PESIT-ME Materials characterization & testing lab ME256

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ME256 – Materials characterization & Testing Laboratory (0+0+2)

INDEX
Faculty S.V.Venkatesh

Expt. # Contents Page No. Marks

1. Tension Test 3–7

2 & 6. Izod & Charpy Impact Test 8 -12

3. Rockwell Hardness Test 13 – 14

4. Torsion test 15 – 18

5. Compression test 19– 21

7. Shear Test 22– 23

8. Preparation of specimen for 24

Microscopic observation
9. Vickers Hardness Test. 25 – 26

10. Bending test 27 - 28

11. Wear Test 29 – 31

12. Brinell Hardness test 32– 33

13. Fatigue Test 34 – 35

14. Non-destructive Test 36 - 40

Reference:-
Manual prepared by the college.

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Cycle of Experiments
Faculty S.V.Venkatesh

Experiment Description Class #

#
Introduction 1
Cycle I
1. Tension Test 2
2 & 3. Izod Impact Test & Rockwell 3
Hardness Test
4. Torsion test 4
7. Shear Test 5
11. & 9. Wear Test & 6
Vickers Hardness Test
13. Fatigue Test 7
Cycle II
10. Bending test 8
11. Charpy Impact test 9
12. Brinell Hardness test 10
5. Compression test 11
14. Non-destructive test 12
8. Preparation 0f Specimen for 13
Metallographic Examination.

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EXPERIMENT No. : 1 - TENSION TEST [IS 1608:1995]

AIM:
A) To determine mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, elastic
modulus, proportionality limit, yield point, fracture stress, percentage elongation &
reduction in area etc. of metals & alloys.
B) To study the behaviour of materials & characterize types of fracture under tensile
load.
APPARATUS USED:
Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Caliper, Scale, test specimen, etc.,
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS: Universal testing machine (capacity 40 KN) is
used for evaluating stress - strain properties of materials in tension, compression,
bending and shear. Different load ranges like 40KN, 10KN and 20KN are selected
depending on the nature of materials. Specimens are mounted and gripped using
special grips and load is applied axially and continuously. Extensometers are used for
measuring extension accurately and they are recorded suitably.
THEORY: In static tension test, the operation is accomplished by gripping opposite
ends of the piece of the material and pulling it apart. In a tension test the test specimen
elongates in a direction parallel to applied load.
PROCEDURE: Diameter ‘d’ of the given specimen as shown in fig 1 is measured using
a micrometer and the mean value is noted. Using this average diameter, initial area of
cross section is calculated. The gauge length ‘Lo’ is marked on the specimen accurately
using centre punch. One end of the specimen is firmly fixed on the top plate using grips
such that the gauge length marks face the operator. Extensometer is fixed in the area
containing gauge marks.
Lift the bottom platen of the machine using a hydraulic control and fix the bottom end of
the specimen using special grips available with the machine.
Load range is selected depending on the nature (Ferrous / Non ferrous, composition,
Heat treatment etc.) of the material. Load is applied slowly and continuously. Load and
Extensometer readings are noted simultaneously. After reaching the yield point
(disproportionate elongation) Extensometer is removed and elongation is measured
using a scale mounted on the machine. Load is applied continuously till the specimen
fractures and maximum load is noted. Broken pieces are removed; location and

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characteristics of the fracture are studied. Two fractured pieces are kept together & final
diameter ‘dU’ and final gauge length ‘lU’ of the specimen is measured using a caliper.
Final area of the specimen is calculated. Using load - extension data, stress and strain
are calculated and a graph is plotted.
Specimen details:
1. Thickness of the test piece.
2. Width of parallel length of the flat test piece.
3. Diameter of the parallel of a circular test piece.
4. Original gauge length.
5. Parallel length of extensometer gauge length.
6. Total length of test piece.
7. Final gauge length after fracture.
8. Original cross-sectional area of the parallel length.
9. Minimum cross section area after fracture.
10. Gripped ends..
Calculation of diameter:-
Sl.No MSR CVD TR AVG
1
2
3
Specimen Calculation :
Material = Mild Steel
Original gauge length = LO mm =
Final gauge length = LU mm =
Initial diameter = d mm =
Final diameter = du mm =
Original area of cross section, SO (mm2) =d2 /4 =
Final area of cross section, SU (mm2) = dU 2 /4 =
Ultimate tensile strength = Pmax / SO = Rm =
% Elongation, A = ((LU -LO)/LO) x 100 =
% Reduction in area, Z = ((SO - SU)/SO) x 100 =
Fracture load Pf=
Fracture stress = Pf / SO =
Elastic modulus E = Slope of the straight line portion of stress - strain graph
TABLE:

Sl No. Load P (Newton’s) Extension(mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

L R

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Graph: Stress Vs Strain

Tensile Test

450

400

350

300

250
Stress

200

150

100

50

0
0
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.12
0.17
0.22
Strain

Question Bank
Expt. 1
1. Define:
Elastic limit, Proportional limit, Elastic modulus, yield strength
Secant modulus, tangent modulus, True stress, true strain
Resilience, Toughness, Poisson Ratio
2. Write expressions for the following
a) Resilience in terms of yield point
b) True stress in terms of engg. Stress
c) True strain in terms of engg. Stress
d) Elastic modulus in terms of Poisson ratio.
3. Draw the stress-strain curve for the following materials and compare:
a) Mild steel b) Copper c) Aluminium d) Cast Iron e) Glass f) Rubber
a) Discuss yield point phenomenon in mild steel. Write a note on Luder’sband and their
formation.
b) What is gauge length and describe its applications.
5. How do you measure strain accurately? Explain the principle of resistance strain gauges.

