmeters measure the force based on the above equations and are arranged such
that one of the plates is rigidly fixed whereas the other is allowed to move. With this the electric field
gets disturbed. For this reason, the movable electrode is allowed to move by not more than a fraction of
a millimetre to a few millimetres even for high voltages so that the change in electric field is negligibly
small. As the force is proportional to square of Vrms, the meter can be used both for a.c. and d.c. voltage
measurement.
The force developed between the plates is sufficient to be used to measure the voltage. Various
designs of the voltmeter have been developed which differ in the construction of electrode arrangement
and in the use of different methods of restoring forces required to balance the electrostatic force of
attraction. Some of the methods are
(i) Suspension of moving electrode on one arm of a balance.
(ii) Suspension of the moving electrode on a spring.
(iii) Pendulous suspension of the moving electrode.
(iv) Torsional suspension of moving electrode.
The small movement is generally transmitted and amplified by electrical or optical methods. If
the electrode movement is minimised and the field distribution can exactly be calculated, the meter can
be used for absolute voltage measurement as the calibration can be made in terms of the fundamental
quantities of length and force.
From the expression for the force, it is clear that for a given voltage to be measured, the higher
the force, the greater is the precision that can be obtained with the meter. In order to achieve higher
force for a given voltage, the area of the plates should be large, the spacing between the plates (d)
should be small and some dielectric medium other than air should be used in between the plates. If
uniformity of electric field is to be maintained an increase in area A must be accompanied by an increase
in the area of the surrounding guard ring and of the opposing plate and the electrode may, therefore,
become unduly large specially for higher voltages. Similarly the gap length cannot be made very small
as this is limited by the breakdown strength of the dielectric medium between the plates. If air is used as
the medium, gradients upto 5 kV/cm have been found satisfactory. For higher gradients vacuum or SF6
gas has been used.
The greatest advantage of the electrostatic voltmeter is its extremely low loading effect as only
electric fields are required to be set up. Because of high resistance of the medium between the plates,
the active power loss is negligibly small. The voltage source loading is, therefore, limited only to the
reactive power required to charge the instrument capacitance which can be as low as a few picofarads
for low voltage voltmeters.
The measuring system as such does not put any upper limit on the frequency of supply to be
measured. However, as the load inductance and the measuring system capacitance form a series resonance
circuit, a limit is imposed on the frequency range. For low range voltmeters, the upper frequency is
generally limited to a few MHz.
Fig. 4.7 shows a schematic diagram of an absolute electrostatic voltmeter. The hemispherical
metal dome D encloses a sensitive balance B which measures the force of attraction between the movable
disc which hangs from one of its arms and the lower plate P. The movable electrode M hangs with a
clearance of above 0.01 cm, in a central opening in the upper plate which serves as a guard ring. The
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 123

Fig. 4.7 Schematic diagram of electrostatic voltmeter

diameter of each of the plates is 1 metre. Light reflected from a mirror carried by the balance beam
serves to magnify its motion and to indicate to the operator at a safe distance when a condition of
equilibrium is reached. As the spacing between the two electrodes is large (about 100 cms for a voltage
of about 300 kV), the uniformity of the electric field is maintained by the guard rings G which surround
the space between the discs M and P. The guard rings G are maintained at a constant potential in space
by a capacitance divider ensuring a uniform spatial potential distribution. When voltages in the range
10 to 100 kV are measured, the accuracy is of the order of 0.01 per cent.
Hueter has used a pair of sphares of 100 cms diameter for the measurement of high voltages
utilising the electrostatic attractive force between them. The spheres are arranged with a vertical axis
and at a spacing slightly greater than the sparking distance for the particular voltage to be measured.
The upper high voltage sphere is supported on a spring and the extension of spring caused by the
electrostatic force is magnified by a lamp-mirror scale arrangement. An accuracy of 0.5 per cent has
been achieved by the arrangement.
Electrostatic voltmeters using compressed gas as the insulating medium have been developed.
Here for a given voltage the shorter gap length enables the required uniformity of the field to be
maintained with electrodes of smaller size and a more compact system can be evolved.
One such voltmeter using SF6 gas has been used which can measure voltages upto 1000 kV and
accuracy is of the order of 0.1%. The high voltage electrode and earthed plane provide uniform electric
field within the region of a 5 cm diameter disc set in a 65 cm diameter guard plane. A weighing balance
124 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

arrangement is used to allow a large damping mass. The gap length can be varied between 2.5, 5 and
10 cms and due to maximum working electric stress of 100 kV/cm, the voltage ranges can be selected
to 250 kV, 500 kV and 100 kV. With 100 kV/cm as gradient, the average force on the disc is found to be
0.8681 N equivalent to 88.52 gm wt. The disc movements are kept as small as 1 m by the weighing
balance arrangement.
The voltmeters are used for the measurement of high a.c. and d.c. voltages. The measurement of
voltages lower than about 50 volt is, however, not possible, as the forces become too small.

4.6 GENERATING VOLTMETER

Whenever the source loading is not permitted or when direct connection to the high voltage source is to
be avoided, the generating principle is employed for the measurement of high voltages, A generating
voltmeter is a variable capacitor electrostatic voltage generator which generates current proportional to
the voltage to be measured. Similar to electrostatic voltmeter the generating voltmeter provides loss
free measurement of d.c. and a.c. voltages. The device is driven by an external constant speed motor
and does not absorb power or energy from the voltage measuring source. The principle of operation is
explained with the help of Fig. 4.8. H is a high voltage electrode and the earthed electrode is subdivided
into a sensing or pick up electrode P, a guard electrode G and a movable electrode M, all of which are
at the same potential. The high voltage electrode H develops an electric field between itself and the
electrodes P, G and M. The field lines are shown in Fig. 4.8. The electric field density is also shown.
If electrode M is fixed and the voltage V is changed, the field density would change and thus a current
i (t) would flow between P and the ground.

