AP POLYCET 2018 STUDY MATERIAL FOR

PHYSICS(EM)
SBTET, AP, AMARAVATI
 CHAPTER 1
HEAT
SUMMARY:
Heat is a form of energy in transit. Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to
body at lower temperature.
SI unit of heat is joule(J) and CGS unit is calorie(cal). The amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 gram of water by 10C is called calorie.
1calorie = 4.186 joule
SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K)
Relation between centigrade scale and kelvin scale of temperature:
00C = 273K
t0C = (273 + t)K
If two different systems A and B (thermal contact) are in thermal equilibrium independently
with another system C,
Then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Specific heat:
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the substance by one degree centigrade.

CGS unit : cal/g-0C

SI unit: J/kg-K
1 cal/g-0C = 4.186 x 103 J/kg-K
Rise in temperature depends on the nature of the substance. Hence, Specific heat of a
substance depends on its nature.
The higher value of specific heat indicates lower the rate of rise of temperature. The
temperature and kinetic energy of the particles of the body are proportional.
Q = mS∆T or S = Q/m∆T
Where Q = quantity of required
m = mass of the substance
S = specific heat
∆T = rise in temperature
Method of mixtures:
Heat Lost by hot bodies = Heat gained by cold bodies.
Evaporation: The process of escaping of molecules from the surface of a liquid or the
change of phase from liquid to gas that occurs at the surface of the liquid is called
“evaporation”
Temperature falls in evaporation and takes on the surface. Hence it is a cooling process.
Rate of evaporation depends on
i) Surface area, ii) temperature, iii) amount of vapour in air.
Condensation: It is the phase change from gas to liquid.
Here temperature rises. Condensation is the reverse process of evaporation.
Humidity: The amount of water vapour present in air is called humidity.
Dew: The condensation of saturated water vapour on cold surfaces as water droplets is called
“dew”.
Fog: At low temperatures, the water molecules in large amount of vapour condense on dust
particles in air to form water droplets which float in air forming thick mist. It is called fog.
Melting: The process of converting solid into liquid is called “melting.”
The temperature of the ice does not change during melting.
Freezing: The process of converting liquid into solid is called “freezing.”
Multiple choice questions:
1. Which of the following is a warming process? [ ]
a) Boiling b) Condensation c) Evaporation d) all the above
2. Three bodies A, B and C are in thermal equilibrium. The temperature of B is 450C,
then the temperature of C is ____________ [ ]
a) 450C b) 500C c)400C d) any temperature
3.Melting is a process in which solid phase changes to __________ [ ]
a) Liquid phase b) Liquid Phase at constant temperature c) Gaseous Phase
d) Any phase
4. Specific heat S = [ ]
a) Q/Δt b) QΔt c) Q/mΔt d) mΔt/Q

5. Boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure is ________ [ ]

a) 0oC b) 100oC c) 110oC d) -5oC
 6. When ice melts, its temperature [ ]

a) remains constant b) increases c) decreases d) cannot say

7. The temperature of a steel rod is 330K. Its temperature in oC is ______ [ ]

a) 55oC b) 57oC c) 59oC d) 53oC

8.The process of conversion of liquid into gaseous state is called_____ [ ]
a) Freezing b) Boiling c) Melting d) Fusion
9) Evaporation is called process of _____________ [ ]
a) Cooling b) Heating c) Melting d) Positive
10. When an impurity is added to a liquid, its boiling point ____________ [ ]
a) Rises b) Falls c) Remains the same d) None
11. Specific heat depends on __________________ [ ]
a) Mass b) mass, rise of temperature, and nature of material
c) Mass and nature of material d) Rise of temperature only
12. Energy of molecules in a liquid during evaporation _____________ [ ]
a) Increases b) Rises and then falls c) Decreases d) No change
13. SI unit of Specific heat is [ ]
a) J/K b) J/kg c) J/ kg-K d) J/kg/K
14. When water freezes its volume [ ]
a) Increases b) Decreases c) Remains constant d) Increases and then decreases
15. The reverse process of evaporation is [ ]
a) Condensation b) Freezing c) Melting d) oxidation

KEY

1. b 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. b 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. a

10. a 11. b 12. c 13. c 14. a 15. a

F
AP POLYCET 2018 STUDY MATERIAL FOR
PHYSICS(EM)
SBTET, AP, AMARAVATI
 CHAPTER 3

Reflection of Light by Different Surfaces

Summary:
Light travels in a straight line.