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6. Draw the stress-strain curve for carbon steel containing 0.3% carbon, 0.6% carbon and 1.5%
carbon.
7. Draw stress - strain curve for copper at -20C room temperature and 400C.
8. Distinguish between
a) Resilience and Toughness
b) Elastic limit and proportional limit.
c) Elastic deformation and plastic deformation
d) Ductile fracture and brittle fracture.
9. Why necking is observed only in ductile fracture.
10. What are the different modes of deformation? Explain them using suitable sketches.
11. What are the effects of strain rate on mechanical properties of materials?
12. Describe Bauschinger effect and its consequences on metal forming applications.
13. Compare Engineering stress-strain curve and true stress-true strain curve for mild
steel.
14. How does a universal testing machine work?
15. What is a ductile fracture? Discuss its features and mechanisms.

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EXPERIMENT No.: 2 & 6 - IMPACT TEST [IS 1598 & 1499 : 1977]
AIM:
To find out the impact strength of the given-notched specimens.
APPARATUS:
Pendulum type impact testing Machine.
THEORY:
Impact test is used to find out the energy required to rupture a material under sudden
application of load. Different types of notched bar impact tests are carried out to
determine the tendency of a material to behave in a brittle manner. Notch creates stress
concentration which will ensure that fracture does occur in notch, energy will spread
evenly along the bar and causes it to plastically deform by breaking rather than bending.
Two standard impact tests presently used in industry are the Izod and Charpy .In the
Charpy test a notched bar is held horizontally as it is hit by the pendulum. In the Izod test
the test bar is held vertically at the bottom end. Both these tests measure energy by
using a swinging pendulum to strike a test sample.
Dimensions of standard Izod and Charpy test specimens are shown in figure 1. The
mounting of the test specimen is shown in figure 2.
The differences between these two tests are in the design of test specimens and the
velocity with which the pendulum hits the test bar. Figure 2(c) illustrates the position of
the pendulum at an angle  called the ‘angle of fall’. At this position, the pendulum has
potential energy = Wa, where W is the weight of the pendulum. In falling through an
angle , it picks up momentum & when hits the sample at B, potential energy is zero
whereas it has acquired kinetic energy depending on the velocity. Impact
velocity =  2gr(1-cos) where r is the radius of the pendulum and g is acceleration due
to gravity .In the standard Izod test the pendulum is set to strike the specimen at a
velocity of 11.5 ft/sec while in Charpy the standard velocity is 17.5ft/sec. At O a part of
the energy is absorbed to create fracture and the pendulum swings up to the position C
indicated by an angle  known as ‘angle of rise’. The energy absorbed by the specimen
at the time of breaking is given by the equation E = Wr (cos - cos). Where E is the
energy required to break the specimen, W is the weight of the pendulum, r is the radius
or length of the pendulum,  is the angle of fall and  is the angle of rise. Fracture
surface reveals two distinct zones - one bright and granular area, which represents

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brittle fracture, and the other dull area which represents shear fracture where slight
plastic deformation has taken place.

V - NOTCH
PROCEDURE:
Measure the dimensions of the specimens (Izod or Charpy) and note down the weight of
the pendulum W (engraved on the surface) and the length of the pendulum r. Using
positioning gauge place the specimen on the anvil correctly .For Charpy test the
specimen is arranged with the notch on the side away form the striking towards the
edge . Lift the pendulum to its upper position and with no specimen on the anvil, release
it and note down the reading. This reading gives friction offered by bearings and air
resistance of the pendulum. Now place the specimen and allow the pendulum to strike it
and rupture it. Stop the pendulum swing by means of a hand brake. Calculate the angle
of rise B and repeat the experiment with different samples and tabulate the results.
Calculation of Breadth :- (Brass)
S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1.

2.

3.

Least count = 1MSD / No. of Divisions on VSD = 1/50 = 0.02

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Calculation of Depth:- (Brass)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1.

2.

3.

Calculation of Breadth:- (MS)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Calculation of Depth:- (MS)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Specimen Calculation :
 = Angle of rise, U=Wr (cos -cos)
Weight of the pendulum = W (N) = 21.25KG
Radius of the pendulum = r(m) = 0.825m
Angle of fall,  = 85 degree for Izod test and,  = 140 degree for Charpy test
Impact velocity, V (m/s) = 2gr (1-cos) =

Material Angle Scale Frictional Energy Breadth Depth Cross Impact

of Reading Loss – f consum (b) Below sectional Area Strength =
rise  U Kg-m ed the of specimen – (Ix9.81)/A
Kg-m I=u–f Notch A mm2 (N-m)/mm2
Kg-m mm (d) A=bxd
mm
MS

Brass

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CHARPY IMPACT TEST

Calculation of Breadth:- (Brass)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Calculation of Depth:- (Brass)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Calculation of Breadth:- (MS)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Calculation of Depth:- (MS)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Wt. Of Pendulum, W (N) = 20.59 Kg

Radius of pendulum, r (m) = 0.825m
 = 140*

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Material Angle Scale Frictional Energy Breadth Depth Cross Impact

of Reading Loss - f consume (b) Below sectional strength =
rise  U d the Area of the I/A
I=u-f Notch specimen - (N-M) /mm2
(d) A mm2
A=bxd
MS

Brass

QUESTION BANK
Expt. 2
1. Name the important mechanical test which gives valuable information about
materials. Discuss one test in detail.
2. What does impact test signify? Explain with necessary theory, the procedure adopted
in the impact test conducted using a pendulum type impact testing machine.
3. What is an impact test? What are the advantages and how does it help in finding out
ductile to brittle transformation?
4. What are differences between charpy and izod impact tests? Why an impact
specimen has a notch?
5. Draw energy absorbed curves for the following:
a) Low, medium and high carbon steels
b) Low temperature, room temperature and high temperature
c) Fine grain size and coarse grain size in a given metal
d) FCC, BCC and HCP metals.
e) Different directions in a rolled plate.