Fig. 4.8 Principle of generating voltmeter

dq(t ) d
i (t) = ( a)da
dt dt
Where (a) is the electric field density or charge density along some path and is assumed constant over
the differential area da of the pick up electrode. In this case (a) is a function of time also and da the
area of the pick up electrode P exposed to the electric field.
However, if the voltage V to be measured is constant (d.c voltage), a current i(t) will flow only
if it is moved i.e. now (a) will not be function of time but the charge q is changing because the area of
the pick up electrode exposed to the electric field is changing. The current i(t) is given by
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 125

d d
i(t) = ( a)da E (a)da
dt A(t ) dt A(t )
where (a) = E(a) and is the permittivity of the medium between the high voltage electrode and the
grounded electrode. The integral boundary denotes the time varying exposed area.
The high voltage electrode and the grounded electrode in fact constitute a capacitance system.
The capacitance is, however, a function of time as the area A varies with time and, therefore, the charge
q(t) is given as
q(t) = C(t)V(t)
dq dV (t ) dC(t )
and i(t) = C( t ) V (t )
dt dt dt
For d.c. voltages dV (t )
0
dt
dC(t )
Hence i(t) = V
dt
If the capacitance varies linearly with time and reaches its peak value Cm is time Tc /2 and again
reduces to zero linearly in time Tc /2, the capacitance is given as
Cm
C(t) = 2 t
Tc
For a constant speed of n rpm of synchronous motor which is varying the capacitance, time Tc is
given by Tc = 60/n.
n n
Therefore I = 2Cm V C V
60 30 m
If the capacitance C varies sinusoidally between the limits C0 and (C0 + Cm) then
C = C0 + Cm sin wt
and the current i is then given as
i(t) = im cos wt where im = VCm
Here is the angular frequency of variation
of the capacitance. If is constant, the current
measured is proportional to the voltage being
measured. Generally the current is rectified and
measured by a moving coil meter. Generating
voltmeters can be used for a.c. voltage
measurement also provided the angular frequency
is the same or equal to half that of the voltage
being measured. Fig 4.9 shows the variations of
C as a function of time together with a.c. voltage,
Fig. 4.9 Capacitance and voltage variation
the frequency of which is twice the frequency of
C (t).
It can be seen from Fig. 4.9 that whatever be the phase relation between voltage and the
capacitance, over one cycle variation of the voltage is same (e.g. V(t1) – V(t2)) and the rate of change of
126 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

capacitance over the period Tv is equal to Cm/Tv. Therefore, the instantaneous value of current i(t) = Cm
fvV(t) where fv = 1/Tv the frequency of voltage.
Since fv = 2fc and fc = 60/n we obtain
I(t) = n/30 CmV(t)
Fig. 4.10 shows a schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter which employs rotating vanes
for variation of capacitance. The high voltage electrode is connected to a disc electrode D3 which is
kept at a fixed distance on the axis of the other low voltage electrodes D2, D1, and D0. The rotor D0 is
driven at a constant speed by a synchronous motor at a suitable speed. The rotor vanes of D0 cause
periodic change in capacitance between the insulated disc D2 and the high voltage electrode D3. The
number and shape of vanes are so designed that a suitable variation of capacitance (sinusodial or linear)
is achieved. The a.c. current is rectified and is measured using moving coil meters. If the current is
small an amplifier may be used before the current is measured.

Fig. 4.10 Schematic diagram of generating voltmeter

Generating voltmeters are linear scale instruments and applicable over a wide range of voltages.
The sensitivity can be increased by increasing the area of the pick up electrode and by using amplifier
circuits.
The main advantages of generating voltmeters are (i) scale is linear and can be extrapolated
(ii) source loading is practically zero (iii) no direct connection to the high voltage electrode.
However, they require calibration and construction is quite cumbersome.
The breakdown of insulating materials depends upon the magnitude of voltage applied and the
time of application of voltage. However, if the peak value of voltage is large as compared to breakdown
strength of the insulating material, the disruptive discharge phenomenon is in general caused by the
instantaneous maximum field gradient stressing the material. Various methods discussed so far can
measure peak voltages but because of complex calibration procedures and limited accuracy call for
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 127

more convenient and more accurate methods. A more convenient though less accurate method would
be the use of a testing transformer wherein the output voltage is measured and recorded and the input
voltage is obtained by multiplying the output voltage by the transformation ratio. However, here the
output voltage depends upon the loading of the secondary winding and wave shape variation is caused
by the transformer impedances and hence this method is unacceptable for peak voltage measurements.

4.7 THE CHUBB-FORTESCUE METHOD

Chubb and Fortescue suggested a simple and accurate method of measuring peak value of a.c. voltages.
The basic circuit consists of a standard capacitor, two diodes and a current integrating ammeter
(MC ammeter) as shown in Fig. 4.11 (a).

v (t) C

C
ic (t) Rd

D1 D2
D1 D2

A A

( ) ( )

Fig. 4.11 ( ) Basic circuit ( ) Modified circuit

The displacement current ic(t), Fig. 4.12 is given by the rate of change of the charge and hence
the voltage V(t) to be measured flows through the high voltage capacitor C and is subdivided into
positive and negative components by the back to back connected diodes. The voltage drop across these
diodes can be neglected (1 V for Si diodes) as compared with the voltage to be measured. The measuring
instrument (M.C. ammeter) is included in one of the branches. The ammeter reads the mean value of
the current.
1 t2 dv(t ) C I
I= C . dt . 2Vm 2Vm fC or Vm
T t1 dt T 2 fC
The relation is similar to the one obtained in case of generating voltmeters. An increased current
would be obtained if the current reaches zero more than once during one half cycle. This means the
wave shapes of the voltage would contain more than one maxima per half cycle. The standard a.c.
voltages for testing should not contain any harmonics and, therefore, there could be very short and
rapid voltages caused by the heavy predischarges, within the test circuit which could introduce errors in
measurements. To eliminate this problem filtering of a.c. voltage is carried out by introducing a damping
resistor in between the capacitor and the diode circuit, Fig. 4.11 (b).
128 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Fig. 4.12

Also, if full wave rectifier is used instead of the half wave as shown in Fig. 4.11, the factor 2 in
the denominator of the above equation should be replaced by 4. Since the frequency f, the capacitance
C and current I can be measured accurately, the measurement of symmetrical a.c. voltages using Chubb
and Fortescue method is quite accurate and it can be used for calibration of other peak voltage measuring
devices.
Fig. 4.13 shows a digital peak voltage measuring circuit. In contrast to the method discussed just
now, the rectified current is not measured directly, instead a proportional analog voltage signal is derived
which is then converted into a proportional medium frequency for using a voltage to frequency convertor
(Block A in Fig. 4.13). The frequency ratio fm/f is measured with a gate circuit controlled by the a.c.
power frequency (supply frequency f) and a counter that opens for an adjustable number of period
t = p/f. The number of cycles n counted during this interval is

Fig. 4.13 Digital peak voltmeter

p
n = tfm = fm
f
where p is a constant of the instrument.
fm fm fm 1
Let A= .
Ric R2 Vm fC f 2 RVm C
Therefore, n = p 2ARVmC
where A represents the voltage to frequency conversion factor.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 129

Thus the indicator can be calibrated to read Vm directly by selecting suitable values of A, p and
R.
The voltmeter is found to given an accuracy of 0.35%.

