HERITAGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019-23

DEPARTMENT: ECE
ASSIGNMENT NAME: EM THEORY

NAME : AAHELI MAITY

SEMESTER: IV

ROLL NO: 1952155

SECTION: C

GROUP: 5
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
TITLE:
Plotting of Standing Wave Pattern along a transmission line when the line is open-circuited,
short-circuited & terminated by a resistive load at the load end.

OBJECTIVE:

To plot Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) under different load conditions.

THEORY:
Standing waves are created by the superposition of incident and reflected travelling waves in an
improperly terminated transmission line. By improper ternunation, what is meant is, the load
impedance (ZL) has a value different from that of the characteñstic impedance (Zo) of the line.
Signal energy is transmitted through a transmission line from the source or generator to the load
or receiver in the form of voltage and current waves. At the load end, part of the signal is reflected
back depending on the type of load impedance (ZL) and the characteristic impedance (Zo) of the
line. The ratio of ZL and Zo determines the reflection coefficient ML at the load end.
The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission line consists of the forward
wave (with amplitude Vf) superimposed on the reflected wave (with amplitude Vr). Reflections
occur as a result of discontinuities, such as an imperfection in an otherwise uniform transmission
line, or when a transmission line is terminated with other than its characteristic impedance. The
reflectlon coefficient F is defined thus:
(1)

r
is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the reflection.
The simplest cases, when the imaginary part of zero, are:
g F' —1 maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited,
s F 0 ; no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched,
• ' * : maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.

For the calculation of VSWR, only the magnitude of , denoted by p, is of interest. Therefore,
we define

(2)

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At some points along the line the two waves interfere constructively, and the resulting amplitude
is the sum of their amplitudes:

(3)

At other points, the waves interfere destructively, and the resulting amplitude min is the
difference between their amplitudes:

(4)

The voltage standing wave ratio 1s then equal to:

As p, the magnitude of , always falls in the range [0,1], the VSWR is always + l.

p=1+ (ZL/TO)/1-(ZL/ZO) - ZL-ZO/ ZL+ZO (6)

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
The experimental setup using equipment Transmission Line Trainer (TLT-B) is as shown in
figure (1)

TnANSFJ I 5S ION Al N E Aft A) N E It

Figure (1) :- Transmission Line Trainer (TLT-B)

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EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS:

Load Type Test Point Vp-p Reflection VSWR=l+p/l-p

Distance from (Volt) coefficient p =
Source ZL-Z O/
end(meter) ZL+TO
Open- circuit 0 2.0
ZL' 25 2.6
ZO=50D 50 3.0 1
75 3.6
100 4.2
Short— circuit 0 1.4
ZL= 0 25 1.3
ZO=50D 50 1.0 -1 0
75 0.7
100 0.3
Resistive - 0 1.7
circuit 25 1.9
ZL=40Ci 50 2.1 -0.11 0.801
Z =50D 75 2.4
100 2.7

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CALCULATION:
During Open- circuit, Reflection coefficient p = 1 and VSWR = m
During Short- circuit, Reflection coefficient p = -1 and VSWR - 0
During Resistive — circuit, Reflection coefficient p = -0.11 and VSWR = 0.801

DISCUSSION:
The graph obtained from the plot and the experimental observations shows that with the increase in Test
Point Distance from Source end, there is an increase in Vp-p, in the case of Open- circuit and Resistive —
circuit, while in the case of Short- circuit there is a decrease in Vp

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
TITLE:
Radiation pattern of dipole antenna.

OBJECTIVE:
a) To plot the radiation pattern of dipole antenna
b) To calculate the basic antenna parameters for the given antenna.

THEORY:

An antenna is a transition device or transducer, between a guided wave and a free space wave
and vice-versa. The antenna is a device which interfaces a circuit and space. In other words it can
be defined as a device that converts electrons into photons and vice-versa. To create radiation,
there must be a time varying current or an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge. So if charge is
moving with uniform velocity through a wire or conductor, which is curved, bend,
discontinuous, terminated or truncated: radiation will occur. Another way of radiation is form a
charge when it oscillates in time domain. The space surrounding an antenna is usually divided
into three regions. They are:

1) Reactive Near Field

2) Radiative Near Field (Fresnel)
3) Far Field (Fraunhofer)

