Reproduction, Development, Migration and Navigation in Birds

Submitted By Rabia Saleem Ghauri

Roll No# 539
Submitted To Mam Saba

The Govt. Sadiq College Women University, Bahawalpur.

 Birds Reproduction.
Bird reproduction starts the same way as in mammals by the joining of an egg or ovum
with a sperm cell in the oviduct. This fertilized ovum then forms the nucleus of the egg and the
formation of the yolk, whites and shell can begin. The sperm from the male is transferred to the
female when they touch cloaca, an act referred to as the cloacal kiss.
Egg Formation.
The first animals to develop the use of eggs with shells were the reptiles, in order that the
egg would not dry out when not laid in water. With birds evolving from reptiles they have also
made use of this incredible adaptation although they have taken it even further developing the
egg into an amazing life support system for the growing embryo. Most animals have two ovaries
and oviducts, the passage for the egg to travel to the uterus. Birds however only have one and as
the fertilized ovum travels down it a layer of albumen is applied around it, followed by the shell
membranes. The shell itself is formed in the uterus where, depending on the movement of the
egg, pigmentation forms patterns in the shell material.

Egg Structure.
An egg comprises several main elements, the yolk, the albumen, the membranes and the
shell. The yolk is a fat rich food store with a small white spot, known as the germinal spot, and it
is from here that the embryo begins to develop. The whites of the egg, the albumen, supplies the
embryo with water, provides some shock protection and helps gases to move in and out of the
egg during development. The membranes are three in number, one around the yolk known as the
vitelline membrane, and two around the albumen, the inner and outer shell membranes. They
provide a barrier against bacterial penetration and the air sac or air cell forms between the two
shell membranes.
The shell is comprised of protein fibres and calcium carbonate or chalk merged into a
complex mesh like structure and despite its smooth appearance is permeable to gases. It allows
oxygen through to the growing embryo and waste gases and moisture to escape the egg. As the
embryo develops the air sac increases in size and allows the mature chick its first breath. There
are also two twisted strands in the albumen attached to the yolk, called the chalaza, which hold
the yolk in place and suspend the growing embryo in safety. The yolk and albumen provide
much for the developing embryo and all it needs from the outside world is oxygen and warmth.
The shape of most eggs is, obviously, egg shaped, but there are those that are adapted to suit
particular circumstances. As an example cliff nesting birds have more pointed eggs, which
makes them roll in a tight circle so they don’t fall off the cliff if disturbed.
Laying schedule.
The timing and number of clutches of eggs produced by different species varies
dependent upon circumstances. The Blue Tit, for instance, feed their young mainly on insect
larvae and so tend to produce one large clutch in early summer when this food source is more
abundant. Conversely the Blackbird will lay two or three smaller clutches as they have a more
abundant, steady food source and therefore have longer to raise multiple clutches. Both of these
situations however still share the same incubation behavior. The female will lay one egg per day
until the clutch is complete and it is only at this point that incubation starts. Even though the eggs
may have different ages, this method of incubation results in all the young hatching around the
same time and all have an equal chance at feeding time and for survival.
Some species such as birds of prey as well as others lay eggs two or three days apart and
start incubation as soon as the egg is laid. This means that the young hatch at different intervals
and when food is scarce the youngest hatchlings will not be able to compete for food and will not
survive. In hard times such as this these fatalities will even become food for its erstwhile
brothers and sisters and although this seems a bit gruesome after all the effort invested in
breeding it helps prevent all the chicks being lost in harsh conditions.
Camouflage.
The colour of the eggs varies with different species and nesting habits. Birds that build
their nests in holes tend to have light coloured eggs, white or blue, that are easier to locate in
dark conditions and so avoid accidental damage. The hidden nature of the nesting site provides
the camouflage. Ground laying birds, such as plovers, produce highly camouflaged eggs to
prevent. Although Cuckoos already produce variably colored and patterned eggs they do have
the ability to mimic
Incubation.

In most cases it is the female parent that incubates the eggs and to help transfer heat
effectively she will develop a brood patch as the breeding season approaches. This brood patch
has an area of skin with densely packed blood vessels and hardly any feathers, which produces
more heat, due to the blood vessels, and this is transferred more easily to the egg due to the lack
of feathers. Eggs are also turned periodically to ensure an even distribution of warmth. In species
where the males also incubate eggs they will also develop a brood patch but they spend much
less time at this than females. In all cases, however, the brood patch will disappear at the end of
the breeding seasothe appearance of other species eggs.