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EXPERIMENT No. : 3 - ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST [IS 5652

Part 1: 1993]
AIM:
To determine Rockwell hardness for given specimens.
APPARATUS:
Rockwell hardness tester and indentors.
THEORY:
The test utilizes the depth of indentation under constant load as a measure of
hardness .The indentor is selected depending on the nature and condition of the
material. Brale indentor, a conical shaped diamond penetrator with 120 degrees apex
angle is used for steel and cast iron. A hardened steel ball (1/16 inch diameter) is used
for non-ferrous metals. A minor load of 10kg is first applied to take care of the roughness
of the surface
Of the specimen and the major load is then applied (60,100,150 kg). The depth of
indentation is recorded on a dial gauge in terms of hardness numbers. Hardened steel is
tested on C scale with diamond indentor and 150kg major load. Softer materials are
tested on the B scale with 1.6 mm diameter steel ball and 90kg major load.
PROCEDURE:
Select suitable load and indentor depending on the nature of the material to be tested.
Specimen is placed on the hardened anvil of the machine which can be raised or
lowered by using a hand operated wheel so that the surface of the specimen just
touches the indentor ,smaller pointer in the dial starts moving and continue to rise the
anvil slowly till the pointer comes to RED dot. This indicates that minor load (10kg) has
been applied. Turn the dial until the mark B-30 (C-0) and the word “SET” is directly
behind the pointer. Release the handle to apply major load. The indentor starts
penetrating, which is read on the dial. Remove the major load by bringing back the
handle to the original position. Read the position of the pointer on the scale, which gives
Rockwell Hardness Number.

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Specimen Calculation

Material Scale used Indentor Total Load Trial - Trial - Trial - Average
1 2 3
Aluminium RB 1/16 - Ball 100 Kg

Cast Iron RC Diamond 150 Kg

Brass RB 1/16 - Ball 100 Kg

M.S. RC Diamond 150kg

QUESTION BANK
Expt. 3
1. Define hardness. What are the units?
2. What are the different forms of hardness? Explain them.
3. What is MHOS scale hardness . Explain
4. Why major and minor load is used in Rockwell hardness test
5. What are the indentors used in RB and RC scale. How do you convert hardness
values from one scale to another?
6. Explain the precautions to be taken in Rockwell hardness test and write expressions
relating BHN, RB and RC
7. What is rebound hardness and how it is determined.

Mohr’s scale of Hardness

Diamond = 10 Sapphire = 9 Topaz = 8 Quartz = 7 Feldspar = 6 Apatile = 5
Flourspar = 4 Calcite = 3 Gypsum = 2 Talc = 1

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EXPERIMENT No.: 4 - TORSION TEST [IS: 1717-1984]

AIM: To observe the behavior of the given specimen in torsion and find out the material
properties.
OBJECTIVES :
 To study the behavior of the given test specimen in torsion.
 To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.
 To observe the effect of yielding and mode of fracture.
 To determine the modulus of resilience and modulus of rupture.

APPARATUS : TORSION TESTING MACHINE.

THEORY:
Modulus of rigidity: G = T. L
 .J
Where G= Rigidity modulus
L = Length of the specimen
 = Angel of twist
J = Polar moment of inertia
T= Applied torque
Polar moment of inertia:
J =  x d4
32
Where d = diameter of the specimen
PROCEDURE :
The diameter and length of the specimen provided is measured very carefully using slide
calipers
The specimen is fixed in the chuck using loose pieces provided and tightened them
using Allen key.
The pointer of the protractor is adjusted to the zero position just when the weighing scale
starts showing a deflection. At this point the weighing machine pointer is set to zero of
the scale.
A monotonically (or steadily) increasing torque is applied using the handle of the worm.
At any value of torque applied the corresponding angle o twist indicated by the protractor
is noted simultaneously.
In the initial stage of the handle is turned very slowly and load reading is taken for every
one or half degree twist indicated on the protractor, since during this phase load
deflection is too high.

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In the later stages I.e. when yielding has taken place and there is almost no deflection, in
the weighing scale readings can be taken for every 5-10 degree intervals without much
appreciable errors.
A graph of torque Vs angle of twist is plotted (The scale should be so chosen that the
linear portion and the point of yielding can be easily observed on the plot.) The slope of
linear portion is found out and substituted in equations to get the modulus of rigidity.
The specimen is taken out of the chuck and the failure surface is observed to
understand the type of shear that has taken place (A ductile fracture shows orthogonal
shear surface while a brittle material shows a spiral failure surface.)
Tabular Columns:
Calculation of diameter:-

Sl.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Calculation of length:-

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Sl.No. Torque indicated P Angle of twist  (deg) Torque applied N-m

(kg-m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

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15

Sl. Material C in Metric C in SI Units

No. Units (N/mm2)
(kg/mm2)

1. Steel 0.84 x 106 0.84 x 105

2. Brass 0.55 x 106 0.55 x 105

3. Aluminium 0.35 x 106 0.35 x 105

4. Cast Iron 0.45 x 106 0.45 x 105

SPECIMEN CALCULATION :
Diameter of the specimen = d (mm) =
Length of the specimen = L (mm) =
Polar moment of inertia, J (mm4) =
Modulus of rigidity, G = (L/J) x (T/) = (L/J) x (slope of the curve - T against )

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140

120

100

80
Series1
60

40

20

0
27 0
32 6 8

34 5
34 35

34 55

34 55

35 5

35 6

35 6
35 16

35 6 5
3 3 35

35 65

35 65

5
44

25

06
1
4.

3.

3.

3.

3.
2

0
6

0
8.

8.

8.

8.

8.

8.

8.

8.

8. Question Bank
Expt. 4
1. Why is torsion formula not applicable to non-circular cross section?
2. List the relative advantages & dis advantages of tubular & solid cylindrical torsion
specimens for determinations of shearing strength.
3. Explain torsion fracture as in the case of ductile & brittle materials.

