1 Construction of Haar Measure

Definition 1.1. A family G of linear transformations on a linear

topological space X is said to be equicontinuous on a subset K of X if
for every neighborhood V of the origin in X there is a neighborhood U
of the origin such that the following condition holds

if k1 , k2 ∈ K and k1 − k2 ∈ U, then G(k1 − k2 ) ⊆ V

that is T (k1 − k2 ) ∈ V for all T ∈ G.

1
Theorem 1.2 (Kakutani). Let K be a compact, convex subset of a
locally convex linear topological space X, and let G be a group of linear
mappings which is equicontinuous on K and such that G(K) ⊆ K.
Then there exists a point p ∈ K such that

T (p) = p ∀T ∈ G

Proof. By Zorn’s lemma, K contains a minimal non-void compact

convex subset K1 such that G(K1 ) ⊆ K1 . If K1 contains just one point
then the proof is complete. If this is not the case, the compact set
K1 − K1 contains some point other than the origin.

2
Thus, there exists a neighborhood V of the origin such that
V̄ 6⊇ K1 − K1 .
There is a convex neighborhood V1 of the origin such that αV1 ⊆ V for
|α| ≤ 1.
By the equicontinuity of G on the set K1 , there is a neighborhood U1 of
the origin such that if k1 , k2 ∈ K1 and k1 − k2 ∈ U1 then
G(k1 − k2 ) ⊆ V1 .

3
Because each T ∈ G is invertible, T maps open sets to open sets (open
mapping theorem) and T (A ∩ B) = T A ∩ T B for any sets A, B.
Since T is linear,

T convex-hull(A) = convex-hullT (A)

for any set A.

Because G is a group, G(GA) = GA for any set A.

4
Thus
U2 := convex-hull(GU1 ∩ (K1 − K1 ))
= convex-hull(G(U1 ∩ (K1 − K1 ))) ⊆ V1

is relatively open in K1 − K1 and satisfies GU2 = U2 6⊇ K1 − K1 . By

continuity, GŪ2 = Ū2 . Define

∞ > δ := inf{a : a > 0, aU2 ⊇ K1 − K1 } ≥ 1

and U := δU2 . For each 0 <  < 1,

(1 + )U ⊇ K1 − K1 6⊆ (1 − )Ū .

5
The family of relatively open sets {2−1 U + k}, k ∈ K1 , is a covering of
K1 . Let {2−1 U + k1 , . . . , 2−1 U + kn } be a finite sub-covering and let
p = (k1 + . . . kn )/n. If k is any point in K1 , then ki − k ∈ 2−1 U for
some 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Since ki − k ∈ (1 + )U for all i and all  > 0, we have
1 −1

p∈ 2 U + (n − 1) · (1 + )U + k.
n
1 1
For  = 4(n−1) , we have p ∈ (1 − 4n )U + k for each k ∈ K1 . Let
\  1

K2 = K1 ∩ (1 − )Ū + k 6= ∅.
4n
k∈K1

6
 1
Because (1 − 4n )Ū 6⊇ K1 − K1 , we have K2 6= K1 . The closed set K2
is clearly convex. Further since T (aŪ ) ⊆ aŪ for T ∈ G, we have

T (aŪ + k) ⊆ aŪ + T k for all T ∈ G, k ∈ K1 .

Recalling T K1 = K1 for T ∈ G, we find that GK2 ⊆ K2 , which

contradicts the minimality of K1 .

7
Theorem 1.3 (Haar Measure). Let G be a compact group. Let C(G)
be the space of continuous maps from G to C. Then, there is a unique
linear form
m : C(G) −→ C
having the following properties:
1. m(f ) ≥ 0 for f ≥ 0 (m is positive).
2. m(11) = 1 (m is normalized).
3. m(s f ) = m(f ) where s f is defined as the function

s f (g) = f (s−1 g) s, g ∈ G

(m is left invariant).
4. m(fs ) = m(f ) where fs (g) = f (gs) for s, g ∈ G (m is right
invariant).