Hatching.
It is possible that a developed chick may be able to communicate with its parent a day or
two before hatching by answering its parents call with some vocal sounds. It will then start to use
the hard tip of its bill, called the egg-tooth, to break out of the egg by laying on its back and
pushing the egg-tooth into the shell above it. Once it has weakened the shell enough it will try to
push the two halves of the eggshell apart. This may take a few days to accomplish and after a
few days of hatching, the young lose the egg-tooth.
Nestlings.
Hatchlings fall into two main categories, nidicolous and nidifugous. Nidicolous
hatchlings are practically helpless, blind and naked, are wholly dependent on their parents and do
not leave the nest until fledged. They tend to belong to species with the shorter incubation such
as Blue Tit. Nidifugous hatchlings are born with a covering of downy feathers and are able the
leave the nest and fend for themselves. Many species of duck, Moorhen and Coot have
nidifugous young.
 Bird Development.
During the first month of life, baby birds undergo a series of development stages. These
stages involve hatching from the egg, developing the ability to chirp and communicate with other
birds, and finally learning to fly. These developmental stages can be discussed in terms of days
and weeks.
Hatching.
When hatching, a baby bird transitions from breathing via gas exchange through the egg
surface to breathing through its lungs. Baby birds develop an egg tooth while in the egg, which is
a sharp point on the upper part of its beak. The egg tooth is used by the bird to poke a hole
through the egg to hatch. Immediately after hatching, the bird has no feathers, cannot open its
eyes and can only lift its head to gape for food.
First Five Days.
The egg tooth will begin to disappear after a few days. The bird begins to open its eyes.
Small amounts of feathers will start to emerge from the skin. By the fifth day, a baby bird will
have grown in length and will be able to stand on its feet. The bird will also begin to stretch its
legs.
Development between Five and 10 Days.
After day five, the bird's eyes will be completely open and will be capable of producing
its own body heat (thermal regulation). This means that the baby bird is able to produce its own
body heat. The bird will call to its parents when hungry and needs to be fed. The bird's motor
skills improve dramatically during this time. The bird can stretch its wings, yawn, climb within
the nest and scratch its own head.
Development after Two Weeks.
The baby bird begins to leave its nest after the 10th day. During this time, the bird will be
able to hop, walk and play with its parents and siblings. The bird will also begin to vocalize even
more and will sing, warble and cry out if in pain or scared.
Development between Two Weeks to One Month.
Between two weeks and one month of age, the baby bird develops the ability to fly and
demonstrates an independence from the parent birds. The baby bird learns to feed itself and plays
outside of the nest. Although the bird has the ability to fly, it takes the bird several weeks to learn
to fly. When a bird has left the nest, but cannot fly, it is called a fledgling. Fledglings are often
brought to rehabilitation centers during this time because many individuals believe that the bird
has been injured. The baby bird is actually just developing the ability to fly.
 Migration.
The word “migration” has come from the Latin word migrara which means going from
one place to another. Many birds have the inherent quality to move from one place to another to
obtain the advantages of the favorable condition. In birds, migration means two-way journeys—
onward journey from the ‘home’ to the ‘new’ places and back journey from the ‘new’ places to
the ‘home’. This movement occurs during the particular period of the year and the birds usually
follow the same route. There is a sort of ‘internal biological clock’ which regulates the
phenomenon.
Types of Bird Migration:
Birds do not migrate, but all species are subject to periodical movements of varying
extent. The birds which live in northern part of the hemisphere have greatest migratory power.
Latitudinal migration:
The latitudinal migration usually means the movement from north to south, and vice
versa. Most birds live in the land masses of the northern temperate and subarctic zones where
they get facilities for nesting and feeding during summer. They move towards south during
winter. An opposite but lesser movement also occurs in the southern hemisphere when the
seasons are changed. Cuckoo breeds in India and spends the summer at South-east Africa and
thus covers a distance of about 7250 km.
