INTRODUCTION

This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the
society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and
technology.
Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and
where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the
society. So, how can science be defined?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations
and observations about the natural and physical world.
2. It encompasses a systematic. and practical study of the natural and physical world. This
process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation. 3
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body
of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge
and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around
them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life.
Scientific Revolution
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of
the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific
investigations, experiments, and observations.
The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted
the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science.
In many ways scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to
examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and
ideas during this period--the truths of their time.
Scientists in all periods by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical
and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.
Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people doing
extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were
sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time.
In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped
experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.
Nicolaus Copernicus
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus Copernicus.
Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days of
Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003).
This continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the
Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers-he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly
bodies or inviting people to test his ideas.
His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a thought experiment.
Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after
that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript called

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Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the
risk of persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally.
The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution.
In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single
center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the
universe.
The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon,
however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting around the
Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined
two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth,
thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit,
thus, farther from the Sun.
From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once
around the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of
increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was
the position of the stars, The $248 cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance
sphere,
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernikah model makes sense now,
during those times, it was judged to be herette and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught
to Catholics, The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the
rest of the 16th century.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world's
creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of
intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history outing his time as a
student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his
surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin,
2003).
According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre
student. He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him.
Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage
through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of
the most important works in scientific literature Darwin collected many significant materials in order to
present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved
over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentia species. Like many other scholars,
Darwin accumulated many pertine materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate
hin theory.
Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of
plants and animals into the realms of human His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet
very controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm
of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places
human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution
scientifically questioned this view.
Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works,
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what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that
are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more
value to evidence based science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities.
It is a science marked by observation and experiment.

Sigmund Freud
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also described him as a
towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his share to raise the
consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the scientific world
through the development of an important observational method to gather reliable data to study
human's inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis. The scientific
hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this
method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no
doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his
method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis
was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood
by medicine at that time. His method was unorthodox-focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature
of man. This posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they
found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.