When light reflected from a surface,

The angle of reflection = equal to the angle of incidence.

The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected
ray all lie in the same plane.

1/𝑓 = 1/𝑢 + 1/𝑣 or 𝑓 = 𝑢𝑣/(𝑢 + 𝑣)

Magnification = m = Size of the image /size of the object

OR = - Image distance/ Object distance = -v/u

Points to remember:

• The centre of sphere to which a spherical mirror belongs, is called centre of curvature.
• The geometric centre of the mirror is pole(P) of the mirror.
• The line which passes through the centre of curvature and pole is called Principal axis.
• The rays which are parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror on reflection meet
at focus or focal point.

• The distance between pole and centre of curvature is Radius of curvature.

• The distance between pole and focus is called focal length.
• The relation between focal length and radius of curvature is given by R = 2f

• The relation between the angle of incidence and angle of reflection is given by First law
of reflection.
• Light selects the least time path to travel between two points. This principle was stated
by Fermat.

Multiple Choice questions:

1. If an object is placed at C on the principal axis in front of a concave mirror, the

position of the image is [ ]
a) at infinity b) between F and C c) at C d) beyond C

2. We get a diminished image with a concave mirror when the object is placed [ ]

a) at F b) between the pole and F c) at C d) beyond C

3. We get a virtual image in a concave mirror when the object is placed [ ]

a) at F b) between the mirror and F c) at C d) beyond C

4. Magnification m = [ ]

a) v/u b) u/v c) ho / hi d) hi /ho

5. A ray which seems to be travelling through the focus of a convex mirror passes

after reflection [ ]

a) parallel to the axis b) along the same path in opposite direction

c) through F d) through C

6. The angle of refraction of a light ray is the angle between [ ]

a) Incident ray and normal b) Refracted ray and normal c) Incident ray and

refracted ray d) refracted ray and interface separating two media.

7. A virtual, erected image is formed when an object is placed on the principal axis

of a convex lens [ ]

a) Beyond the centre of curvature b) At the centre of curvature

c)between centre of curvature and focus d) Between focal point and pole.

8. An image is formed at distance of 60 cm from the centre of a convex lens.

When the object distance is 30 cm, the focal length of the lens in cm is [ ]

a) 90 b) 20 c) 2 d) 0.05

9. The no of focal points, that every lens has [ ]

a) 4 b)3 c) 2 d) 1

10. Read the following two statements and pick the correct option [ ]

1) The virtual image can be captured on a screen

 2) The real image can be captured on a screen

a) Only 1 is true b) Only 2 is true c) Both 1 and 2 are true

d) Both 1 and 2 are false.

11. When the object is at focus of a concave mirror, the image is formed at

[ ]
a) within focus b) Infinity c) Centre of curvature

d) Focus

12. The mirror used by dentists is [ ]

a) Concave b) Plane c) Convex d) Plane or concave

KEY

1. c 2. d 3. b 4. d 5. b 6.b 7. d 8. b 9. c 10. b

11. b 12. a
 Chapter 5
Refraction of Light at Plane Surfaces
Summary:
Refraction of light: The process of changing speed at an interface when light
travels from one medium to another resulting in a change in direction in
another medium is “refraction of light”.
• In refraction, bending of light takes place.
• No bending when light incidents normally.
• Refractive index is a property of transparent medium.
• Refractive index is a dimensionless quantity.
• Absolute refractive index = Speed of light in vacuum(c)/Speed of light in
Medium(v)
n = c/v
• If refractive index is high, speed of light is low.
• Refractive index depends on 1) nature of material, 2) wavelength of
light
• Relative Refractive index = Speed of light in medium 1/ speed of light
in medium 2
Refractive index of second medium
=
Refractive index of first medium
𝑛2
n 21 =
𝑛1

• When light travels from rarer (air) to denser medium (glass),

✓ Light bends towards the normal in denser medium.
✓ Angle of refraction(r) is less then angle of incidence (i)
 Snell’s law:
sin i 𝒗 𝟏 𝑛2
= =
sin r 𝒗 𝟐 𝑛1

Or
n1 sin i = n 2 sin r (or) sin i/ sin r = constant
This is called Snell’s law.