4.7.1 Peak Voltmeters with Potential Dividers

Passive circuits are not very frequently used these days for measurement of the peak value of a.c. or
impulse voltages. The development of fully integrated operational amplifiers and other electronic circuits
has made it possible to sample and hold such voltages and thus make measurements and, therefore,
have replaced the conventional passive circuits. However, it is to be noted that if the passive circuits are
designed properly, they provide simplicity and adequate accuracy and hence a small description of
these circuits is in order. Passive circuits are cheap,
reliable and have a high order of electromagnetic
compatibility. However, in contrast, the most
sophisticated electronic instruments are costlier and
their electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is low.
The passive circuits cannot measure high
voltages directly and use potential dividers
preferably of the capacitance type.
Fig. 4.14 shows a simple peak voltmeter
circuit consisting of a capacitor voltage divider
which reduces the voltage V to be measured to a Fig. 4.14 Peak voltmeter
low voltage Vm.
Suppose R2 and Rd are not present and the supply voltage is V. The voltage across the storage
capacitor Cs will be equal to the peak value of voltage across C2 assuming voltage drop across the diode
to be negligibly small. The voltage could be measured by an electrostatic voltmeter or other suitable
voltmeters with very high input impedance. If the reverse current through the diode is very small and
the discharge time constant of the storage capacitor very large, the storage capacitor will not discharge
significantly for a long time and hence it will hold the voltage to its value for a long time. If now, V is
decreased, the voltage V2 decreases proportionately and since now the voltage across C2 is smaller than
the voltage across Cs to which it is already charged, therefore, the diode does not conduct and the
voltage across Cs does not follow the voltage across C2. Hence, a discharge resistor Rd must be introduced
into the circuit so that the voltage across Cs follows the voltage across C2. From measurement point of
view it is desirable that the quantity to be measured should be indicated by the meter within a few
seconds and hence Rd is so chosen that RdCs 1 sec. As a result of this, following errors are introduced.
With the connection of Rd , the voltage across Cs will decrease continuously even when the input voltage
is kept constant. Also, it will discharge the capacitor C2 and the mean potential of V2(t) will gain a
negative d.c. component. Hence a leakage resistor R2 must be inserted in parallel with C2 to equalise
these unipolar discharge currents. The second error corresponds to the voltage shape across the storage
capacitor which contains ripple and is due to the discharge of the capacitor Cs. If the input impedance
of the measuring device is very high, the ripple is independent of the meter being used. The error is
approximately proportional to the ripple factor and is thus frequency dependent as the discharge time-
constant cannot be changed. If RdCs = 1 sec, the discharge error amounts to 1% for 50 Hz and 0.33%.
130 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

for 150 Hz. The third source of error is related to this discharge error. During the conduction time
(when the voltage across Cs is lower than that across C2 because of discharge of Cs through Rd) of the
diode the storage capacitor Cs is recharged to the peak value and thus Cs becomes parallel with C2. If
discharge error is ed, recharge error er is given by
Cs
er 2ed
C1 C2 Cs
Hence Cs should be small as compared with
C2 to keep down the recharge error.
It has also been observed that in order to
keep the overall error to a low value, it is desirable
to have a high value of R2. The same effect can be
obtained by providing an equalising arm to the low
voltage arm of the voltage divider as shown in
Fig. 4.15 Modified peak voltmeter circuit
Fig. 4.15. This is accomplished by the addition of
a second network comprising diode, Cs and Rd for negative polarity currents to the circuit shown in Fig.
4.14. With this, the d.c. currents in both branches are opposite in polarity and equalise each other. The
errors due to R2 are thus eliminated.
Rabus developed another circuit shown in Fig. 4.16. to reduce errors due to resistances. Two
storage capacitors are connected by a resistor Rs within every branch and both are discharged by only
one resistance Rd.

D2 D2 D1 D1
Rs

Cs2 Cs1 Rd Rd Cs1 Cs2 Vm

Fig. 4.16 Two-way booster circuit designed by Rabus

Here because of the presence of Rs, the discharge of the storage capacitor Cs2 is delayed and
hence the inherent discharge error ed is reduced. However, since these are two storage capacitors within
one branch, they would draw more charge from the capacitor C2 and hence the recharge error er would
increase. It is, therefore, a matter of designing various elements in the circuit so that the total sum of all
the errors is a minimum. It has been observed that with the commonly used circuit elements in the
voltage dividers, the error can be kept to well within about 1% even for frequencies below 20 Hz.
The capacitor C1 has to withstand high voltage to be measured and is always placed within the
test area whereas the low voltage arm C2 including the peak circuit and instrument form a measuring
unit located in the control area. Hence a coaxial cable is always required to connect the two areas. The
cable capacitance comes parallel with the capacitance C2 which is usually changed in steps if the
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 131

voltage to be measured is changed. A change of the length of the cable would, thus, also require
recalibration of the system. The sheath of the coaxial cable picks up the electrostatic fields and thus
prevents the penetration of this field to the core of the conductor. Also, even though transient magnetic
fields will penetrate into the core of the cable, no appreciable voltage (extraneous of noise) is induced
due to the symmetrical arrangement and hence a coaxial cable provides a good connection between the
two areas. Whenever, a discharge takes place at the high voltage end of capacitor C1 to the cable
connection where the current looks into a change in impedance a high voltage of short duration may be
built up at the low voltage end of the capacitor C1 which must be limited by using an over voltage
protection device (protection gap). These devices will also prevent complete damage of the measuring
circuit if the insulation of C1 fails.

4.8 IMPULSE VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS USING VOLTAGE DIVIDERS

If the amplitudes of the impulse voltage is not high and is in the range of a few kilovolts, it is possible
to measure them even when these are of short duration by using CROS. However, if the voltages to be
measured are of high magnitude of the order of magavolts which normally is the case for testing and
research purposes, various problems arise. The voltage dividers required are of special design and need
a thorough understanding of the interaction present in these voltage dividing systems. Fig. 4.17 shows
a layout of a voltage testing circuit within a high voltage testing area. The voltage generator G is
connected to a test object—T through a lead L.