Some tropical birds migrate during rainy season to the outer tropics to breed and return to
the central tropics in dry season. Many marine birds also make considerable migration. Puffinus
(Great shearwater) breeds on small islands and migrates as far as Greenland in May and returns
after few months. It covers a distance of 1300 km. Penguins migrate by swimming and cover a
considerable distance of few hundred miles. Sterna paradisaea (Arctic tern) breeds in the
northern temperate region and migrates to the Antarctic zone along the Atlantic. It was observed
that Sterna covers a distance of 22 500 km during migration.
Longitudinal migration:
The longitudinal migration occurs when the birds migrate from east to west and vice-
versa. Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), a resident of east Europe and west Asia migrate towards the
Atlantic coast. California gulls, a resident and breed in Utah, migrate westward to winter in the
Pacific coast.
 Altitudinal migration:
The altitudinal migration occurs in mountainous regions. Many birds inhabiting the
mountain peaks migrate to low lands during winter. Golden plover (Pluvialis) starts from Arctic
tundra and goes up to the plains of Argentina covering a distance of 11 250 km (Fig. 9.54).
Birds migrate either in flocks or in pairs. Swallows and storks migrate a distance of 9650 km
from northern Europe to South Africa. Ruff breeds at Siberia and travels to Great Britain, Africa,
India and Ceylon thus travelling a distance of 9650 kilometers.
Partial migration:
All the members of a group of birds do not take part in migration. Only several members
of a group take part in migration. Blue Jays of Canada and northern part of United States travel
southwards to blend with the sedentary populations of the Southern States of U.S.A. Coots and
spoon bills (Platalea) of our country may be example of partial migration.
Total migration:
When all the members of a species take part in the migration, it is called total migration.
Daily migration:
Some birds make daily journey from their nests by the influence of environmental factors
such as temperature, light, and humidity also. Examples are crows, herons and starlings.
Seasonal migration:
Some birds migrates at different seasons of the year for food or breeding, called seasonal
migration, e.g., cuckoos, swifts, swallows etc. They migrate from the south to the north during
summer. These birds are called summer visitors. Again there are some birds like snow bunting,
red wing, shore lark, grey plover etc. which migrate from north to south during winter. They are
called winter visitors.
Diurnal migration:
Many larger birds like crows, robins, swallows, hawks, jays, blue birds, pelicans, cranes,
geese, etc. migrate during daytime for food. These birds are called diurnal birds and generally
migrate in flocks.
Nocturnal birds:
Some small-sized birds of passerine groups like sparrows, warblers, etc. migrate in
darkness, called nocturnal birds. The darkness of the night gives them protection from their
enemies.
Causes of Migration:
Most species of birds migrate more or less on schedule and follow the routes in a regular
fashion. The actual causative factors determining the course and direction of migration are not
clearly known.
Instinct and Gonadal changes:
It is widely accepted that the impulse to migrate in birds is possibly instinctive and the
migration towards the breeding grounds is associated with gonadal changes.
Scarcity of food and day length:
Other factors, viz., scarcity of food, shortening of daylight and increase of cold are
believed to stimulate migration. Migration in birds depends upon two important factors—
stimulus and guidance. Scarcity of food and fall of daylight are believed to produce endocrinal
changes which initiate bird migration
hotoperiodism:
The increase of day length (Photoperiodism) induces bird’s migration. The day length
affects pituitary and pineal glands and also caused growth of gonads which secret sex hormones
that are the stimulus for migration. In India, Siberian crane, geese, swan those come from central
Asia, Himalayas, begin to return from March and onwards with the increase of day length.
Seasonal variation:
The north-to-south migrations of birds take place under stimulus from the internal
condition of the gonads which are affected by seasonal variation.
Fat deposition:
Migratory birds become greedy and fat is deposited in the subcutaneous region of the
body. The fat deposition plays an important role in the migration of birds. Birds, those migrate a
long distance, reserve enough fat which provides energy in their arduous journey and helps the
birds to reach its destination, following a particular route. After fat deposition, restlessness
(Zugunruhe) is seen among birds for migration.
 Navigation.
Research indicates that young birds that do not migrate with their parents have an innate
knowledge of the direction and distance they should travel, but lack a specific goal. After it
arrives at its wintering grounds, the young bird will select a winter range to which it imprints
during that winter. After the first year the bird has the ability to return to the same area, even if
blown off course during migration.