Laws of refraction:
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of
two transparent media, at the point of incidence, all lie on the same
plane.
2) Light follows Snell’s law in refraction.
Critical angle: When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium,
1) The angle of incidence is called critical angle(C) if the angle of
refraction is 900
Total internal reflection: If the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle when the light ray passes from denser medium to rarer medium,
then the light ray totally internally reflected back into the denser medium. This
is called “total internal reflection”.
Multiple Choice questions:
1. For critical angle, the angle of refraction is ___________ [ ]
a) 900 b) 450 c) 600 d) 1800
2. Which of the following is Snell’s law
a) n 1 sin i = sin r/ n 2 b) n 1/ n2 = sin r/sin i
b) n2/ n1 = sin r/ sin i d) n2 sin i = constant
3. The refractive index of glass with respect to air is 2. The critical angle of
glass air interface is______________ [ ]
 a) 00 b) 450 c) 300 d)600
4. Total internal reflection takes place when the light ray travels from ___
[ ]
a) Denser to rarer medium b) Denser to denser medium
a) Rarer to denser medium d) rarer to rarer medium
5.The angle of deviation produced by glass slab is [ ]
a) 00 b) 200 c) 900 d) Depends on the light ray and normal to
slab.
6.Mirage is an example of _______________ [ ]
a) Total internal reflection b) Refraction c) Reflection
d)None of the above.
7. Refractive index of glass relative to water is 9/8. What is the refractive index
of water relative to glass? [ ]
a) 9/8 b) 8/9 c)1/9 d) None
8. Optical fibre works on [ ]
a) Reflection b) Refraction c) Total internal reflection d) All of these

KEY
1. a 2. b 3. c 4.a
5.a 6.a 7. b 8.c
Chapter 6
Refraction of light at Curved Surfaces
Summary:
Consider a curved surface which is a part of a sphere.
The centre of the sphere, is called centre of curvature.
The centre of curved surface is called the pole (P) of curved surface. The line
that joins the centre of curvature and the pole is called ‘principal axis’. It is
denoted by letter ‘C’.

Formulae: n2 /v – n1/u = (n2-n1)/R

Where n1, n2 = the refractive indices of two material media of curved surfaces,
u = object distance, v = image distance, and R = Radius of curvature
The above formula for plane interface in refraction is given by:

n2 /v – n1/u = 0

or n2 /v = n1/u

Focus or focal point:

The point of convergence (or) the point where the rays appear to be emanating is
called Focus(F) or focal point.
Every lens has two focal points.
The distance between optic centre and focal point is called “focal length (f)”

The focal points are equidistant from the centre, ie pole of the lens.

The distance between two focal points = 2F1 = 2F2 = Twice the focal length.
When a light ray incident on a lens:

1. A ray is undeviated when passes through principal axis.

2. A ray is undeviated when it passes through the optic centre.
3. The rays travelling parallel to principal axis converge at the focus or
diverge from the focus.
4. The light rays obey the principle of least time.

5. The ray passing through the focus after refraction will take a path

parallel to principal axis.

Lenses:
• A lens is made up of transparent material.
• Bounded by two surfaces both or one is spherical surface.
• ‘A lens is bounded by atleast one curved surface’.
• Lenses are of various types.
Convex Lens:
• It may have two spherical surfaces bulging outside.
• It is called double convex lens or biconvex lens.
• It is thick at the middle and thin at the edges.
Concave lens:
• A double concave lens has two spherical surfaces.
• It is thin at middle and thick at the edges.
• Each curved surface of a lens is a part of a sphere.
Centre of curvature:
• It is the centre of sphere contains lens part.
• It is denoted by C.
 • The distance between curved surface and centre of curvature
is called “radius of curvature (R)”.
• If the lens contains two curved surfaces, it will have two
centres of curvatures namely C1 and C2 .
• The line joining between two centres is called principal
axis.
• The mid point of the lens is called optic centre(P).
Image Positions of Convex Lens for various positions of object:
✓ Object at infinity: A point sized image at focal point will be
formed.
✓ Object beyond the centre of curvature of Principal axis: Image
will be real, inverted and diminished formed on principal axis
between the points F1 and 2F1.
✓ Object at the centre of curvature (at 2F2): The image will be on
another side at 2F1, and a real, inverted and of same size as the
object.
✓ Object between Centre of curvature (2F2) and Focal point(F2):
The image will be beyond 2F1 which is real, inverted and
magnified.
✓ Object at focal point (F2): Image at infinity.