Fig. 4.17 Basic voltage testing circuit

These three elements form a voltage generating system. The lead L consists of a lead wire and
a resistance to damp oscillation or to limit short-circuit currents if of the test object fails. The measuring
system starts at the terminals of the test object and consists of a connecting lead CL to the voltage
divider D. The output of the divider is fed to the measuring instrument (CRO etc.) M. The appropriate
ground return should assure low voltage drops for even highly transient phenomena and keep the ground
potential of zero as far as possible.
It is to be noted that the test object is a predominantly capacitive element and thus this forms an
oscillatory circuit with the inductance of the load. These oscillations are likely to be excited by any
steep voltage rise from the generator output, but will only partly be detected by the voltage divider. A
resistor in series with the connecting leads damps out these oscillations. The voltage divider should
always be connected outside the generator circuit towards the load circuit (Test object) for accurate
measurement. In case it is connected within the generator circuit, and the test object discharges (chopped
wave) the whole generator including voltage divider will be discharged by this short circuit at the test
object and thus the voltage divider is loaded by the voltage drop across the lead L. As a result, the
voltage measurement will be wrong.
Yet for another reason, the voltage divider should be located away from the generator circuit.
The dividers cannot be shielded against external fields. All objects in the vicinity of the divider which
132 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

may acquire transient potentials during a test will disturb the field distribution and thus the divider
performance. Therefore, the connecting lead CL is an integral part of the potential divider circuit.
In order to avoid electromagnetic interference between the measuring instrument M and C the
high voltage test area, the length of the delay cable should be adequately chosen. Very short length of
the cable can be used only if the measuring instrument has high level of electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC). For any type of voltage to be measured, the cable should be co-axial type. The outer conductor
provides a shield against the electrostatic field and thus prevents the penetration of this field to the
inner conductor. Even though, the transient magnetic fields will penetrate into the cable, no appreciable
voltage is induced due to the symmetrical arrangement. Ordinary coaxial cables with braided shields
may well be used for d.c. and a.c. voltages. However, for impulse voltage measurement double shielded
cables with predominently two insulated braided shields will be used for better accuracy.
During disruption of test object, very heavy transient current flow and hence the potential of the
ground may rise to dangerously high values if proper earthing is not provided. For this, large metal
sheets of highly conducting material such as copper or aluminium are used. Most of the modern high
voltage laboratories provide such ground return along with a Faraday Cage for a complete shielding of
the laboratory. Expanded metal sheets give similar performance. At least metal tapes of large width
should be used to reduce the impedance.

4.8.1 Voltage Divider

Voltages dividers for a.c., d.c. or impulse voltages may consist of resistors or capacitors or a convenient
combination of these elements. Inductors are normally not used as voltage dividing elements as pure
inductances of proper magnitudes without stray capacitance cannot be built and also these inductances
would otherwise form oscillatory circuit with the inherent capacitance of the test object and this may
lead to inaccuracy in measurement and high voltages in the measuring circuit. The height of a voltage
divider depends upon the flash over voltage and this follows from the rated maximum voltage applied.
Now, the potential distribution may not be uniform and hence the height also depends upon the design
of the high voltage electrode, the top electrode. For voltages in the megavolt range, the height of the
divider becomes large. As a thumb rule following clearances between top electrode and ground may be
assumed.
2.5 to 3 metres/MV for d.c. voltages.
2 to 2.5 m/MV for lightning impulse voltages.
More than 5 m/MV rms for a.c. voltages.
More than 4 m/MV for switching impulse voltage.
The potential divider is most simply represented by two
impedances Z1 and Z2 connected in series and the sample voltage
required for measurement is taken from across Z2, Fig. 4.18.
If the voltage to be measured is V1 and sampled voltage V2,
then
Fig. 4.18 Basic diagram of a poten-
Z2
V2 = V1 tial divider circuit
Z1 Z 2
If the impedances are pure resistances
R2
V2 = V1
R1 R2
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 133

and in case pure capacitances are used

C1
V2 = V1
C1 C2
The voltage V2 is normally only a few hundred volts and hence the value of Z2 is so chosen that
V2 across it gives sufficient deflection on a CRO. Therefore, most of the voltage drop is available
across the impedance Z1 and since the voltage to be measured is in megavolt the length of Z1 is large
which result in inaccurate measurements because of the stray capacitances associated with long length
voltage dividers (especially with impulse voltage measurements) unless special precautions are taken.
On the low voltage side of the potential dividers where a screened cable of finite length has to be
employed for connection to the oscillograph other errors and distortion of wave shape can also occur.

The resistance potential dividers are the first to appear because of their simplicity of construction, less
space requirements, less weight and easy portability. These can be placed near the test object which
might not always be confined to one location.
The length of the divider depends upon two or three factors. The maximum voltage to be measured
is the first and if height is a limitation, the length can be based on a surface flash over gradient in the
order of 3–4 kV/cm irrespective of whether the resistance R1 is of liquid or wirewound construction.
The length also depends upon the resistance value but this is implicitly bound up with the stray capacitance
of the resistance column, the product of the two (RC) giving a time constant the value of which must
not exceed the duration of the wave front it is required to record.
It is to be noted with caution that the resistance of the potential divider should be matched to the
equivalent resistance of a given generator to obtain a given wave shape.
Fig. 4.19 (a) shows a common form of resistance potential divider used for testing purposes
where the wave front time of the wave is less than 1 micro sec.

R1 R1 R1
R3 Z Z R3 Z
V1
R2 R2 R4 R2 R4
V2

( ) ( ) ( )

Fig. 4.19 Various forms of resistance potential dividers recording circuits ( ) Matching at divider end
( ) Matching at Oscillograph end ( ) Matching at both ends of delay cable

Here R3, the resistance at the divider end of the delay cable is chosen such that R2 + R3 = Z which
puts an upper limit on R2 i.e., R2 < Z. In fact, sometimes the condition for matching is given as
R1 R2
Z = R3 +
R1 R2
134 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

But, since usually R1 > > R2, the above relation reduces to Z = R3 + R2. From Fig. 4.19 (a), the
voltage appearing across R2 is
Z1
V2 = V1
Z1 R1
where Z1 is the equivalent impedance of R2 in parallel with (Z + R3), the surge impedance of the cable
being represented by an impedance Z to ground.
(Z R3 ) R2 (Z R3 ) R2
Now Z1 =
R2 Z R3 2Z
(Z R3 ) R2 V1
Therefore, V2 =
2Z Z1 R1
However, the voltage entering the delay cable is
V2 Z (Z R3 ) R2 V1 R2
V3 = Z . V1
Z R3 Z R3 2Z Z1 R1 2( Z1 R1 )
As this voltage wave reaches the CRO end of the delay cable, it suffers reflections as the
impedance offered by the CRO is infinite and as a result the voltage wave transmitted into the CRO is
doubled. The CRO, therefore, records a voltage
R2
V3 = V1
Z1 R1
The reflected wave, however, as it reaches the low voltage arm of the potential divider does not
suffer any reflection as Z = R2 + R3 and is totally absorbed by (R2 + R3).
Since R2 is smaller than Z and Z1 is a parallel combination of R2 and (R3 + Z), Z1 is going to be
smaller than R2 and since R1 > > R2, R1 will be much greater than Z1 and, therefore to a first approximation
Z1 + R1 R1.
R2 R2
Therefore, V3 = V1 V1 as R2 < < R1
R1 R1 R2
Fig. 4.19 (b) and (c) are the variants of the potential divider circuit of Fig. 4.19 (a). The cable
matching is done by a pure ohmic resistance R4 = Z at the end of the delay cable and, therefore, the
voltage reflection coefficient is zero i.e. the voltage at the end of the cable is transmitted completely
into R4 and hence appears across the CRO plates without being reflected. As the input impedance of the
delay cable is R4 = Z, this resistance is a parallel to R2 and forms an integral part of the divider’s low
voltage arm. The voltage of such a divider is, therefore, calculated as follows:
Equivalent impedance
R2 Z R1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z
= R1 +
R2 Z ( R2 Z )
V1 ( R2 Z )
Therefore, Current I=
R1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z
IR2 Z V1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z
and voltage V2 =
R2 Z R1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z R2 Z
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 135