Magnetic Map Theory:
A theory suggests that birds use the earth’s magnetic field to obtain at least a partial map
of its position. The earth’s magnetic field becomes stronger as you travel away from the equator
and toward the poles. In theory, a bird might be able to estimate its latitude based on the strength
of the magnetic field. While the change in strength is very small from one location to the next,
there is some indication that homing pigeons have the sensitivity to detect even tiny changes in
the strength of the magnetic field. Even if true, this would provide only a limited indication of
the bird’s latitude. At this time there is no clear evidence that either of these theories is the
complete story and the mapping skills of birds remains largely unexplained.
The Compass:
The other half of the navigation requirement is the compass. The internal map provides a
bird with the general location of where it is relative to its homing or migration goal and its
internal compass guides its flight and keeps it on course. Migrating birds are apparently utilizing
several different compasses.
The Sun Compass:
In 1951 Gustav Kramer discovered the sun compass. He performed his experiments by
placing European Starlings in orientation cages and then used mirrors to shift the apparent
location of the sun. In response, the birds shifted their migratory restlessness to match the
compass direction indicated by the apparent new position of the sun.
Further research revealed that the bird’s sun compass is tied to its circadian rhythm. It
seems birds have a time compensation ability to make allowances for changes in the sun’s
position over the course of the day. This theory is supported by another experiment in which
pigeons were placed in a closed room with an altered cycle of light and dark. Over a period of a
few days their circadian rhythm was reset. The birds were then released on a sunny day. Because
their “internal clock” had been reset, they misinterpreted the position of the sun and made a
predictable error in their homing direction. The pigeons actually ignore the position of the sun
relative to its position in the sky, relying on its azimuth direction, i.e. the compass direction at
which a vertical line from the sun intersects the horizon.
Further study has also revealed that pigeons have to learn the sun’s path to use it in navigation.
Young pigeons allowed to see the sun only in the morning lack the ability to use the sun for
navigation in the afternoon.
The Star Compass:
The sun compass plays a role in homing and may be used by birds that migrate during the
day. Many songbird species, however, migrate at night. For many years scientist suspected that
birds use the stars for navigation. In 1957 Franz and Eleanor Saur collected data from a series of
experiments in which birds were placed inside an enclosed planetary dome. The Saurs were able
to demonstrate that birds do use the stars for migration but not, as it turns out, in the way they
thought. The common belief at the conclusion of the Saur experiments was that birds have a
genetically coded map of the stars. In 1967 Cornell scientist Stephen Emlen used Indigo
Buntings to prove that the actual story was a little different.
Dr. Emlen also used a closed planetarium for his tests. He started by collecting young birds and
then hand raising them in a lab.  His research included the following:
A. One group of birds was raised in a windowless room and was never exposed to a point
source of light. B. A second group also never saw the sun but was exposed on alternate nights to
a simulated night sky in the planetarium, with normal rotation around the North Star. C. A third
group was also raised in a windowless room, but on alternate nights was exposed to a simulated
night sky in the planetarium. In this case, the sky was manipulated to rotate about a different
start, Betelgeuse.
When the fall migration period started, the birds were released into a special cage inside
the planetarium. Group A was placed in the planetarium under a normal fixed sky. The birds
oriented themselves in random directions, showing no ability to recognize a southerly migration
direction. Group B was placed in the planetarium with a normal rotation around the North Star.
The birds oriented themselves away from the North Star, in the appropriate southern direction for
migration. Group C was also placed into the planetarium. They had been raised with Betelgeuse
as the central point of rotation. When exposed to a normal sky these birds oriented themselves
away from Betelgeuse. This research indicates that young birds do not learn star patterns
themselves but learn a north-south orientation from a rotational star pattern.
The Sunset Cue.
Patterns of polarized light also appear to play a key role in navigation. Many of the
nocturnal migrants start their flights at sunset or a little after. Birds apparently use the polarized
light patterns to provide information on initial migratory flight directions.
References.
https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/the-basics-migration-navigation/
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/zoology/birds/bird-migration-definition-types-causes-and-
guiding-mechanisms/41286
https://ornithology.com/ornithology-lectures/migration-navigation/
hhttps://www.livescience.com/32276-how-do-birds-navigate.htmlttps://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-
blog/how-do-birds-navigate
https://www.britannica.com/science/migration-animal/Physiological-stimulus-of-migration
https://animals.mom.com/baby-bird-development.