✓ Object between Focus (F1) and optic centre: Image on the

same side.
• Virtual, erect and magnified which can be seen with
eyes.
• Cannot be caught on the screen.
• This behaviour of Convex lens is useful to construct a
microscope.
 For concave lens: The image will be always erect, virtual and
diminished in size, irrespective of the position of
object.

Lens formula:
1/v - 1/u = 1/f
For any lens with sign convention.
✓ Focal length of a lens depends upon the surrounding medium.
✓ Focal length of lens increases in water.
Lens maker’s formula: In the air medium, the relative refractive index is
the absolute refractive of the lens,
1/f = (n -1)( 1/R1 – 1/R2 )
Where R1 and R2 are radii of curvature, n is the
This is called lens maker’s formula.
Note: Always use sign convention.
✓ If the refractive index of the medium is less than convex
lens, behaves as a convergent lens.
✓ Convex lens behaves as a divergent lens, if the refractive
index of the transparent medium is greater than lens.
✓ Air bubble in water behaves as a diverging lens.

Multiple choice questions:

1. The rays from the distant object falling on the convex lens pass through
[ ]
a) Focus b) centre of curvature c) Pole d) Radius of curvature
2. What is the focal length of the plano convex, when R is the radius of the
curvature of the surface, n is the refractive index of the lens? [ ]
a) f = R b) f = R/2 c) f = R/(n-1) d) f = (n-1)/R
 3. Real or virtual image is formed by which of the following lenses? [ ]
a) Bi convex lens b) Biconcave lens c) Plano convex mirror d) all of
these
4. The value of the focal length of the lens is equal to the value of the image
distance when the rays are [ ]
a) Passing through the optic centre b) parallel to the principal axis
c) Passing through the focus d) In all these cases
5. Which of the following is the lens maker’s formula
a) 1/f = (n-1) (1/R1 + 1/R 2) b) 1/f = (n + 1) (1/R1 – 1/R2 )
c) 1/f = (n - 1) (1/R1 – 1/R2) d) 1/f = (n + 1) ( 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Questions on Concave Mirrors:
6. The image formed by concave mirror when the object is held at a
distance less than the focal length, is [ ]
a) Erect b) virtual and inverted c) inverted d) None
7. The property of which mirror when the object is held close less than
the focal length is used as a shaving mirror [ ]
a) plane mirror b) convex mirror c) concave mirror d) none
8. A mirror used by dentists is [ ]
a) concave mirror b) convex mirror c) Plane mirror d) None
9. Which mirror focuses the parallel sun rays at the focal point of the
mirror [ ]
a) convex mirror b) concave mirror c) Any mirror d) plane mirror
10. Solar cooker works on the property of which mirror? [ ]
a) plane mirror b) convex mirror c) concave mirror d) none
11. Archimedes burnt the ships using which property of concave mirror?
[ ]
a) Parallel rays converge at focal point of the mirror b) Parallel rays
diverge from pole c) Deviated from centre of curvature after reflection
d) None of the above.
12. Watchmaker uses _____________ to repair.
a) Convex mirror b) concave mirror c) concave lens d) convex lens
13. Pick the correct answer from the following two answers: [ ]
1) Focal length of a lens depends on the surrounding medium.
2) Focal length of a lens changes with object distance.
a) both (1) and (2) are true b) both (1) and (2) are false
(c) Only (1) is true (d) Only (2) is true
14. The size of the image formed by a convex lens is same as that of
the object, when the object is placed [ ]
a) At the centre of curvature b) Between the centre of curvature
and focus c) Beyond the centre of curvature d) Between focus
and centre.
15. The lens, which is thin, at the middle on both sides and thicker, at
the edges is [ ]
a) bi- convex b) concavo- convex c) plano – convex d) bi -
concave
16. If 40 cm each is the object and image distances respectively for a
convex lens, then the focal length is [ ]
a) 80 cm b) 40 cm c) 20 cm d) 25 cm