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EXPERIMENT No. : 5 - COMPRESSION TEST [IS 13780: 1993]

AIM:
To conduct compression test on the given material and to determine properties such as
compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, % of contraction & % increase in area.
APPARATUS USED:
Universal Testing Machine, Extensometer, dial gauge, micrometer, caliper, scale,
cylindrical test specimens etc.
THEORY:
Accurate determination of stress and strain in compression is difficult compared to
tension due to the lateral deflection and bending stresses introduced while testing .If the
specimen is long, lateral buckling takes place resulting in failure of the specimen .Ductile
materials bulge after reaching the maximum compression load where as there is no
change in cross section or height of the specimen for brittle materials and they suddenly
fracture.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the lower & upper compression platens above the bottom cross head and below
the top Cross head.
2. Measure the initial dia. do and height of the specimen Lo using a slide caliper
3. Place the specimen at the center of the bottom platen and bring the top of the
specimen in contact with the top plate by moving the cross head downwards.
4. Mount the compression dial gauge in the lower head and bring the indicator to zero.
Move the indicator of the load scale to zero.
5. Record the compression dial gauge readings for every 250kg load increase for
Aluminum, Brass, Copper and every 500 kg load for steel and cast iron.
6. The experiment is continued till the specimen fractures and the maximum load is
noted. Stress Strain curve is drawn.
Calculation of initial diameter:-

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

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Calculation of final diameter:-

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

SPECIMEN CALCULATION
Initial gauge length = LO mm =
Initial Diameter = dO mm =
Original Area SO,(mm2)= dO2 / 4 =
Final gauge length = L1 mm =
Final diameter = d mm =
Final area of cross section, S1 (mm2) = d12 /4 =
Ultimate load = Fcu (N) =
Compressive strength = Rcm = Fcu / SO (N/mm2) =
Proof Stress, Rc from graph =
Slope of the straight line portion of the graph, E-(N/mm2)
Max compression stress = (max force) / (original area) =
% increase in area = ((So-S1)/S1) x 100 =
% contraction at fracture ((Lo-L1)/L1) x100 =

GRAPH OF LOAD VS COMPRESSION OF DUCTILE MATERAILS

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TABULAR COLUMN
Sl No. Load P Deformatio Stress Strain
(Newton) n L (N/mm2)
( mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

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Graph : Stress – Strain

Compression Test

1000

900
800

700

600
Stress

500 Series1

400

300

200

100

0
0
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.09

0.11
0.14
0.1
Strain

Question Bank

Expt.5:

1. Why compression strength is an important mechanical property? Describe its role in

design.
2. Is elastic modulus same for compression and tension for a given material.
3. Define lateral strain, Poisson’s ratio. What are the values of poisson’s ratio for the
following materials?
4. How do you decide the specimen dimensions in compression testing?

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EXPERIMENT No. : 7 - SHEAR TEST [IS 5242: 1979]

AIM :

To determine ultimate shear stress of the given specimens in single and double shear.

APPARATUS:

Universal Testing Machine

THEORY: A type of force which causes or tends to cause two continuous parts of the
body to slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact is
known as shear force. The stress required to produce fracture in the plane of cross
section acted on by the shear force is called shear strength. Shear can be applied either
in tension or compression. Rivets , bolts , screw threads and cotter pins are a few
examples of parts that are subjected to shear forces .Forces must be applied
perpendicular to the test specimen otherwise it will experience tensile force.
If the force is resisted by failure through one plane and single area then the
material is said to be in single shear. If two areas resist the fracture then the material is
said to be in double shear. Figure 1 shows single and double shear applied on the given
specimen.
Ultimate shear strength = P/A for single shear where P is fracture load and A is the
area of cross section of the given specimen. In double shear, Ultimate shear strength =
P/2A.
PROCEDURE: Average diameter of the given specimens is measured using a slide
caliper and the area of cross section is calculated .For conducting single shear test,
specimen is loaded using a special fixture till fracture. Fracture load and type of fracture
is noted. Repeat the experiment for double shear as described above.

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Calculation of diameter :- ( Al – single shear)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Calculation of diameter :- ( Al – double shear)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Calculation of diameter :- (Ms – single shear)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Calculation of diameter :- (Ms – double shear)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

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SPECIMEN CALCULATION:

Material Type of Diameter Area of CS , Fracture Ultimate shear strength

shear d (mm) A= d2/4, load P kg (N/mm2)
(mm2) =Px9.81/A
Aluminium Single P/A
Double P/2A
Mild steel Single P/A
Double P/2A

Question Bank
Expt. 7
1. Discuss the significance of shear test. Explain the necessary theory, the procedure to
be adopted in single and double shear strength test.
2. What is the shear modulus for the following materials (a) Brass (b) Bronze (c)
Aluminium (d) Copper?
3. Write the relationship between rigidity modulus and young’s modulus and explain.

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EXPERIMENT NO.: 8 – PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN FOR METALLOGRAPHIC

EXAMINATION.

Aim: To prepare specimen for microscopic observations.

Apparatus: Double Disc polishing machine.

Theory: Metallography is a study of the structural characteristics of a metal or an alloy in

relation to its physical and mechanical properties. One important phase of this study is
known as microscopic examination and involves the study of the microstructure at
different magnifications. For microscopic observation, samples are required to be
prepared according to precise procedures. The procedure of specimen preparation
consists of obtaining a flat, semi polished surface by means of grinding the specimen on
a series of emery papers of decreasing grit size followed by grinding on suitable cloths
containing abrasives. These operations ultimately produce a flat, scratch free and mirror
like surface on the specimens for microscopic observations.
Procedure: After cutting the sample, grind it by moving it back and forth across the
entire length on 150 emery paper till parallel scratches are formed. Excessive pressures
should not be applied during emerying. To avoid overheating the samples, they may be
immersed in water for a short time till the temperature reduces to room temperature.
Clean the sample with water and dry it. Rotate the sample by 90 and emery it on 220-
emery paper. Rotation introduces new finer scratches approximately at right angles to
the old coarse scratches. Continue emerging till old scratches are removed. Repeat the
above procedure for 300, 400 and 600 emery papers till you get flat, ground surface.
Finish polishing of a specimen is for the purpose of removing from the surface of
the specimen, the fine scratches introduced during the last grinding operation and of
ultimately producing a highly polished scratch free surface. For fine polishing, hold the
sample on disc polisher rotating at a constant speed for 5-10 minutes depending on the
condition of the sample. Move the sample from centre to periphery of the polishing cloth.
Also rotate the sample to avoid comet tails. Use diamond paste for ferrous alloys and
Alumina or magnesia for non-ferrous alloys. Structure features are revealed with
preciseness and clarity in the specimens if they are etched with suitable etching reagent.
Preferential attack takes place during etching and different phases are revealed.
For etching, samples are immersed in suitable etching agents for a short period
followed by cleaning in water and drying. Following etching reagents are used.