Dipole antenna is single wire antenna. Radiation pattern from this antenna is based on
acceleration (or deceleration) of charges. In this expefiment, the radiation pattern in E plane
and H plane is to be plotted.
The antenna parameters that are of utmost importance are:
1) Directivity 2) Gain 3) Beamwidth.
Directivity of an antenna is equal to the maximum power density P( Qmax (Watts/ jjj2) to
its average value over a sphere, as observed in the far field of an antenna. Thus directivity
from pattern is

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 The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4z.
If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied. In that
case, the directivity (maximum direction) is
t/ max
D ——

Where D is maximum directivity

Umax is the maximum radiation intensity in w/unit solid
angle Uo is radiation pattern of isotropic source in w/unit solid
angle
Gain of an antenna is defined a efficiency times the directivity or directive gain. Thus,

Gain(G) = KFD

where K is efficiency factor (0 K < 1), dimensionless.

The gain G of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the directivity D due
to the ohmic losses in the antenna. In transmitting, these losses involve power fed to the antenna
which is not radlated but heats the antenna structure. A mismatch ln feeding the antenna also
reduces the gain. For folded antenna A=0.8, so maximum gain of dipole antenna is

0fdipo/e 41253 K

This is gain of the reference antenna. Now gain of the antenna under test (AUT) is

AUT)
c = " ^ fdipole
Pa ti l (ref .ant.)

Beamwidth is the angular separation (in degrees) between two symmetric points, measured on the
radiation pattern (main lobe) of the antenna. Generally there are two classification of beamwidth:
1) Half power beam width (HPBW) defined as the angular width between two points on the
radiation pattern where radiated power has fallen half of its maximum value.
2) Beam width between first nulls (FNBW) defined as the anp•u1ar width between first two
null points on radiation pattern.

Equipment Required:
a) Antenna transmitter, receiver.
b) Two dipole antennas, antenna tripod, connecting cables, polarization connector, stepped
pod, RLB.

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Experimental observations:
Table I: Data fOf E-field radiation pattern
Sl. No. Angle in degree Gain in dB Normalized gain in dB
1 0 51.3 -0.9
2 5 51.3 -0.9
3 10 51.2 -1.0
4 15 51.1 -1.1
5 20 50.8 -1.4
6 25 51.7 -0.5
7 30 51.5 -0.7
8 35 51.2 -1.0
9 40 50.9 -1.3
10 45 50.6 —1.6
11 50 50.4 -1.8
12 55 49.9 -2.3
13 60 49.3 —2.9
14 65 48.7 -3.5
15 70 47.9 -4.3
16 75 46.9 —5.3
17 80 45.9 -6.3
18 85 45.5 -6.7
19 90 44.6 -7.6
20 95 43.5 -8.7
21 100 42.2 -10.0
22 105 41.4 -10.8
23 110 41.0 —11.2
24 115 41.2 -11.0
25 120 42.0 -10.2
26 125 43.1 —9.1
27 130 44.5 -7.7
28 135 45.7 -6.5
29 140 46.7 -5.5
30 145 47.8 -4.4
31 150 48.8 -3.4
32 155 49.4 -2.8
33 160 50.0 -2.2
34 165 50.5 -1.7
35 170 50.7 -1.5
36 175 51.0 -1.2
37 180 51.2 —1.0
38 185 51.3 —0.9
39 190 51.4 —0.8
40 195 51.4 —0.8
41 200 51.4 -0.8
42 205 51.3 -0.9
43 210 50.9 -1.3
44 215 50.6 -1.6
45 220 50.4 -1.8
46 225 50.3 -1.9

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 47 230 50.1 -2.1
48 235 49.7 -2.5
49 240 49.2 -3.0
50 245 48.4 -3.8
51 250 47.3 -4.9
52 255 46.7 -5.5
53 260 46.0 -6.2
54 265 44.9 -7.3
55 270 43.2 -9.0
56 275 40.8 - l1.4
57 280 37.8 —14.4
58 285 36.1 —16.1
59 290 36.8 —15.4
60 295 38.5 —13.7
61 300 41.1 -11.1
62 305 43.5 -8.7
63 310 45.1 -7.1
64 315 46.5 -5.7
65 320 47.9 -4.3
66 325 49.0 -3.2
67 330 49.7 -2.5
68 335 50.4 -1.8
69 340 51.0 -1.2
70 345 51.4 -0.8
71 350 51.7 -0.5
72 355 51.9 -0.3
73 360 52.2 0.0
Calculation:
Calculate the mentioned antenna parameters from the plot and data obtained from the
experiment.