R2 Z
= V1
R1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z
V2 R2 Z
or voltage ratio V1 R1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z
Due to the matching at the CRO end of the delay cable, the voltage does not suffer any reflection
at that end and the voltage recorded by the CRO is given as
R2 Z V1 R2 ZV1 R2 V1
V2 =
R1 ( R2 Z ) R2 Z ( R1 R2 ) Z R1 R2 R1 R2
( R1 R2 )
Z
Normally for undistorted wave shape through the cable
Z R2
Therefore,
R2
V2 = V1
2 R1 R2
For a given applied voltage V1 this arrangement will produce a smaller deflection on the CRO
plates as compared to the one in Fig. 4.19 (a).
The arrangement of Fig. 4.19 (c) provides for matching at both ends of the delay cable and is to
be recommended where it is felt necessary to reduce to the minimum irregularities produced in the
delay cable circuit. Since matching is provided at the CRO end of the delay cable, therefore, there is no
reflection of the voltage at that end and the voltage recorded will be half of that recorded in the
arrangement of Fig. 4.19 (a) viz.
R2
V2 = V1
2( R1 R2 )
It is desirable to enclose the low voltage resistance (s) of the potential dividers in a metal screening
box. Steel sheet is a suitable material for this box which could be provided with a detachable close
fitting lid for easy access. If there are two low voltage resistors at the divider position as in Fig. 4.19 (a)
and (c), they should be contained in the screening box, as close together as possible, with a removable
metallic partition between them. The partition serves two purposes (i) it acts as an electrostatic shield
between the two resistors (ii) it facilitates the changing of the resistors. The lengths of the leads should
be short so that practically no inductance is contributed by these leads. The screening box should be
fitted with a large earthing terminal. Fig. 4.20 shows a sketched cross-section of possible layout for the
low voltage arm of voltage divider.
Circuit elements
R2, C2 From high voltage arm

Matching Metal
impedance if reqd. casing

Delay cable

Fig. 4.20 Cross-section of low voltage arm of a voltage divider

136 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Capacitance Potential Dividers

Capacitance potential dividers are more complex than the resistance type. For measurement of impulse
voltages not exceeding 1 MV capacitance dividers can be both portable and transportable. In general,
for measurement of 1 MV and over, the capacitance divider is a laboratory fixture. The capacitance
dividers are usually made of capacitor units mounted one above the other and bolted together. It is this
failure which makes the small dividers portable. A screening box similar to that described earlier can
be used for housing both the low voltage capacitor unit C2 and the matching resistor if required.
The low voltage capacitor C2 should be non-inductive. A form of capacitor which has given
excellent results is of mica and tin foil plate, construction, each foil having connecting tags coming out
at opposite corners. This ensures that the current cannot pass from the high voltage circuit to the delay
cable without actually going through the foil electrodes. It is also important that the coupling between
the high and low voltage arms of the divider be purely capacitive. Hence, the low voltage arm should
contain one capacitor only; two or more capacitors in parallel must be avoided because of appreciable
inductance that would thus be introduced. Further, the tappings to the delay cable must be taken off as
close as possible to the terminals of C2. Fig. 4.21 shows variants of capacitance potential dividers.

R1
C1 C1
R Z, Cd R3 Cd C1 ( Z – R2 ) Z

C4 R2
C2 C2
R4
C2

( ) ( ) ( )

Fig. 4.21 Capacitor dividers ( ) Simple matching ( ) Compensated matching

( ) Damped capacitor divider simple matching

For voltage dividers in Fig. (b) and (c), the delay cable cannot be matched at its end. A low
resistor in parallel to C2 would load the low voltage arm of the divider too heavily and decrease the
output voltage with time. Since R and Z form a potential divider and R = Z, the voltage input to the
cable will be half of the voltage across the capacitor C2. This halved voltages travels towards the open
end of the cable (CRO end) and gets doubled after reflection. That is, the voltage recorded by the CRO
is equal to the voltage across the capacitor C2. The reflected wave charges the cable to its final voltage
magnitude and is absorbed by R (i.e. reflection takes place at R and since R = Z, the wave is completely
absorbed as coefficient of voltage reflection is zero) as the capacitor C2 acts as a short circuit for high
frequency waves. The transformation ratio, therefore, changes from the value:
C1 C2
C1
for very high frequencies to the value
C1 C2 Cd
C1
for low frequencies.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 137

However, the capacitance of the delay cable Cd is usually small as compared with C2.
For capacitive divider an additional damping resistance is usually connected in the lead on the
high voltage side as shown in Fig. 4.21 (c). The performance of the divider can be improved if damping
resistor which corresponds to the aperiodic limiting case is inserted in series with the individual element
of capacitor divider. This kind of damped capacitive divider acts for high frequencies as a resistive
divider and for low frequencies as a capacitive divider. It can, therefore, be used over a wide range of
frequencies i.e. for impulse voltages of very different duration and also for alternating voltages.

Fig. 4.22 Simplified diagram of a resistance potential divider

Fig. 4.22 shows a simplified diagram of a resistance potential divider after taking into
considerations the lead in connection as the inductance and the stray capacitance as lumped capacitance.
Here L represents the loop inductance of the lead-in connection for the high voltage arm. The damping
resistance Rd limits the transient overshoot in the circuit formed by test object, L, Rd and C. Its value has
a decided effect on the performance of the divider. In order to evaluate the voltage transformation of the
divider, the low voltage arm voltage V2 resulting from a square wave impulse V1 on the hv side must be
investigaged. The voltage V2 follows curve 2 in Fig. 4.23 (a) in case of aperiodic damping and curve 2
in Fig. 4.23 (b) in case of sub-critical damping. The total area between curves 1 and 2 taking into
consideration the polarity, is described as the response time.