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a) Etching reagents for microscopic examination of steels and cast irons 2% Nital
(mixture of 98cc of ethyl alcohol and 2cc of nitric acid).
b) Etching reagent for copper and its alloys
i) Chromic acid ii) Acidified ferric chloride (5gms Fecl2 + 50cc of Hcl + 45cc water)
c) Etching reagents for Aluminium base alloys i) HF+Hcl+Hno3+H2O mixture in the ratio
of 1.0:1.5:2.5:95cc ii) HF+H2O (0.5cc HF + 99.5ccH2O)

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EXPERIMENT No. : 9 - Vickers Hardness Test.

Aim: To find the Vickers hardness Number for mild steel specimen.

Theory: Very hard materials (e.g. mild steel, case hardened steel etc.) can be tested by
the Vickers method. If the moderately hard materials like brass, copper and Aluminium
are tested in this machine, the indentor makes a deep impression. Hence, a proper
indentation cannot be made on the specimen and a correct value of the hardness cannot
be obtained for these materials by V.H. test.

Load
VHN =
Slopingorpyramidalareaofindentation
Note: The impression is a pyramidal base impression where ‘d’ is the diagonal distance
and ‘a’ side of the square base. The type of indentor is diamond to cone indentor with
apex angle of 136o =  (square base)
VHN = (P/d^2)/(2sin(alpha/2))
 
 P P 
i.e.,  VHS   1.854 2 kg / mm2
 o
d2 sin 136 d 
 2 
 2 

Equipments required:-
Vickers –cum-Brinell’s hardness testing machine
Cone indentor with pyramidal square base of 136o apex angle.
Standard test specimens same as in the previous experiments.

Procedure:-
The experimental procedure is exactly same as in experiment No. 3 except for the
following differences:
The type of indentor is a diamond tip cone indentor with 136o apex angle
The standard load to be applied is between 5-30 kg Vickers load.
The type of impression is a square base pyramidal impression.
The diagonal of the impression is measured as follows:
First bring through ‘0’ of main scale to ‘0’ of vernier by operating the micrometer screw.
Bring one edge of the square base impression to coincide with main scale division by
operating the focusing screen screw. Count the number of M.S.D. from the coincided
edge to the division near the uncoincided edge. This gives main scale reading. Now turn
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the micrometer till the right edge coincides with next forward main scale division. Now
count the vernier scale divisions from ‘0’ of main scale to ‘0’ of vernier scale. Record the
Number of divisions of the micrometer scale which is just ahead and above ‘0’ index
mark. Hence, diagonal width = d1=MSR + VSR + Micrometer reading. Similarly the other
diagonal ‘d2’ is calcuated.

Tabulation of Observation:
Sl. Material Breadth Depth C.S. Impact Energy Specific Impact
No. (b)mm below area (I) factor If
the A= Joules Kg-m Joules/mm2 Kg-
notch (b.d) m/mm2
(d) mm2
mm
1 M.S
2 BRASS
3 COPPER
4 ALUMINIUM

Calculation:
From test, Impact Energy ‘I’ can be obtained directly
Im pactEnrgy
Izod Specific factor If =
Areaofcross sec tionbelownotch

= I/A Joules/mm2 or kg-m/mm2

VHN = (P/sin (α/2) x2) / d2

VHS= (P/2xsin (136/2)) / d2 =1.854xP/d2 (kg/mm2)
a=d/sin450=d/√2
a/2 = d/(2√2)
sin (α/2) = a/2

Sloping side = d / [2x√2xsin (α/2)]

Area of the shaded triangle=0.5x bxh
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A1=0.5x a x slaping side =0.5 x d/√2x [d/2x√2xsin (α/2)]

=d2 / [4x2 x sin (α/2)]
Area of Pyramidal impression
A = A1 x 4 =d2 / [2 x sin (α/2)] VHN = Load/Area= [P x 2x sin (α/2] / d2

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EXPERIMENT No.: 10 - BENDING TEST [IS: 1599 - 1985]

AIM: To study the behavior of the given specimen in bending and to determine modulus
of elasticity.

APPARATUS USED: Universal Testing Machine, bending fixture, deflect meter etc.

THEORY: A specimen is said to be in bending when it is loaded in such a way that

compressive stresses are acting over one part and tensile stresses on the other part.
Bending equation is M/I = f/y = E/R where M is bending moment, I is moment of inertia
of cross section , f is bending stress , R is radius of curvature , E is modulus of elasticity
and y is the distance from the neutral axis to the outer most fiber. To avoid the specimen
from shear, the span L must not be too small with respect to depth H .The value of L =
6H to L=12H is common.