8
Proof. For f ∈ C(G), let Cf denote the convex hull of all left translates
of f . The elements of Cf are finite sums of the form:
X X
g(x) = ai f (si x) ai > 0, ai = 1
finite finite

Clearly
||g|| = max{|g(x)| : x ∈ G} ≤ ||f ||
Thus all sets Cf (x) = {g(x) : g ∈ Cf } are bounded and relatively
compact in C. Since G is compact, f is uniformly continuous, namely
for all  > 0, ∃ a neighborhood V = V of the identity element e ∈ G
such that:
y −1 x ∈ V ⇒ |f (x) − f (y)| < 

9
Since (s−1 y)−1 s−1 x = y −1 x, we also have

|s f (y) − s f (x)| <  whenever y −1 x ∈ V

Since the functions g are convex combinations of functions of the form

sf ,
|g(y) − g(x)| <  whenever y −1 x ∈ V
Thus the set Cf is equicontinuous. By Ascoli’s theorem Cf is relatively
compact in C(G). Define the compact convex set Kf = C¯f in C(G).
The compact group G acts by left translations (isometrically) on C(G)
and leaves Cf and hence Kf invariant. By Kakutani’s Theorem 1.2,
there is a fixed point g of this action G in Kf . Such a fixed point
satisfies by definition

sg = g (∀s ∈ G) ⇒ g(s−1 ) = s g(e) = c (∀s ∈ G)

for some constant c.

10
By the definition of the set Kf , given any  > 0 there exists a finite set
{s1 , . . . sn } in G and ai > 0 such that
n
 n

X  X 
ai = 1 and c − ai f (si x) <  (∀x ∈ G) (1.1)
 
 
1 1

We first show that there is only one constant function Kf . Start the
same construction as above, only now using right translations of f (e.g.
we can apply the preceding construction to the opposite group G0 of G ,
or the function f 0 = f (x−1 )), obtaining a relatively compact set Cf0 with
compact convex closure Kf0 containing a constant function c0 . It will be
enough to show c = c0 .(all constants c in Kf must be equal to one
chosen constant c0 of Kf0 and conversely.)

11
There is certainly a finite combination of right translates which is close
to c0 namely
X X
0
|c − bj f (xtj )| <  ( for some tj ∈ G, bj > 0 with bj = 1)

Let us multiply this inequality by ai and put x = si to get

X
0
|c ai − ai bj f (si tj )| < ai (1.2)

Summing over i, we obtain

X X X
0
|c ai − ai bj f (si tj )| <  ai =  (1.3)
i,j

12
Operating symmetrically on Equation (1.1) (multiplying by bj , putting
x = tj and summing over j), we find:
X
|c − ai bj f (si tj )| <  (1.4)
i,j

Subtracting (or adding) Equation (1.3) from (1.4) we get |c − c0 | < 2.
Since  was arbitrary this completes the proof.
From now on the constant c in Kf will be denoted by m(f ). It is the
only constant function which can be approximated arbitrarily close with
convex combinations of left or right translates of f .

13
The following properties are obvious:
• m(11) = 1 since Kf = {1} if f = 1.
• m(f ) ≥ 0 if f ≥ 0.
• m(af ) = am(f ) for any a ∈ C (since Kaf = Kf ).
• m(s f ) = m(f ) = m(fs ) (by uniqueness)
The proof will be complete if we show that m is additive (hence linear).
Let us take f, g ∈ C(G) and start with Equation (1.1) above with
c = m(f ). Further let
X
h(x) = ai g(si x)

Since h ∈ Cg , we certainly have Ch ⊆ Cg whence Kh ⊆ Kg . But the set

Kg contains only one constant: m(h) = m(g).

14
We can write
X
|m(h) − bj h(tj x)| < 
P
for finitely many suitable tj ∈ G and bj > 0 with bj = 1. Using the
definition of h and m(h) = m(g), this implies
X
|m(g) − ai bj g(si tj x)| <  (1.5)
i,j

However multiplying Equation (1.1) by bj and replacing x by tj x and

summing over j we find
X
|m(f ) − ai bj f (si tj x)| <  (1.6)
i,j

15
Adding Equation (1.5) and (1.6), this implies
X
|m(f ) + m(g) − ai bj (f + g)(si tj x)| < 2
i,j

Thus the constant m(f ) + m(g) is in Kf +g . However note that the only
constant in this compact convex set is m(f + g). This completes the
proof.