KEY
1. a 2. c 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. b 10. c
11. a 12. d 13. c 14. a 15. d 16. c
AP POLYCET 2018 STUDY MATERIAL FOR
PHYSICS(EM)
SBTET, AP, AMARAVATI
 CHAPTER 7
Human Eye and Colourful World
Summary:
• The maximum angle, at which humans can see the whole object is called
angle of vision.
• The angle of vision for a healthy human being is about 600.
• It varies from person to person and with age.

• Humans can see an object comfortably and distinctly when held at a

distance of 25 cm.
• This distance of 25 cm is called least distance of distinct vision.
• The eye ball is nearly spherical in shape.
• The front portion is covered by a transparent
protective membrane called the ‘cornea’.
• Behind the cornea, filled with a liquid called aqueous humour and
behind this a crystalline lens.
• It is responsible for the image formation.
• Iris, is the coloured part, is the muscular diaphragm, with a small
hole, called pupil.
• Iris controls the amount of light entering the eye through ‘pupil’.
• Iris makes pupil to act as a “variable aperture” for light to enter into
the eye.
• The light that enters the eye forms an image on the
retina.
• The distance between the lens and retina is about 2.5
cm
• The image distance is fixed and is 2.5 cm for any
position of object.
• the focal length of a lens depends on its material and
radii of curvature of lens.
• The eye lens can change its shape with the help of ciliary muscle
attached to it which change its focal length by changing the radii of
curvature.
• The process of adjusting focal length of lens is called
“accommodation” of lens.
• The eye-lens forms a real and inverted image of an object on the
retina.
 • Retina contains 125 million receptors called “rods and cones”
which receive the light signals.
✓ Rods identify the Intensity of light,
✓ Cones identify the colour.
✓ These are transmitted to the brain through the optic
nerve fibres.
• The vision becomes blurred due to “ accommodation defects” of
the eye.
Defects of Eye:
• There are mainly three defects of eye.
1. Myopia:
✓ Cannot see objects at long distances.
✓ Also called- near or short sightedness.
✓ For these people, focal length is < 2.5 cm.
✓ Image forms before the retina.
✓ A concave lens is used to correct myopia.
Hypermetropia:
✓ Cannot see objects at short distances.
✓ Also called far or long sightedness.
✓ For these people, focal length is > 2.27 cm.
✓ Image forms beyond the retina.
✓ A biconvex lens is used to correct hypermetropia.
Presbyopia:
✓ The ability of eye decreases with age.
✓ Near point disappears.
✓ Difficult to see the nearby objects clearly and
distinctly.
✓ Due to weakening of ciliary muscles and flexibility
of eye lens.
✓ Is wide spread in aged people.
✓ A person can suffer from both Myopia and
hypermetropia with aging.
✓ To correct this defect of vision, bi - focal lenses
which contain both concave and convex lenses.
✓ Upper portion is concave part, and lower convex
part.
Power of Lens:
✓ It is the degree of convergence or divergence of light
rays by a lens.
 ✓ IT is the reciprocal of focal length in metre.
✓ P = 1/f
✓ Unit is dioptre.
✓ Denoted by D
Multiple choice questions:
1. The least distance of distinct vision is about ________
a) 25 cm b) 50 cm c) 30 cm d) 15 cm
2. The distance between eye lens and retina is about ______
a)10 cm b) 2.5 cm c)2 cm d) 5 cm
3. The maximum focal length of eye lens is about ________
a) 2.5 cm b) 2.2 cm c)3 cm d) 1.5 cm
4. The power of lens is 1D then focal length is________
a) 100 cm b) 50 cm c) 25 cm d) 75 cm
5.Myopia can be corrected by which lens________
a) concave lens b) convex lens c) concavo-convex
d) Plano convex
6. The size of the object is perceived by an eye depends on _____
a) size of the object b) distance of the object from the eye
c) aperture of the pupil d) size of image on retina
7. A doctor advised to use 4D lens. The focal length of the lens is
a) 25 cm b) 400 cm c) 4 cm d) 40 cm
8. Which part of the human eye helps the lens to change its focal length?
a) Retina b) Pupil c) ciliary muscle d) cornea
9. For every position of an object in front of the human eye, the image
distance is fixed at
a) 1 cm b) 1.5 cm c) 2.5 cm d) 0.25 cm
10. To correct one’s hypermetropia defect, the type of lens used is _____
a) biconvex b) biconcave c) concavo- convex
d) planoconcave