2
1 –
1 –
V2 (t) + +
2 V2 (t) +

( ) t ( ) t

Fig. 4.23 The response of resistance voltage divider

With subcritical damping, even though the response time is smaller, the damping should not be
very small. This is because an undesirable resonance may occur for a certain frequency within the
passing frequency band of the divider. A compromise must therefore be realised between the short rise
time and the rapid stabilization of the measuring system. According to IEC publication No. 60 a maximum
overshoot of 3% is allowed for the full impulse wave, 5% for an impulse wave chopped on the front at
times shorter than 1 micro sec. In order to fulfill these requirements, the response time of the divider
must not exceed 0.2 micro sec. for full impulse waves 1.2/50 or 1.2/5 or impulse waves chopped on the
138 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

tail. If the impulse wave is chopped on the front at time shorter than 1 micro sec the response time must
be not greater than 5% of the time to chopping.

4.8.2 Klydonograph or Surge Recorder

Since lightning surges are infrequent and random in nature, it is necessary to instal a large number of
recording devices to obtain a reasonable amount of data regarding these surges produced on transmission
lines and other equipments. Some fairly simple devices have been developed for this purpose.
Klydonograph is one such device which makes use of the patterns known as Litchenberg figures which
are produced on a photographic film by surface corona discharges.
The Klydonograph (Fig. 4.24) consists of a rounded electrode resting upon the emulsion side of
a photographic film or plate which is kept on the smooth surface of an insulating material plate backed
by a plate electrode. The minimum critical voltage to produce a figure is about 2 kV and the maximum
voltage that can be recorded is about 20 kV, as at higher voltages spark overs occurs which spoils the
film. The device can be used with a potential divider to measure higher voltages and with a resistance
shunt to measure impulse current.

Top plate connected to

potential divider tapping
Electrode support
Removable plug
Adjustable holder
Locking
ring Compression spring
Stainless steel hemispherical
electrode
Keramot Photographic film (emulsion side)
cap
Keramot backing plate
Plate
electrode Locking ring
Electrode support

Base plate connected to earth

Positioning device

Fig. 4.24 Klydonograph

There are characteristic differences between the figures for positive and negative voltages.
However, for either polarity the radius of the figure (if it is symmetrical) or the maximum distance from
the centre of the figure to its outside edge (if it is unsymmetrical) is a function only of the applied
voltage. The oscillatory voltages produce superimposed effects for each part of the wave. Thus it is
possible to know whether the wave is unidirectional or oscillatory. Since the size of the figure for
positive polarity is larger, it is preferable to use positive polarity figures. This is particularly desirable
in case of measurement of surges on transmission lines or other such equipment which are ordinarily
operating on a.c. voltage and the alternating voltage gives a black band along the centre of the film
caused by superposition of positive and negative figures produced on each half cycle. For each surge
voltage it is possible to obtain both positive and negative polarity figures by connecting pairs of electrodes
in parallel, one pair with a high voltage point and an earthed plate and the other pair with a high voltage
plate and an earthed point.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 139

Klydonograph being a simple and inexpensive device, a large number of elements can be used
for measurement. It has been used in the past quite extensively for providing statistical data on magnitude,
polarity and frequency of voltage surges on transmission lines even though its accuracy of measurement
is only of the order of 25 per cent.

4.9 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH D.C., AND IMPULSE CURRENTS

High currents are used in power system for testing circuit breakers, cables lightning arresters etc. and
high currents are encountered during lightning discharges, switching transients and shunt faults. These
currents require special techniques for their measurements.

High Direct Currents

Low resistance shunts are used for measurement of these currents. The voltage drop across the shunt
resistance is measured with the help of a millivoltmeter. The value of the resistance varies usually
between 10 microohm and 13 milliohm. This depends upon the heating effect and the loading permitted
in the circuit. The voltage drop is limited to a few millivolts usually less than 1 V. These resistances are
oil immersed and are made as three or four terminal resistances to provide separate terminals for voltage
measurement for better accuracy.

Hall Generators
Hall effect (Fig. 4.25) is used to measure very high direct current. Whenever electric current flows
through a metal plate placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to it, Lorenz force will deflect the electrons
in the metal structure in a direction perpendicular to the direction of both the magnetic field and the
flow of current. The charge displacement results in an e.m.f. in the perpendicular direction called the
Hall voltage. The Hall voltage is proportional to the current I, the magnetic flux density B and inversely
proportional to the plate thickness d i.e.,
BI
VH = R
d
where R is the Hall coefficient which depends upon the material of the plate and temperature of the
plate. For metals the Hall coefficient is very small and hence semiconductor materials are used for
which the Hall coefficient is high.

B
I B I

I VH
VH d
(Constant)
B
R

E
( )
( )

Fig. 4.25 Hall generator

140 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

When large d.c. currents are to be measured the current carrying conductor is passed through an
iron cored magnetic circuit (Fig. 4.25 (b)). The magnetic field intensity produced by the conductor in
the air gap at a depth d is given by
1
H=
2 d
The Hall element is placed in the air gap and a small constant d.c. current is passed through the element.
The voltage developed across the Hall element is measured and by using the expression for Hall voltage
the flux density B is calculated and hence the value of current I is obtained.

High Power Frequency Currents

High Power frequency currents are normally measured using current transformers as use of low resistance
shunts involves unnecessary power loss. Besides, the current transformers provide isolation from high
voltage circuits and thus it is safer to work on HV circuits Fig. 4.26 shows a scheme for current
measurements using current transformers and electro-optical technique.