16
1.1 Exercises

Exercise 1.4. Let m be the normalized Haar measure of a compact

group G. For f ∈ C(G) or L1 (G) show that m(f ) = m(f˜) where the
function f˜ is defined as the function f˜(x) = f (x−1 ). This equality is
usually written as Z Z
f (x)dx = f (x−1 )dx
G G

Hint: Observe that f → m(f˜) is a Haar measure on G and use the

uniqueness part of the Theorem on Haar measures, Theorem 1.3

17
Before stating the next exercise we need a definition
Definition 1.5 (Semidirect products). Let L be a group and assume
it contains a normal subgroup G and a subgroup H such that GH = L
and G ∩ H = {e}. That is, suppose one can select exactly one element
h from each coset of G so that {h} forms a subgroup H. If H is also
normal then L is isomorphic with the direct product G × H. If H fails to
be normal, we can still reconstruct L if we know how the inner
automorphisms ρh behave on G. Namely for xj ∈ G and hj ∈ H
(j = 1, 2), we have:

(x1 h1 )(x2 h2 ) = x1 h1 x2 h−1

1 h1 h2 = (x1 ρh1 (x2 )) h1 h2

18
The construction just given can be cast in an abstract form. Let G and
H be groups and suppose there is a homomorphism h → τh which
carries H onto a group of automorphisms of G, namely τh ◦ τh0 = τhh0
for h, h0 ∈ H. Let GsH denote the cartesian product of G and H. For
(x, h) and (x0 , h0 ) in GsH, define:

(x, h)(x0 , h0 ) = (x (τh (x0 )) , hh0 )

Then GsH is a group; it is called a semidirect product of G and H. Its

identity is (e1 , e2 ) where e1 and e2 are the identities of G and H
respectively. The inverse of (x, h) is (τh−1 (x−1 ), h−1 ). Let

G1 := {(x, e2 ) : x ∈ G}

and
H1 := {(e1 , h) : h ∈ H}

19
Then G1 is a normal subgroup of GsH and H1 is a subgroup. Since

(e1 , h) · (x, e2 ) · (e1 , h)−1 = (τh (x), e2 )

the inner automorphism ρ(e1 ,h) for (e1 , h) ∈ H1 reproduces the action τh
on G. Thus every semidirect product is obtained by the process
described in the previous paragraphs.

20
Exercise 1.6. Let G and H be compact groups and let GsHbe a
semidirect product of G and H . Suppose also that the mapping
(x, h) → τh (x) is a continuous mapping of G × H onto G . In particular,
each τh is a homeomorphism of G onto itself. Show that the semidirect
product GsHwith the product topology is a compact group. What is
the Haar measure on GsHin terms of the Haar measures on G and H ?

21
Exercise 1.7. Let On (R) be the group of n × n orthogonal matrices.
Suppose that Zij , 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ n are i.i.d. standard normal random
variables. Let U be the random orthogonal matrix with rows obtained by
applying the Gram-Scmidt process to the vectors (Z11 , . . . , Z1n ), . . .,
(Zn1 , . . . Znn ). Show that U is distributed according to the Haar
measure on On (R).