KEY
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. b
7. a 8. c 9. c 10. a
Dispersion and Scattering of Light:
• Refractive index of prism, n = (Sin (A + D)/2)/Sin (A/2)
Where n = refractive index of the prism,
A = Angle of prism, D = Angle of deviation
• The splitting of white light into colours (VIBGYOR) is called
Dispersion.
• The colours of Rainbow are due to dispersion of the sunlight by
millions of tiny water droplets.
• In refraction the frequency of light wave in one medium is same in
both the media, i.e, frequency remains unaltered (will not change),
but wavelength changes.
• v = n λ, where v = speed of light, n = frequency, λ = wave length.
• The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all directions with
different intensities by atoms or molecules, is called “scattering of
light”.
• Sir C.V. Raman invented the Scattering of light.
• Raman experimentally found the frequency of scattered light is
greater than the frequency of incident light. This is called
“ Raman Effect”.
• Raman effect is used to determine the shapes of molecules.

Multiple choice questions:

1. With an increase in angle of incidence of light ray on a prism, the
angle of deviation__
a) remains constant b) first increases and then decreases
 c)first decreases and then increases d) first increases and then
remains constant.
2. The scientific work of C.V. Raman is on
a) dispersion of light b) total internal reflection
c) defection of vision d) scattering of light
3. Scattering of light involves the process of
a) bending of light at the interface of two media
b) splitting of light into different colours
c) convergence of light rays at the focus
d) re -emission of absorbed light
4. Blue of sky is explained by
a) scattering of light b) total internal reflection
c) refraction of light d) dispersion of light
5. The sun appears red colour during sunset and sunrise, due to
a) scattering of red light is very small b) scattering of red light is high
c) scattering of other colours is high d) none of these

KEY
1. c 2. d 3. d 4. a 5. a
AP POLYCET 2018 STUDY MATERIAL FOR
PHYSICS(EM)
SBTET, AP, AMARAVATI
 CHAPTER 11

Electric Current:

Summary:
• Lightning is an electric discharge between two clouds or between cloud
and earth.

• This electric discharge through air as an electric spark or lightning.

• Lightning is the motion of charge in the atmosphere.
• The nature of the substance plays an important role in the transfer
of energy from battery to bulb.
• Positive ions in a metal are fixed and negative electrons are free charhe
carriers.
• The fixed arrangement of positive ions is called lattice.
• Electric current = electric charge/time interval
I = Q/t
• The SI unit of electric current is ampere denoted by A.
• 1 Ampere = 1 Coloumb/1 Second
1 A = 1 C/s
• The free electrons in a conductor are accelerated by the electric
field.
• Electrons move in a direction opposite to the direction of the field.
• The electrons in the conductor move with a constant average speed called
drift speed or drift velocity.
• An ammeter is used to measure electric current.
• An ammeter is always connected in series to the circuit.
• This potential difference is also called voltage. The SI unit of potential

difference is “Volt” and it is denoted by V.

• 1 Volt = 1 Joule/1 Coulomb

1V = 1J/C
• Ohm’s law:

Potential difference between the ends of the conductor is directly

proportional to the current passing through it.

V∝I

V/I = Constant.
The constant is called resistance of the conductor.

It is denoted by ‘R’. Then we get V/I = R.

V = IR
SI unit of resistance: ohm.

The symbol of ohm is Ω.

