Optical Mineralogy

Light
 Light and polarisation

• light as electromagnetic radiation

• wave properties of light
• reflection and refraction of light
• polarisation of light
 Light

• Nature of light: ENIGMATIC

• Transmitted through space with finite velocity
• Detected with human eye
• Penetrates vacuum – solid – fluid

Light source Receptor

2 competing theories
 Light theories

• Corpuscular theory:
Light is a stream of
minute particles (early
Greeks called these
photons)

• Travel bullet-like from 1

point to another

– Idea supported by Sir

Isaac Newton (1642-
1727)
 Light theories

• Wave theory: light

transmitted as waves
it explains reflection,
refraction, diffraction
and interference.

• This theory was put

forward by Christiaan
Huygens (1629-1695)
 Light theories

• Electromagnetic wave:
James Clark
alternating electric and Maxwell 1837-
magnetic fields 1884
perpendicular to each
other.
– James Clark Maxwell
(1873)

NOTE: The electric vector is transverse to the direction

of light propagation i.e. perpendicular
 Light theories
• End of the 19th century: Metal became
electrically conductive when struck by light
aka photoelectric effect

• 1897 Discovery of the electron: provided an

explanation for this effect: Light releases
electron from metal electron
conductivity
 Light theories
Light energy concentrated in ‘packets’
• Max Planck (1900): radiating oscillations radiate energy in
quanta
• Albert Einstein (1905): suggested considered ‘quantum’
units in photo-electric process.

Max Planck (1858-

1947) and Albert
Einstein (1879-1955)
 Light theories

• Both particles and waves can explain light

properties. The 2 theories were reconciled
together in Quantum Mechanics.

• Quantum Mechanics cannot be explained

by simple analogs, but only by abstract
mathematics.
 Quantum Mechanics
• The fundamental equation of quantum
mechanics is Schrödinger’s wave
equation, which is:
 Light

• Electromagnetic radiation:
because wave theory
effectively describes the
phenomena of polarization,
reflection, refraction and
interference

• In optical mineralogy, light

treated as a form of
‘electromagnetic radiation’
Components of electromagnetic radiation

wave properties + particle (quantum) properties

transverse waves

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.2

The electromagnetic spectrum

visible light polychromatic light (white)

(l = wavelength) full spectrum of visible l

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 6.6

The electromagnetic spectrum

visible light
(l = wavelength)

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.1

The electromagnetic spectrum

visible light polychromatic light (white)

(l = wavelength) full spectrum of visible l

monochromatic light –
single l

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.1

 LIGHT
• Color: human eye perceives wavelengths as colors
E.g. l=660 nm is red

• Monochromatic light: Light from only 1 single wavelength (a

small wavelength area appearing as one single color)

• Polychromatic light: combination of wavelengths = colors, but

perceived as one color

• All colors, except 420, 500, and 660nm can be produced by

combinations (violet-green-red)

NOTE: If all wavelengths of visible spectrum are present,

result perceived as white light
 LIGHT

• Color: The color of any object, (including

minerals), is the color of light that is not
absorbed on transmission or reflection

Color perception
 LIGHT
Velocity of light depends on
1/ Nature of material
2/ Wavelength of light

• Speed of light (in a vacuum) = 3 x 1010 cm/sec

• Frequency f=v/ l Substituting into this:

In ultraviolet light l = 370 nm or 3.7 x 10-5 cm
• Frequency = 3 x 1010 = 0.8 x 1015 sec-1
3.7 x 10-5
• Frequency of UV light = 0.8 x 1015 sec-1
 Wave nomenclature

V
f =
l


Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.3

f = frequency (Hz) V = velocity (m/s)

l = wavelength (nm) A = amplitude (m)
 Wave nomenclature

V
f =
l


Nesse, 2000; Fig. 7.2b

f = frequency (Hz) V = velocity (m/s)

l = wavelength (nm) A = amplitude (m)

velocity of light in vacuum (c) = 2.998 x 108 m/s

 Passage of a light through a material

velocity of light in vacuum > velocity of light in air

> velocity of light in transparent materials
(corresponding changes in f, l)
Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.4
 Nomenclature for Wave Motion

• Wavefront: surface
determined at given instant
by all parts of the system
of waves traveling along
the same direction and in
the same plane

• Wavenormal: line
perpendicular to wave
front and the direction the
wavefront is moving
Wave fronts
convenient for representing
propagation of light
(many waves)

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.5

 Nomenclature for Wave Motion

• Isotropic medium (eg

air, space) when waves in
parallel lines, the
wavefront is
perpendicular to direction
of transmission

• Anisotropic medium (eg

crystals) wavefront only
perpendicular to certain
directions
 Wave fronts

isotropic
materials
connect equivalent points
on adjacent waves

anisotropic
materials

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.5 b, c

 Isotropic versus Anisotropic
Minerals can be subdivided, based on the interaction of the light ray
travelling through the mineral and the nature of the chemical bonds
holding the mineral together, into two classes:
ISOTROPIC ANISOTROPIC
•Same velocity of light in all •Velocity of light is
directions different in different
directions
•Wave Normal and Light
Ray are parallel •Wave Normal and Light
Ray are NOT parallel
•Examples are volcanic glass
and minerals of the •Anisotropic minerals
isometric (cubic) system belong to tetragonal,
such as Fluorite, Garnet and hexagonal, orthorhombic,
Halite monoclinic and triclinic
systems
 Isotropic vs Anisotropic
ISOTROPIC
In isotropic minerals the wave
normal and the direction of
propagation of the light rays
are perpendicular to the
wave front

ANISOTROPIC
In anisotropic minerals the
light rays are not
perpendicular to the wave
front
 Phase