22
2 Representations, General Constructions

For E , a complex Banach space, let Gl(E) denote the group of

continuous isomorphisms of E onto itself. A representation π of a
compact group G in E is a homomorphism π:

π : G −→ Gl(E)

for which all the maps G → E defined as s → π(s)v (v ∈ E) are

continuous. The space E = Eπ in which the representation takes place
is called the representation space of π. A representation π of a group
G in a vector space E canonically defines an action (also denoted by π)

π :G×E −→ E
(s, v) −→ π(s)v

23
The definition requires this action to be separately continuous. The
action is then automatically globally continuous.
We say that a representation π is unitary when E =H , is a Hilbert
space and each operator π(s) (s ∈ G) is a unitary operator (i.e. each
π(s) is isometric and surjective). Thus π is unitary when E =H is a
Hilbert space and

π(s)∗ = π(s)−1 = π(s−1 ) (s ∈ G)

The representation π of G in E is said to be irreducible when E and

{0} are distinct and are the only two closed invariant subspaces under all
operators π(s) (s ∈ G) (topological irreducibility).

24
Two representations π and π 0 of the same group G are called
equivalent when the two spaces over which they act are G -isomorphic,
namely there exists a continuous isomorphism A : E → E 0 of their
respective spaces with

A(π(s)v) = π 0 (s)Av (s ∈ G, v ∈ E)

More generally, continuous linear operators A : E → E 0 satisfying all

commutation relations A(π(s)) = π 0 (s)A for all s ∈ G are called
intertwining operators or G -morphisms (from π to π 0 ) and their set is
a vector space denoted either by

HomG (E, E 0 ) or Hom(π, π 0 )

25
Proposition 2.8. Let π be a unitary representation of G in the Hilbert
space H . If H1 is an invariant subspace of H (with respect to all
operators π(s), s ∈ G), then the orthogonal space H2 = H1⊥ of H1 in
H is also invariant.

Proof. We need to show that if v ∈ H, v ⊥ H1 then π(s)v is also

orthogonal to H1 for all s in G . For any x ∈ H1 ,

hx, π(s)vi = hπ(s)∗ x, vi = hπ(s−1 )x, vi = 0

since by assumption π(s−1 )x also lies in H1 .

26
Proposition 2.9. Let π be a representation of a compact group G in a
Hilbert space H . Then there exists a positive definite hermitian form ϕ
which is invariant under the G -action, and which defines the same
topological structure on H .

Proof. By continuity of the mappings s → π(s)v, the mappings

s −→ hπ(s)v, π(s)wi (v, w ∈ H)

are also continuous (by continuity of scalar product in H × H). We can

thus define Z
ϕ(v, w) = hπ(s)v, π(s)wids
G
using the Haar integral.

27
It is clear that ϕ is hermitian and positive. Let us show that it is
non-degenerate and defines the same topology on H . Since G is
compact, π(G) is also compact in Gl(H) (with the strong topology). In
particular, π(G) is simply bounded and thus uniformly bounded (uniform
boundedness principle ≡ Banach-Steinhaus theorem). Thus, there exists
a positive constant M > 0 with

||π(s)v|| ≤ M ||v|| (∀s ∈ G, v ∈ H)

This implies

||v|| = ||π(s−1 )π(s)v|| ≤ M ||π(s)v|| ≤ M 2 ||v||

Thus
M −1 ||v|| ≤ ||π(s)v|| ≤ M ||v||

28
Squaring and Integrating over G , we find

M −2 ||v||2 ≤ ϕ(v, v) ≤ M 2 ||v||2

Thus ϕ(v, v) = 0 implies ||v|| = 0 and v = 0. Thus ϕ and || · ||2 induce

equivalent topologies (equivalent norms) on H . Invariance of ϕ comes
from the invariance of the Haar measure.
Z Z
ϕ(π(t)v, π(t)w) = hπ(st)v, π(st)wids = f (st)ds
ZG Z G

= ft (s)ds = f (s)ds = ϕ(v, w)

G G

This shows that π is ϕ-unitary as desired.

These propositions imply any representation of a compact group in a
Hilbert space is equivalent to a unitary one, and any finite dimensional
representation (the dimension of a representation is the dimension of its
rep. space) is completely reducible (direct sum of irreducible ones.)

29
Definition 2.10 (left translations). In any space of functions on G ,
define the left translations by
[l(s)f ](x) = f (s−1 x)
(If we do not want to identify elements of Lp (G) with functions or
classes of functions, we can simply extend translations from C(G) to
Lp (G) by continuity).
Thus we have
l(s) ◦ l(t) = l(st)
and we get homomorphisms
l : G → Gl(E), s → l(s)
with any E = Lp (G), 1 ≤ p < ∞.
Exercise 2.11. Check that these homomorphisms are continuous in the
representation sense.