1 Ohm = 1 Volt/1 Ampere
1 Ω = 1V/A
Ohm’s law materials are classified into two categories.
1. which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic materials.
Ex: metals are ohmic materials.
2. which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non ohmic
materials.
Example: LEDs are non ohmic materials.

• Ohm’s law is valid if the temperature remains constant.

• The resistance of the material changes with temperature.

• V-I graph is non-linear when temperature changes.

• Ohm’s law is not applicable to gaseous conductors.

• Ohm’s cannot be applied to semiconductors.

Example: Germanium and silicon.

• The resistance of a conductor is defined as the obstruction to

the motion of the electrons in a conductor.
• The material which offers resistance to the motion of
electrons is called resistor.

Factors affecting the resistance of a material:

 • Temperature, length, area and material of the conductor.

• The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly

proportional to its length (l)

• R ∝ l (at constant temperature)

• The resistance of a conductor inversely proportional to area
of its cross section.
i.e.R ∝ 1/A (at constant temperature)
R = ρl/A
Where, ρ is a proportionality constant and is called specific

resistance or resistivity.

• The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre

Symbolically Ω - m.

• The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (σ).

• The values of resistivity of material determine their

conductivity.
Equivalent resistance of a series connection:
V = I Req
IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
i.e. The equivalent resistance is equal to sum of individual
resistances when the resistors are connected in series.

• One of the resistors in series breaks down, the circuit

becomes open.
• Current flow cannot take place in the circuit.
• Hence, household electrical appliances cannot be

connected in series.
The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is less
 than the resistance of any one of the resistors.
Let three resistors are connected in series,

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Let two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel,

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Req = R1R2/(R1+R2)

Kirchhoff’s laws:
Current law:
At any junction point in a circuit, the sum of the currents entering into the

junction must equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

we have I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5

Figure: Current law

Kirchoff’s voltage law or Loop law.

The algebraic sum of changes in potential

differences are equal to zero.

The work done by electric field in time t is given by

W = Q V where

Q = charge in the conductor, V = voltage across the conductor. The work is

equal to the energy lost by the charge when passing through the conductor.

Energy lost by the charge per second = W/t

W/t = QV/t

Q/t = I,
the current flowing through the conductor.

And W/t = the work done per second.

Power: Power is the rate of doing work.

Hence, W/t = electric power (P).

Electric power P = VI
This equation can be used to calculate power consumption by any

electric device that is connected in a circuit.

According to the Ohm’s law,

V = IR

P = I2 R = V2/R

The equation P = VI can also be used to calculate the power which be extracted

from a battery or any source. In this case modified equation

P = VI
where P = ε I.
here ε is the emf of the battery.

Example:

A bulb is marked 60W and 120V. This means that if this bulb is
connected to 120V source, it will able to convert 60J of electrical energy
into heat or light in one second.

From the marking of bulb, we can measure the resistance of the bulb. From the
relation P = V2/R D R = V2/P

Substituting the values V and P in above equation,

we get R = 120 x 120/ 60 = 240 Ω

Kilowatt is generally used to express power consumption.

1 KW = 1000 W = 1000 J/S
The unit of electric power consumption is equal to 1 KWH (one Kilo Watt
Hour).
1 KWH = (1000 J/S) (60 x 60 S)

= 3600 x 1000 J = 3.6 x 105 J

Multiple choice questions:
1. The kilowatt hour is the unit of ..................
 a. Power b. work c. energy d. None of these

2. A thick wire has a--------- resistance than a thin wire.

a. high b. low c. does not depend on thickness d. higher

3. The SI unit of current is_____________

a. ampere b. volt c. ohm d. coulomb

4. A uniform wire of resistance 50 Ω is cut into five equal parts.

These parts are now connected in parallel. Then the equivalent

resistance of the combination is

a. 650 Ω b. 12 Ω
c. 250 Ω d. 2 Ω
5. Check the following statements.
A. In series connection, the same current flows through each element.
B. In parallel connection, the same potential difference gets applied
across each element.
a) both A and B are correct b) A is correct but B is wrong
c) A is wrong but B is correct d) both A and B are wrong

KEY
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. d 5.a
AP POLYCET 2018 STUDY MATERIAL FOR
PHYSICS(EM)
SBTET, AP, AMARAVATI
 CHAPTER 12
Electromagnetism
Summary: H.C. Oersted played a key role in understanding
“Electromagnetism”.
Oersted proved electricity and magnetism are related phenomena.
The unit of magnetic induction field strength is named as oersted, in his
honour.
Magnetic field:
The region around a magnet where its influence is felt is called “magnetic
field”.
• The strength of the field varies with the distance from the magnet.