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 355 360 0 is Gain in dB
345 20
25 Normalized 8ai n in dB
335 30
330 35
325 40
320 45
315 50
310 55
305 60
65
295 70
290
285
280
275 90
270 95
265 100
260 105
255 110
250
245
240 125
235 130
230 135
225 140
145
215 150
21O 155
205 160
200 195 165
l90¿g 180 175 170

Discussion:
Comment on the radiation pattern obtained from the plot and the experimental observations.

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 Experiment No. 3

TITLE:
Beam width, gain and radiation pattern of a 3-element, 5-element and 7-element Yagi-Uda
antenna — Comparative study.
OBJECTIYE:
a) To plot the Radiation pattern of three, five, and seven element Yagi-Uda Antenna.

b) To compare different antenna parameters for aforementioned 3 types of antenna.

THEORY:
Yagi-Uda antenna is an array antenna which consists of one active element and a few parasitic
elements. The active element consists of a dipole whose length is Z/2. The parasitic elements
consist of reflector and a few directors. The length of the reflector is greater than k/2. It is located
behind the active element The length of each director is less than k/2 and they are placed in front
of active element. The spacing between each element is not identical and hence it can be
considered as a non-linear array. The number of directors 1n the antenna depends on the gain
required. The impedance of the active element is resistive. The impedance of the reflector is
inductive. The impedance of the directors are capacitive. A typical Yagi-Uda Antenna is shown
bellow.
Re0ector

DirecDon of maximum
radiabon

port Rod Feed Line

Figure 1: 3-e1ement Yagi-Uda Antenna
The optical equivalent of Yagi-Uda is shown below.

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 Figure 2: Optical Equivalence of Yagi-Uda antenna
Light from the point source got reflected back by the concave lens towards the direction of
convex lens. Convex lens on the other hand focuses the light towards its focal point. Thus light
intensity is measured to higher in the direction of convex lens than in the direction of concave
one. The increment in numbers of directors can be analogically understood with the increase in
light intensity and thus gain in a certain direction (towards the focal point of convex lens) of the
optical equivalence system. The radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda antenna is almost unidirectional
and gives a gain of about 7dB.
The antenna parameters that are of utmost importance are:
1) Directivity 2) Gain 3) Beamwidth.

Directivity of an antenna is equal to the maximum power density P( Qmax (Watts/ 2) to

its average value over a sphere, as observed in the far field of an antenna. Thus directivity
from pattern is

The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4x.
If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied. In that
case, the directivity (maximum direction) is
U
D ——
Uo
Where D is maximum directivity
Umax is the maximum radiation intensity in w/unit solid
angle to is radiation pattern of isotropic source in w/unit solid
angle
Gain of an antenna is defined a efficiency times the directivity or directive gain. Thus,
Gain(G) = K^D

where K is efficiency factor (0 K < 1), dimensionless.

The gain G of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the directivity D due
to the ohmic losses in ihe antenna. In transmitting, these losses involve power fed to the antenna
which is not radiated but heats the antenna structure. A mismatch in feeding the antenna also
reduces the gain. For folded antenna A=0.8, so maximum gain of folded dipole antenna is
G0fdipo/e 41253 K

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 This is gain of the reference antenna. Now gain of the antenna under test (AUT) is
[ AUT)
c = " ^ fdipole
Ph il s (ref .ant.)

Beamwidth is the angular separation (in degrees) between two symmetric points, measured on the
radiation pattern (main lobe) of the antenna. Generally there are two classification of beamwidth:
3) Half power beam width (HPBW) defined as the angular width between two points on the
radiation pattern where radiated power has fallen half of its maximum value.
4) Beam width between first nulls (FNBW) defined as the angular width between first two
null points on radiation pattern.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
c) Antenna transmitter, receiver.
d) One dipole antenna, one 3-element Yagi antenna, one 5-element Yagi antenna, one 7-
element Yagi antenna, antenna tripod, connecting cables, polarization connector, RLB,
stepper motor, RS-232 cable, computer software for plotting measured data.