PROCEDURE: Measure the dimensions of the given specimen and mark the span
length L with respect to the length of the specimen. Place the specimen firmly over the
supports. Attach a deflect meter near the centre of the span and adjust it to read zero.
Apply load at the centre of the span and increase it slowly and continuously. Note down
the load P and deflection Y. Record the fracture load and observe the type of fracture.
Plot load deflection curve and determine the properties of the material in
bending.Flexure Stress or Bending Stress: (fb): (from Bending Test):

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Sl. Material fb in (kg/mm2) fb in (N/mm2)

No.
1. Ordinary 180 18
Wood
2. Yellow 220-250 22-25
Wood
3. Cast Iron 2800 280

SPECIMEN CALCULATION :

Calculation of breadth:-

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Calculation of depth:-

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

1
2
3

Span length, L (mm) =

Breadth, B (mm) =
Depth, H (mm) =
Maximum load, P (N) =
Maximum deflection Y (mm) =
Moment of inertia, I (mm4) = BH3/ 12 =
Maximum bending moment, M = P x l /4 =
Modulus of elasticity, E (N/mm2) = L3/48I (Slope of load deflection graph)

P-
load in Deflection
KN - Y mm
Question Bank
Expt. 10
1. State and explain the assumptions on which the theory of simple bending is based.
2. What type of loading will give constant moment & shear over a length of the beam?
Does this type of loading has any advantage.
3. Define the following terms (I) Neutral axis (ii) Centroidal axis
4. Why it is preferable to measure the deflection of a beam specimen to the top rather
than the bottom of the beam?
5. What are the limits of Length to dia (L/d) ratio for flexural test & why?
6. How failure in bending occurs in the following materials? (a) Cast Iron (b) Mild steel
(c) Wood.
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EXPERIMENT No.: 11 - WEAR TEST

AIM: To determine the wear rate of different materials by using pin & disc apparatus.

APPARATUS USED: Pin & disc apparatus, Brass & Aluminium specimens.
Theory: In a pin–on–disk wear test a standard test specimen is held pressed against a
rotary flat disk, then brought perpendicular to the disk. They may be positioned vertical
or horizontal but the test results may differ. The specimen may have a spherical end or
flat end. Normally the load is applied through a lever arm. The wear results are generally
reported as volume loss or weight loss. Wear results are usually obtained by conducting
a test for a selected sliding distance and for selected values of load and speed. The test
specimen is cylindrical or spherical and the diameter ranges from 2mm to 10mm.
Procedure:
1. Clean and dry the surface of the specimen. Remove all dirt and foreign matter from
the surface of specimen using suitable cleaning agent.
2. Measure the appropriate specimen dimension and also weigh the specimen.
3. Insert the pin specimen securely in the holder and set the specimen perpendicular to
the disk.
4. Add suitable weight to the lever.
5. Start the motor and adjust the speed to the desired value while holding the pin
specimen out of contact with the disk and stop the motor.
6. Begin the test with the specimen in contact under the load and start the stop clock.
Note down the frictional force. The test is stopped at the end of the desired time
7. Remove the specimen and clean off any loose debris. Re measure the specimen
dimension and weight.
8. Repeat the test with additional specimen.
Specimen calculation :
Material: Brass
Length before the test:
Diameter:
Weight before the test:
Weight after the test:
% Loss in weight = (Initial weight – final weight) /Initial weight x 100 =
% Loss in volume = (Initial volume – Final volume)/Initial volume x 100 =
% Reduction in length = (Initial length – Final length)/Initial length x 100 =

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Material: Aluminium
Length before the test:
Diameter:
Weight before the test:
Weight after the test
% Loss in weight = (Initial weight – final weight) /Initial weight x 100 =
% Reduction in length = (Initial length – Final length)/Initial length x 100=

Material: MS
Length before the test:
Diameter:
Weight before the test:
Weight after the test:
% loss in weight = (Initial weight – final weight) /Initial weight x 100=
% Loss in volume = (Initial volume – Final volume)/Initial volume x 100 =
% Reduction in length = (Initial length – Final length)/Initial length x 100=
Distance from the loading point of the fulcrum L2:
Distance between the specimen and the fulcrum L1:
Applied load, P:
Frictional force Fr:
Normal load on the specimen: F = (PxL2 ) / L1
Coefficient of friction:  = Fr / F
Time: 5 min

Tabular Column (Initial)

Calculation of length:-

Material Tr. MSR CVD TR AVG

No
1
Brass 2
3
1
Aluminium 2
3
1
Mild steel 2
3

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Calculation of diameter:-

Material Tr. MSR CVD TR AVG

No
1
Brass 2
3
1
Aluminium 2
3
1
Mild steel 2
3

Tabular Column (Final)

Calculation of length:-

Material Tr. MSR CVD TR AVG

No
1
Brass 2
3
1
Aluminium 2
3
1
Mild steel 2
3

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Sl. Material W1 (g) W2 (g) W=W1- Frictional Coeff. Of Avg. ()

No W2 (g) force Fr friction
. (N) ()

1. Brass

2. M.S

3. Aluminium

Question Bank

1. What is wear?
2. What are different types of wear? Explain.
3. What are the different types of wear testing machines?
4. What is the importance of wear testing?
5. Define wear coefficient.

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EXPERIMENT No.: 12 - Brinell hardness TEST [IS 1500: 1983]

AIM: To determine the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of the given specimens.

APPARATUS: Brinell hardness Tester, Microscope with a micrometer eye piece.

THEORY: Hardness is the resistance offered by the body to the penetration of another
body which does not undergo plastic deformation .In this test, a 10mm case hardened
steel ball or tungsten carbide ball penetrates the surface of the test specimen with one of
the three standard loads - 500kg, 1500Kg, 3000kg. Once the indentor is forced into the
metal, load is released and the diameter of the indentation is measured by means of a
microscope. BHN is calculated using the equation = 2P /  D [D -  D2 - d2 ]
Where P is load in kgs, D diameter of the indenter and d is diameter of indentation.
Load is calculated for different materials as follows:
P= 30D2 for iron and steel
P= 10D2 for bronze & brass.
P = 5xD2 for aluminium
P = D2 for lead, tin and tin alloys
BHN = P / (Area of indentation)
= (2xP) / (3.142xD [D - √ (D2-d2)] (kg/mm2)
h = depth of impression or indentation in mm
d = diameter of impression or indentation in mm
D = diameter of indenter ball in mm