Fig. 4.26 Current transformers and electro-optical system for high a.c. current measurements

A voltage signal proportional to the current to be measured is produced and is transmitted to the
ground through the electro-optical device. Light pulses proportional to the voltage signal are transmit-
ted by a glass optical fibre bundle to a photodetector and converted back into an analog voltage signal.
The required power for the signal convertor and optical device are obtained from suitable current and
voltage transformers.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 141

High Frequency and Impulse Currents

In power system the amplitude of currents may vary between a few amperes to a few hundred kiloamperes
and the rate of rise of currents can be as high as 1010A/sec and the rise time can vary between a few micro
seconds to a few macro seconds. Therefore, the device to be used for measuring such currents should be
capable of having a good frequency response over a very wide frequency band. The methods normally
employed are—(i) resistive shunts; (ii) elements using induction effects; (iii) Faraday and Hall effect
devices. With these methods the accuracy of measurement varies between 1 to 10%. Fig. 4.27 shows the
circuit diagram of the most commonly used method for high impulse current measurement. The voltage
across the shunt resistance R due to impulse current i(t) is fed to the oscilloscope through a delay cable
D. The delay cable is terminated through an impedance Z equal to the surge impedance of the cable to
avoid reflection of the voltage to be measured and thus true measurement of the voltage is obtained.
Since the dimension of the resistive element is
i(t) Z
large, it will have residual inductance L and stray
capacitance C. The inductance could be neglected
at low frequencies but at higher frequencies the R Z v(t)
inductive reactance would be comparable with the
resistance of the shunt. The effect of inductance
and capacitance above 1 MHz usually should be
Fig. 4.27 Circuit for high impulse current
considered. The resistance values range between measurement
10 micro ohm to a few milliohms and the voltage
drop is of the order of few volts. The resistive shunts used for measurements of impulse currents of large
duration is achieved only at considerable expense for thermal reasons. The resistive shunts for impulse
current of short duration can be built with rise time of a few nano seconds of magnitude. The resistance
element can be made of parallel carbon film resistors or low inductance wire resistors of parallel resistance
wires or resistance foils.
Assuming the stray capacitance to be negligibly small the voltage drop across the shunt in
complex frequency domain may be written as
V(s) = I(s)[R + Ls]
It is to be noted that in order to have flat frequency response of the resistive element the stray
inductance and capacitance associated with the element must be made as small as possible. In order to
minimise the stray field effects following designs of the resistive elements have been suggested and
used
1. Bifilar flat strip shunt.
2. Co-axial tube or Park’s shunt
3. Co-axial squirrel cage shunt.
The bifilar flat strip shunts suffer from stray inductance associated with the resistance element
and its potential leads are linked to a small part of the magnetic flux generated by the current that is
being measured. In order to eliminate the problems associated with the bifilar shunts, coaxial shunts
were developed (Fig. 4.28). Here the current enters the inner cylinder of the shunt element and returns
through an outer cylinder. The space between the two cylinders is occupied by air which acts like a
perfacts insulator. The voltage drop across the element is measured between the potential pick up point
142 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

and the outer case. The frequency response of this element is almost a flat characteristic upto about
1000 MHz and the response time is a few nanoseconds. The upper frequency limit is governed by the
skin effect in the sensitive element.

() ( )

Fig. 4.28 ( ) Bifilar flat strip; ( ) Co-axial squirrel cage

Squirrel cage shunts are high ohmic shunts which can dissipate larger energies as compared to
coaxial shunts which are unsuitable due to their limitation of heat dissipation, larger wall thickness and
the skin effect. Squirrel cage shunt consists of thick metallic rods or strips placed around the periphery
of a cylinder and the structure resembles the rotor construction of a double squirrel cage induction
motor. The step response of the element is peaky and, therefore, a compensating network is used in
conjunction with the element to improve its frequency response. Rise times less than 8 n sec and band
width of 400 MHz have been obtained with these shunts.

Elements using Induction Effects

If the current to be measured is flowing through a conductor which is surrounded by a coil as shown in
Fig. 4.29, and M is the mutual inductance between the coil and the conductor, the voltage across the
coil terminals will be:
di
v(t) = M
dt
Usually the coil is wound on a non-magnetic former in the form of a toroid and has a large number of
turns, to have sufficient voltage induced which could be recorded. The coil is wound criss-cross to
reduce the leakage inductance. If M is the number of turns of the coil, A the coil area and lm its mean
length, the mutual inductance is given by
0 NA
M=
l
Usually an integrating circuit RC is employed as shown in Fig. 4.29 to obtain the output voltage pro-
portional to the current to be measured. The output voltage is given by
1 t 1 di M M
v0(t) = v(t )dt M . dt di i (t )
RC 0 RC dt RC RC
RC
or v(t) = v 0 (t )
M
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 143

Integration of v(t) can be carried out more elegantly by using an appropriately wired operational
amplifier. The frequency response of the Rogowski coil is flat upto 100 MHz but beyond that it is
affected by the stray electric and magnetic fields and also by the skin effect.

i(t) v(t)
v0(t)

Fig. 4.29 Rogowski coil for high impulse current measurements

Magnetic Links
These are used for the measurement of peak magnitude of the current flowing in a conductor. These
links consist of a small number of short steel strips on high retentivity. The link is mounted at a known
distance from the current carrying conductor. It has been found through experiments that the remanant
magnetism of the link after impulse current of 0.5/5 micro sec shape passes through the conductor is
same as that caused by a direct current of the same peak value. Measurement of the remanance possessed
by the link after the impulse current has passed through the conductor enables to calculate the peak
value of the current. For accurate measurements, it is usual to mount two or more links at different
distances from the same conductor. Because of its relative simplicity, the method has been used for
measurement of lightning current especially on transmission towers.
It is to be noted that the magnetic links help in recording the peak value of the impulse current
but gives no information regarding the wave shape of the current. For this purpose, an instrument
called Fulcronograph has been developed which consists of an aluminium wheel round the rim of
which are slots containing magnetic links of sufficient length to project on both sides of the wheel. As
the wheel is rotated, the links pass successively through a pair of narrow coils through which flows the
current to be measured. The current at the instant during which a particular link traverses the coil, can
be determined by a subsequent measurement of the residual flux in the link and, therefore, a curve
relating the variation of current with time can be obtained. The time scale is governed by the speed of
rotation of the wheel.
Hall Generators
The high amplitude a.c. and impulse currents can be measured by Hall Generator described earlier. For
the Hall Generator, though a constant control current flows which is permeated by the magnetic field of
the current to be measured, the Hall voltage is directly proportional to the measuring current. This
method became popular with the development of semi-conductor with sufficient high value of Hall
constant. The band width of such devices is found to be about 50 MHz with suitable compensating
devices and feedback.

Faraday Generator or Magneto Optic Method

These methods of current measurement use the rotation of the plane of polarisation in materials by the
magnetic field which is proportional to the current (Faraday effect). When a linearly polarised light
144 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

beam passes through a transparent crystal in the presence of a magnetic field, the plane of polarisation
of the light beam undergoes relation. The angle of rotation is given by
Bl
where = A constant of the cyrstal which is a function of the wave length of the light.
B = Magnetic flux density due to the current to be measured in this case.
l = Length of the crystal.
C

i(t)

P1 P2

L
CRO
PM
Fig. 4.30 Magneto-optical method

Fig. 4.30 shows a schematic diagram of Magneto-optic method. Crystal C is placed parallel to
the magnetic field produced by the current to be measured. A beam of light from a stabilised light
source is made incident on the crystal C after it is passed through the polariser P1. The light beam
undergoes rotation of its plane of polarisation. After the beam passes through the analyser P2, the beam
is focussed on a photomultiplier, the output of which is fed to a CRO. The filter F allows only the
monochromatic light to pass through it. Photoluminescent diodes too, the momentary light emission of
which is proportional to the current flowing through them, can be used for current measurement. The
following are the advantages of the method (i) It provides isolation of the measuring set up from the
main current circuit. (ii) It is insensitive to overloading. (iii) As the signal transmission is through an
optical system no insulation problem is faced. However, this device does not operate for d.c. current.