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS:
Table I: Comparison data for E-field radiation pattern for 3, 5 and 7-element Yagi Uda antennas
Sl. No. Angle for Gain (dB) for 3 Gain (dB) for 5 Gain (dB) for 7
observation element Yagi- Uda element Yagi- Uda element Yagi- Uda
Antenna Antenna Antenna
1 0 87.7 87.1 90.3
2 10 86.8 86.3 88.8
3 20 85.3 83.8 87.1
4 30 83.9 79.7 83.7
5 40 81.5 74.8 79.4
6 50 79.1 72 76.7
7 60 77.1 69.1 75.3
70 74.1 68.2 68.9
9 80 72.5 71.3 69.1
10 90 71.4 68.9 67.6
11 100 69.7 70.7 67.5
12 110 69.4 69.6 68.9
i3 120 69.5 71.5 71.1
14 130 72.5 76.5 75.4
15 140 72.9 78.5 77.2
16 150 74.5 78.9 78.9
17 160 77.1 79 81.2
18 170 77.8 80.6 81.5
19 180 78.5 79.7 81.3
20 190 72.1 80 79.3
21 200 71.8 77.6 77.4
22 210 72.2 75.6 80.6
23 220 74.5 73.7 74.6

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 24 230 72.5 71.6 73.9
25 240 72.8 67.6 69.9
26 250 71.9 70 69.1
27 260 73.6 69.1 69
28 270 76.4 71.2 68.8
29 280 78.2 66.8 69.6
30 290 80.5 71.3 71.6
31 300 82.9 75 74.7
32 310 84.6 80.6 80.8
33 320 86.6 83.9 85.8
34 330 87.6 86.5 88.5
35 340 88.2 87.5 90.1
36 350 88.5 88 90.5
37 360 88 87.8 90.1

Calculation:
Calculate the mentioned antenna parameters from the data obtained for the experiment.

Discussion:
Comment on the radiation patterns thus obtained for changing the number of directors. You can
also put down any observations felt otherwise.

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 Radiation pattern study of a Pyramidal Horn antenna.

Objective:
c) To plot the radiation pattern of aperture antennas (Horn Antennas).
d) To calculate the basic antenna parameters for the given antenna.

Theory:
Aperture antennas are waveguide type of antennas. A waveguide,
when excited at one end and open at the second end, radiates. The
radiation coming out is weak due to the mismatch between the
space and the waveguide. The mouth of the waveguide is flared out
to improve the radiation efficiency, pattern and directivity.
Different types of horn antennas are:
1) Sectoral horn
2) Pyramidial horn
3) Conical horn
Sectoral hornantenna is again classified as:
l)Sectoral H-plane horn.
2)Sectoral E-plane horn.

For the experiment, Pyramidal horn antenna is used.

Equipments Required:
a) KJystron source, Horn antenna, VSWR meter
b) Coaxial cables, connecting probes
Experimental observations:

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 Power Normalize Normalize
Angle Angle Power (dB)
(dB) Power (dB) Power (dB)

0 —47 0 0 -46.5 0
2 —47 0 358 -46.5 0
4 —47.5 -0.5 356 -47 -0.5
6 —48.5 —1.5 354 -48 —1.5
8 —50 -3 352 -49 -2.5
10 —50.8 -3.8 350 -50 -3.5
12 —52.5 -5.5 348 -51.2 -4.7
14 —54 —7 346 —52.6 —d.1
16 —56.2 —9.2 344 -54.2 -7.7
18 —57.5 —10.5 342 -56 —9.5
20 —59.5 —12.5 340 -57 -10.5
22 —61.6 —14.6 338 -59.5 -13
24 —62.8 —15.8 336 -60.8 -14.3
26 —63.8 —16.8 334 -62 -15.5
28 —65.5 —18.5 332 -63.8 -17.3
30 —67 —20 330 -65 -18.5
32 —69 —22 328 -67.5 -21

34 —70 -23 326 -69 -22.5

Graph for Radiation of Horn Antenna:

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 (1952155)

Conclusion:
After completing this experiment I’m able to know about the radiation of Horn antenna and
verify it’s output by plotting and get the HPBW = 17°. Now if we have a look at the Dipole
antenna and Horn antenna and compares their Directivity we get :

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Directivity (D)=

Antenna Type Directivity

3 Elements Dipole 33.6612
(HPBW= 35°)
5 Elements Dipole 45.8166
(HPBW= 30°)

7 Elements Dipole 45.8166

(HPBW= 30°)
Horn Antenna 142.7439
(HPBW= 17°)

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