In triangle OAD,
OA = √ (OD2 – AD2)
=√ [(D/2)2 – (d/2)2]
Depth of impression = h = OB = (D/2) - √ [(D/2)2 – (d/2)2]
Area of indentation = A = Arc length ‘CBD’ x Depth
= 3.142 x D x h

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= 3.142 x (D/2) x [(D) - √ [D2 – d2]]

PROCEDURE:
Select suitable load and indentor depending on the nature of the material to be tested.
Specimen is placed on the hardened anvil of the machine, which can be raised or
lowered by using a hand-operated wheel. Specimen is made to touch the indentor and
the load is applied. After applying the load for thirty seconds, load is removed and the
diameter of the indentation is measured using microscope .BHN is calculated using the
above formula.
Specimen Calculation

Sample Load Surface Diameter of Diameter of indentation BHN

Kg condition indenter, D- mm d -mm
Aluminiu
Machined 5mm - ball
m
Copper Machined 5mm - ball

Brass Machined 5mm - ball

Steel Machined 5mm - ball

Cast Iron Machined 5mm - ball

Question Bank-Expt. 12

1. Discuss Brinell hardness test as applied to ductile and brittle materials.

2. How do you calculate load for different materials. What are the different loads and
Indentors used in BHN
3. Write the relation between diameter of the indentor and indentation. How do you
measure the diameter of indentation accurately?
4. Discuss surface preparation & precautions to be taken in Brinell Hardness testing.
5. Discuss the relation between BHN and other mechanical properties

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EXPERIMENT No.: 13 – FATIGUE TEST

Aim: To determine the fatigue strength (or bending strength due to reversal of stresses)
of the material.

Equipments:
1. Rotating cantilever type fatigue testing machine
2. Fatigue test specimen

Theory: Structural members like crafts and certain machine parts are subjected to
fluctuating loads which causes variation of stresses in the member. Even if the
fluctuation stresses are smaller than the ultimate strength of the material, under static
load, failure may occur if the load is repeated a sufficient number of times. The stress
required to cause failure decreases as the number of cycles of stress increases. This
phenomenon of decreased resistance of a material to repeated stress is called fatigue
and the testing of materials by application of such stresses is called fatigue test or
Endurance test.

Endurance Limit: It is defined as the maximum value of stress or limiting stress below
which the specimen will not fail even after any number of reversals of stresses. It is a
usual practice in Endurance tests to plot S max (Max Stress) against log N. the curves
approach a symptotic after a certain state. The magnitude of Endurance limit is
disclosed by a definite discontinuity in the curve as shown in the Fig.

Endurance Ratio: The ratio of Endurance limit to static strength is known as Endurance
ratio. For most of the structural materials, the Endurance limit in complete reversed
bending is 0.2 to 0.6 times of the static strength.

Range of Stress (R): if Smax and S min (or fmax and fmin) are the maximum and minimum
values of varying stress, then the algebraic difference. R= (fmax - fmin) is called the Range
of Stress (R).
f  fmin
[ max ]
The mean stress, fmean = 2
The cycle is completely defined if the range of stress and maximum stress are given.
f
For repeated loading, fmin = 0, so that fmean = max and R = fmax. For reversal of stress, fmin
2
= -fmax. So that fmean =0 and R =2 fmax.
In the test, when the specimen is subjected to sagging. Bending moment induced due to
applied load, the bottom fibre is subjected to tensile stress and the top fibre to
compressive stress. But when the specimen undergoes half a revolution, the fibre at
bottom will go to top and hence will be subjected to max compression stress. (as at B).
After another half revolution, it will again subjected to max. Tensile stress (as at D) and
the cycle repeat for each revolution.

Calculations:
For any number of cycles of stress to produce failure of specimen recorded by the
counter = N1.
The bending stress at failure of specimen is calculated by the failure formula

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M1 = F1 x z.M1= B.M due to P1 = P1 x L where P1= Total applied load in pan. L=Lever arm
(measured). F1 = Bending stress due to M1. Z= Section Modulus = (d3/32) for
circular specimen, f1 at number of cycle of stress N1 = (( 32 x M1) / (  x d3)) = (( 32 x P1 x
L) / (  x d3)).

CYCLES OF STRESS
Procedure:

(1) Fix the specimen in the machine and set a particular loading P 1 in the loading pan.
Set the counter to zero. Start the machine and find the number of cycles of stress N 1 to
cause the failure of the specimen. This is recorded from the revolution counter N1.
Calculate the maximum stress (bending stress) f1 (or s1) from failure equation f1 = M1 / 2
where M1 = P1 x L & Z= (d3 / 32)
(2) Set another load P2 i.e. increase the load in the pan. For this load, repeat the
procedure i.e. record the total cycle of stress N 2 to cause failure of the specimen. Find
the corresponding stress (max), f2 of s2.
(3) The above procedure is continued for at least 6 trials to obtain sufficient number of
points for plotting a graph of Max stress (S) and number of cycle of stress (N). This
curve is called S-N-curve.
(4) Plot a graph of the various values of S (s 1, s2, s3…….) on Y-axis and number of
cycles of stress N (N1, N2, N3……) on X-axis. The curve becomes very flat for smaller
stress levels. The stress levels at which the curve is asymptotic is known as the
endurance limit as shown in the graph.

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NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF METALS

A Non Destructive Testing (NDT) is an examination of a component in any manner

which will not impair its future use. Although NDT do not provide direct measurement of
any properties (mechanical, physical, etc) yet they are extremely useful in revealing the
defects in the component that, could impair their performance when put into service.NDT
makes components more reliable and safe and economical.