• If 2 waves vibrate in the same plane and travel

along the same path
• The distance that a wave lags behind the other is
called: retardation or D interference
• If D = il (i= integer) two waves are in phase and
gives constructive interference
 D = il in phase = constructive

 D = (i+1/2)l out of phase destructive

interference or cancellation

• If D has an intermediate level, partly in and

partly out of phase partly constructive
& partly destructive
Vector resolution of light waves

2 vibration directions:
R = resultant
of A, B

1 vibration direction:
X can be resolved
into components (V)
at specified angles (q)

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.7

 Phase and interference in a single plane

general case: interference

perfectly out of phase

(cancellation)

perfectly in phase
(amplification)

A, B: waves travelling along same path

R: resultant Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.6
 Phase and interference in a single plane
retardation (D): D = i  l
general case: interference offset between equivalent points
on waves A, B; i = integral # of l

perfectly out of phase

 (cancellation)

D=0
 1
D = i + l
perfectly in phase  2
(amplification)

A, B: waves travelling along same path

R: resultant Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.6
 Reflection and refraction

no change
in velocity
angle of incidence =
angle of reflection
material 1
material 2

NOT true for

refraction!

velocity
changes
Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.9
 Refraction

• Refraction: Light is bent

(refracted) when passing
from 1 transparent n1=low R.I.
material to the other
transparent material at
angle other than the
perpendicular. n2=high R.I.

• The measure in how

effective the material is in
Fig 1.9 (Nesse, 1991)
bending the light is called
REFRACTIVE INDEX, RI
(symbol n)
 Refraction
• Refractive Index: Ratio of the wave normal velocity in
vacuum to wave normal velocity in medium.

• Refractive Index= RI=n

• R.I. = velocity of light in vacuum
velocity in medium
• RI = n = vo/vm NOTE: For vacuum n=1

• For all other materials n >1.0

– Most minerals between 1.4 and 2.0
 Refraction

REMEMBER vair ~ vvacuum

& high R.I. low velocity

low R.I. high velocity
 Refraction

index of refraction (n):

q1 n2 = V1 / V2

if n1 < n2
then q1 > q2
q2

Snell’s Law

sinq1 n 2
=
sinq 2 n1
Nesse, 2004; Fig 1.8
 Refraction

index of refraction (n):

q1 n2 = V1 / V2
air
mineral for minerals:
nmineral = Vair / Vmineral
q2
because Vair > Vmineral
nmineral > 1
q1
Snell’s Law:
material with higher n
sin q1 = n2 has lower V
sin q2 n1
q2
Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.8
Refraction
l1 b

q2
q1 a
l2

Snell’s Law
f=v1/ l1 f=v2/ l2

l1 V1
f= =
l2 V2
l1= ab sin q1
l2= ab sin q2
 SNELL’s LAW
l1= ab sin Q1
• n1=Vvac/V1
l2= ab sin Q2
• n2=Vvac/V2
l1= ab l2= ab
• V1=Vvac/n1 sin Q1 sin Q2

• V2=Vvac/n2 l1= l2
sin Q1 sin Q2

sin Q1 l1 V1 Vvac/n1 n2
=
sin Q2 = l2 V2
=
Vvac/n2
=
n1
 Reflection

• Reflection: When light reaches the boundary

between 2 media, some light may enter the
media, some will be reflected
Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection
i r

Fig 1.8 (Nesse, 1991)

Reflection

Percentage of reflection:

2
 n 2 − n1 
R =  100
 n 2 + n1 

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.9

 Critical angle and total internal reflection

a q2 a’
c: total internal reflection:
angle of incidence > CA
b b’
CA
c c’ n2 high
b: critical angle (CA):
angle of incidence
b n1 low for which
angle of refraction = 90o
q1 a
a: normal reflection
and refraction
(q1 > q2)
 Polarisation of Light
• Light emanating from some source, sun, or
a light bulb, vibrates in all directions at right
angles to the direction of propagation and
is unpolarized.
• If the electric vector is constrained to lie
within one plane then the light is plane-
polarised and vibrates in only one
direction.
 Polarisation

plane polarised light

(single vibration direction)

unpolarised light
(all possible vibration directions)

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.12

 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

• Plane polarised light (PPL)

• Circular/ cross polarised light (XPL)
• Elliptical Polarization
 Polarisation

Causes of polarisation:

reflection
selective absorption
double refraction
scattering
 Polarisation by reflection
polarised // reflecting
surface
unpolarised (incomplete)

Brewster’s
complete polarisation angle
where angle between (angle needed to
reflected and refracted produce this effect)
rays = 90o
vibration directions at
right angles to each other

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.15

 Polarisation by selective absorption

polarising film
(sunglasses, polarisers
in microscope)
or pleochroic
material

Pleochroism
most vibration directions
absorbed;
only one transmitted

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.13

 Polarisation by double refraction

takes advantage of
critical angle (CA) one ray deflected at
critical angle
and absorbed by balsalm;
other transmitted

Nicol prism
cut and oriented
calcite crystals
original ray split into separated by
two with polarisation Canada balsalm
at right angles
Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.14
1) Light passes through the lower polarizer
west
(left)

Unpolarized light Plane polarized light

“PPL”
east
(right)

Only the component of light vibrating in E-W

direction can pass through lower polarizer –
light intensity decreases
2) Insert the upper polarizer
west (left)
north
(back)

south
(front)
east (right) Black!
XPL “extinct”
(crossed nicols or
crossed polars)

Now what happens?

What reaches your eye?
Why would anyone design a microscope that
prevents light from reaching your eye?
3) Now insert a thin section of a rock
west (left)

Unpolarized light
east (right)

Light and colors

Light vibrating E-W
reach eye!
Light vibrating in
many planes and with
many wavelengths

How does this work?