Example 4.1. Determine the breakdown voltage for air gaps of 2 mm and 15 mm lengths under uni-
form field and standard atmospheric conditions. Also, determine the voltage if the atmospheric pres-
sure is 750 mm Hg and temperature 35°C.
Solution: According to empirical formula which holds good at standard atmospheric conditions
Vb = 24.22 S + 6.08 S
where S is the gap length in cms.
(i) When S = 0.2 cm
V = 24.22 × 0.2 + 6.08 0.2 = 7.56 kV Ans.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 145

(ii) When S = 1.5 cms

Vb = 24.22 × 1.5 + 6.08 1.5 = 36.33 + 7.446 = 43.776 kV Ans.
The air density correction factor
3.92 b 3.92 75
= = = 0.9545 Ans.
273 t 273 35
Therefore, voltage for 2 mm gap will be 7.216 kV and for 15 mm gap it will be 41.78 kV.
Example 4.2. An absolute electrostatic voltmeter has a movable circular plate 8 cms in diameter. If the
distance between the plates during a measurement is 4 mm, determine the potential difference when the
force of attraction is 0.2 gm wt.

Solution: Area of plate 82 16 sq. cm

4
Spacing between the plates d = 4 mm

1 V2
Force of attraction = A
2 d2

1 1 V2
0.2 × 10–3 × 9.8 = 10 9
6
16 10 4
2 36 16 10

1 7
1.96 × 10–3 = 10 V2
72
of V = 1188 volts. Ans.
Example 4.3. An electrostatic voltmeter has two parallel plates. The movable plate is 10 cm in diam-
eter. With 10 kV between the plates the pull is 5 × 10–3 N. Determine the change in capacitance for a
movement of 1 mm of movable plate.

1 1 9 188 4
Solution: 5 × 10–3 = . 10 25 10
2 36 d2
or d = 26.35 mm.
Therefore, change in capacitance
10 3 9 4 1 1
10 25 10 = 0.0959 pF Ans.
36 26.35 27.35
Example 4.4. A generating voltmeter is required to measure voltage between 15 kV to 250 kV. If the
indicating meter reads a minimum current of 2 A and maximum of 35 A, determine the capacitance
of the generating voltmeter. Assume that the speed of driving synchronous motor is 1500 rpm.
Solution:
VCm w
I rms
2
146 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

15 1000 Cm 2 1500
2 × 10–6 =
2 60
Cm = 12 × 10–7 × 10–6 = 1.5 pF Ans.
At 250 kV, the current indicated will be
250
2× 33.3 A Ans.
15
Example 4.5. A peak reading voltmeter is required to measure voltage upto 150 kV. The peak voltmeter
uses an RC circuit, a microammeter and a capacitance potential divider. The potential divider has a
ratio of 1200 : 1 and the micrometer can read upto 10 A. Determine the value of R and C if the time
constant of RC circuit is 8 secs.
Solution: The voltage across the low voltage arm of the potential divider,
150 1000
= 125 volts.
1200
The same voltage appears across the resistance.
V 125
Therefore R 6
12.5 M
I 10 10
Since the time constant of the RC circuit is 8 sec.
8
C= 0.64 F Ans.
12.5 10 6

Example 4.6. A Rogowski coil is required to measure impulse current of 8 kA having rate of change of
current of 1010 A/sec. The voltmeter is connected across the integrating circuit which reads 8 volts for
full scale deflection. The input to the integrating circuit is from the Rogowski Coil. Determine the
mutual inductance of coil R and C of the integrating circuit.

RC
Solution: i(t) = V0 (t )
M
RC
8 × 103 = ×8
M
RC
or 10 3
M
Time taken for the current wave to reach to maximum value
8 1000
= = 8 × 10–7 sec.
1010
This is for 1/4th of a cycle. Therefore for one cycle, the time is
T = 32 × 10–7
1 1 10 7
f 7
Hz
T 32 10 32
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 147

For proper integration

1 f 10 7 10 6
CR 5 32 5 16
16
or CR =
10 6
CR
Also since 10 3
M
CR 16 1
M= 3 6 16 nH Ans.
10 10 10 3
Taking R = 8 × 103 Ans.
16 1
C= 2 nF Ans.
10 6 8 10 3

4.1. What are the requirements of a sphere gap for measurement of high voltages? Discuss the disadvantages
of sphere gap for measurements.
4.2. Explain clearly the procedure for measurement of (i) impulse; (ii) a.c. high voltages using sphere gap.
4.3. Discuss the effect of (i) nearby earthed objects (ii) humidity and (iii) dust particles on the measurements
using sphere gaps.
4.4. Describe the construction of a uniform field spark gap and discuss its advantages and disadvantages for
high voltage measurements.
4.5. Explain with neat diagram how rod gaps can be used for measurement of high voltages. Compare its
performance with a sphere gap.
4.6. Explain with neat diagram the principle of operation of an Electrostatic Voltmeter. Discuss its advantages
and limitations for high voltage measurements.
4.7. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter and explain its principle of operation. Discuss
its application and limitations.
4.8. Draw Chubb-Fortescue Circuit for measurement of peak value of a.c. voltages discuss its advantages over
other methods.
4.9. Discuss the problems associated with peak voltmeter circuits using passive elements. Draw circuit devel-
oped by Rabus and explain how this circuit overcomes these problems.
4.10. What are the problems associated with measurement of very high impulse voltages? Explain how these
can be taken care of during measurements.
4.11. Discuss and compare the performance of (i) resistance (ii) capacitance potential dividers for measurement
of impulse voltages.
4.12. Discuss various resistance potential dividers and compare their performance of measurement of impulse
voltages.
4.13. Discuss various capacitance, potential dividers and compare their performance for measurement of im-
pulse voltages.
4.14. Draw a simplified equivalent circuit of a resistance potential divider and discuss its step response.
4.15. Discuss various methods of measuring high d.c. and a.c. currents.
4.16. Discuss various methods of measuring high impulse currents.
4.17. What is Rogowski Coil? Explain with a neat diagram its principle of operation for measurement of high
impulse currents.