• The magnetic field is three dimensional.

• That implies that the magnetic field surrounds its source.

• Hence, a magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a bar

magnet and is characterised by strength and direction.

Magnetic field lines:
• Outside the bar magnet, the magnetic lines of force are closed loops.

• The tangent drawn to the field line at a point gives the direction of the

field.

• The field is strong when the lines are crowded (near the poles of the

magnet) and if weak when the lines are apart.

• The field is said to be non-uniform, when strength or direction changes

from point to point.

 • The field is said to be uniform, if both strength and direction are constant

throughout the field.

Magnetic flux density:

• The number of lines passing through the plane of area ‘A’ perpendicular

The field is called “magnetic flux.” It is denoted by ‘ɸ’.

• The S.I. unit of magnetic flux is “weber”.

• The strength of the magnetic field is called magnetic flux density(B)

• Magnetic flux density = Magnetic flux /Area.

B = ɸ/A or ɸ = B/A

• Unit of magnetic flux density is weber/(meter)2 or Tesla.

Magnetic field due to current carrying straight wire:

• Current carrying wire produces magnetic field.

• The direction of the magnetic field, around a current carrying wire is

determined by right hand thumb rule.

• THUMB indicates the direction of current.

• The curled fingers show the direction of magnetic field.

Magnetic field due to a circular coil:

• The direction of the field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil.

• With Right Hand Thumb rule, the thumb points the direction of

magnetic field, the curled fingers show the direction of current.

Magnetic field due to solenoid:

• One end of the solenoid behaves as north pole and the other end behaves

like a south pole.

• Right hand thumb rule says, the direction of the field outside the

solenoid is from north to south, and inside south to north.

• It is also same for bar magnet.

Magnetic force on the charge = Charge x speed x magnetic flux density

F = qvB

It is true only when the direction of the velocity of charged particle is

perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field ‘B’.

For all other angles Ɵ,

We have F = qvB sinƟ

Magnetic force on a single charge is given by,

F = ILB and I = Q/t where Q= total charge

Where I = Current in the wire,

L = Length of the wire,

B = Strength of uniform magnetic field.

The force on the current carrying wire is given by

F = ILB sinƟ (at any angle)

To find the radius of the path and time period of the particle:
 We know that F = qvB,

r = radius of the circular path,

centripetal force = mv2/r

qvB = mv2/r

r = mv/Bq

Time Period of the particle, T = 2πr/v

The above equation after substitution becomes, T = 2πmv/Bq

Electric motor:

In an electric motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.

A current carrying coil rotates when it is kept in uniform magnetic field.

Faraday’s law:

“The induced EMF generated in a closed loop is equal to the rate of change of

magnetic flux passing through it”.

Induced EMF = Change influx/time

ε = ∆ɸ/∆t
Lenz’s law:

The law states that “the induced current will appear in such a direction that it

opposes the changes in the flux in the coil.”

The consequence of Faraday’s law is the conservation of energy.

ε = Blv
This is for a straight conductor (wire)
Applications of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction:

• For security check

• Tape recorder
• ATM
• Induction stove

Multiple choice questions:

1. Which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

a) Motor b) Battery c) Generator d) Switch
2. Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by which device
a) Battery b) Motor c) Generator d) Switch
3. Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by which device
a) Generator b) Motor c) Battery d) Switch
4. The magnetic force on a current carrying wire placed in uniform magnetic
field if the wire is oriented perpendicular to magnetic field, is
a) 0 b) ILB c) 2ILB d) ILB/2
5. If a conductor is moving with a speed of 10 m/s in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field of induction
0.8T, and induces an EMF of 8 V between the ends of coil, the length of
the coil is
a) 10 m b) 20 m c) 1m d) 100 m

KEY
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. c