Comparision between destructive and non-destructive testing:

Destructive Testing Non - Destructive Testing

 Sample is destroyed when tested.  Sample is tested without destroying.
 Needs a specimen preparation.  No need of specimen preparation.
 Numerical value cannot be assigned.  It reveals the defects in the components
 Cannot be done during intermediate that could affect its performance.
stages of processing.  Can be done during intermediate stages.
 Does not need skilled labour.  Needs skilled labour

Advantages of NDT:
1. Component is undestructive, so cost is reduced and saving of material.
2. No specimen preparation.
3. Testing of copenent can be done during its intermediate stages of
production/processing thus, saving of money & time.
4. Defects size, location and its criticality can be exactly found out. Thus, helps in
designing the product and to improve a processing method.
5. Remianing life of a component can be assessed by testing a compoenent.
6. Reduction of costly re-works.

Disadvantages of NDT:
1. Needs skilled labour
2. Damage to operator (only in few techniques)
3. Results depend on area of testing/inspection.

Liquid / Dye penetration test:

Aim: To detect the flaws that, are open to the surface by penetration test.

Apparatus: Penetrant, developer and UV light source

Theory: A liquid penetrant test is non-destructive type, used to detect the flaws that are
open to the surface. Ex: cracks, seams, porosity, cold shuts etc. It can be efectively used
not only in the inspection of ferrous metals, but is especially usefull for non-ferrous metal
products and on non-porous non-metallic materials such as ceramics, plastics and glass.

Principle of Liquid penetrant test is that the liquid used enters the small openings such
as cracks or porosity by capillary action. The ate and extenet of this action are
depending upon the properties such as surface tension, adhesion cohesion, viscosity.
They are also influenced by factors such as condition of surface of material and interior
of the dis-continuity. For liquid to penetrate effectively, the surface of the material must
be thoroughly cleaned of all material that would obstruct the entrance of the liquid into
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the defect. The dye penetrant test based on the liquid penetrant is sensitive extremely
versatile and very reliable method of test. It is quite inexpensive doesn’t require any
special apparatus and is simple in application, only a modereate skill is required.

In this test, the strongly colored red penetrant fluid/dye has a property of seeping into
surface flaws, when applied on an impervoius surface.

Procedure:
1. Clean the surface of the component, free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth.
2. Brush the surface of the component to removal scale, rust, paint etc by soft
brush.
3. Spray the cleaner to remove oil, grease etc.
4. Apply dye penetrant adequately to cover the surface to be inspected. Allow 3 to 5
minutes for the dye to penetrate into the cracks.
5. Wipe off the excess penetrant on the surface.
6. Again spray the surface with the cleaner to remove the remanants of the red dye.
7. Spray the developer evenly on the surface to give a thin even finish. This layer
absorbs the penetrant from the cracks and the red spots and appears on the
surface to give a visible indication of the flaws.
8. Crack if any will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white absorbant.

Results: Report the type of defects present in the given component.

Magnetic particle inspection

Aim: To detect the surface / sub surface defects in a given ferro-magnetic matertial.

Apparatus: Magnetic field generator and ferro-magnetic powder.

Theory: This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous casting for detecting
invisible surface of slightly sub surface defects. Deeper sub surface defects arenot
satisfactorily detected because of the influence of distorted lines of magnetic flux on the
magnetic field spread over the casting surface becomes weeker with distance. So that
sensitivity fall away rapidly by the depth. The defects that are commonly revealed by
magnetic particle inspection are quenching cracks, thermal cracks, seams, laps,
grinsging cracks, hot tears etc.
The principle of this method is when a piece of material is placed in a magnetic field
and the lines of magnetic flux get intersected by a dis-continuity such as cracks of slag
inclusion in casting, magnetic poles are induced on either side of discontinuity causing
an abrupt change in path of magnetic flux flowing through the casting normal to the
discontinuioty resulting in local flux leakage and interference with the magnetic lines of
force. This local flux disturbance can be detected by its affect upon magnetic particles
that collect on the region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over the discontinuity.

Procedure:
1. Clean the surface of the test specimean.
2. Demagnetise the component to remove any residual magnetic field in it.
3. Apply a thin layer of ferro magnetic particles over the surface to be tested.
4. Magnetise the test specimen.

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5. Observe the shape and size of the magnetioc particles collected, which is the
shape and size of the defect.

Result:
Report the type and sie of the defcte in the given component.

Ultrasonic test

Aim: To find the location of the interior crack or cavity in the specimen using the ultra
sonic flaw detector.

Appartus: Ultra sonic flaw dectector.

Theory: Ultrasonic inspection is employed to detect and locate defects such as

shrinkage cavities ,internal burst or cracks,porosity and large non-metallic inclusions,wall
thickness can be measured in closed vessels or in cases where such measurement can
not other wise be made ultrasonic vibrations with frequencies in the range between
20khz-20mhz can be used to locate defects in ferrous and non-ferrous metallic objects
as wel as in plastics and ceramics.these waves can be trnamitted through the
solids(even liquid and air as well) and get reflected by the sub-surface defects.Ultrasonic
waves form a basis for detection ,location and size estimation of defects.
Let
A=Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and bottom surface echo. (Sec)
B= Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and cavity surface echo. (Sec)
H= Thickness of the test specimen (mm)
Location of the crack from the front surface x=B/AxH

Procedure:
1. Clean the surface of the test piece.
2. Place the probe against the surfae of the test piece using thin oil film.
3. Switch on the power supply of the ultrasonic wave generator.
4. Adjust the cycles of transmitting and receiving signals to the desired value.
5. Select the segment of time which contains the echo pips.
6. Observe the echo from the cavity, if any on the crt and measure the relative
distance of the pips on the time axis.

Results: Report the type of defect and its location from the front surface.

Questions:
1. What is non-destructive testing?
2. Give a comparision between destructive and non-destructive testing? Mention
few examples?
3. Describe the liquid/dye penetrant test method? Mention its advantages and
disadvantages?
4. Describe the magnetic particle method? Mention its advantages and
disadvantages?
5. On what principle does ultrasonic inspection equipment operate?
6. How is the depth of a flaw measured in ultrasonic testing?
7. Hardness testing is a destrutive or non-destructive testing?

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