30
The above were the left regular representations of G. The right
regular representations of G in the Banach space Lp (G) are defined
similarly with

[r(s)f ](x) = f (xs) (f ∈ Lp (G))

With this definition, one has r(s) ◦ r(t) = r(st).

One can also consider the biregular representations of l × r of G × G
in Lp (G) defined as

[l × r(s, t)f ](x) = f (s−1 xt) (f ∈ Lp (G))

and its restriction to the diagonal G → G × G, s → (s, s) which is the

adjoint representation of G . It is defined as

[Ad(s)f ](x) = f (s−1 xs) (f ∈ Lp (G))

The regular representations are faithful, i.e π(s) = 1 ⇔ s = e

31
Let π : G → Gl(E) and π 0 : G0 → Gl(E 0 ) be two representations. We
can define the external direct sum representation of G × G0 in E ⊕ E 0
by
π ⊕ π 0 (s, s0 ) = π(s) ⊕ π 0 (s0 ) (s ∈ G, s0 ∈ G0 )
When G = G0 , we can restrict this external direct sum to the diagonal
G of G × G, obtaining the usual direct sum of πand π 0

π ⊕ π0 : G → Gl(E ⊕ E 0 )
s → π(s) ⊕ π 0 (s)

The external tensor product π ⊗ π 0 as a representation of G × G0 in

E × E 0 is defined as

π ⊗ π 0 (s, s0 ) = π(s) ⊗ π 0 (s0 ) (s ∈ G, s0 ∈ G0 )

32
We assume the two spaces E ,E 0 are finite dimensional, thus this
algebraic tensor product is complete; in general some completion has to
be devised.
The usual tensor product of two representations of the same group
G is the restriction to the diagonal of the external tensor product
(G = G0 ) and is given by

π ⊗ π 0 (s) = π(s) ⊗ π 0 (s) (s ∈ G)

33
For a given finite dimensional representation π : G → Gl(E), define the
contragredient representation π̌. This representation acts in the dual
E 0 of E (namely the space of linear forms on E) and

π̌(s) = t π(s−1 ) (s ∈ G)

Since transposition reverses the order of composition of mappings,

namely t (AB) = t B t A, it is necessary to reverse the operations by
taking the inverse in the group. The above construction allows us to
conclude that π̌(st) = π̌(s)π̌(t) as is required for a representation.

34
Conjugate representation π: When E =H is a Hilbert space the
conjugate π̄ of π is a representation acting on the conjugate H̄ of H .
Recall that H̄ has the same underlying additive group as H , but with
the scalar multiplication in H̄ twisted by complex conjugation, namely
the external operation of scalars is given by

(a, v) −→ a · v = āv ( we use a dot in H̄ )

The inner product h·, ·i− of H̄ is defined as

hv, wi− = hv, wi = hw, vi

This suggests that an element v ∈ H is written as v̄ when we consider it

as an element of the dual Hilbert space H̄ . With this notation we have:

av = a · v (a ∈ C) and hv̄, w̄i− = hv, wi

35
The identity map H → H̄ , v → v̄ is an anti-isomorphism. The
conjugate of π is defined as π̄(s) = π(s) in H̄ . Since the (complex
vector) subspaces of H and H̄ are the same by definition, π and π̄ are
reducible or irreducible simultaneously. However it is important to
distinguish these two representations (in particular they are not always
equivalent). Any orthonormal basis (ei ) of H is also an orthonormal
P
basis of H̄ , but a decomposition v = vi ei in H gives rise to the
decomposition
X
v̄ = v̄i ēi (complex conjugate components in H̄ )

Thus the matrix representations associated with π and π̄ are complex

conjugate to one another.
Exercise 2.12. Show that when π is unitary and finite dimensional, the
contragredient π̌ and the conjugate π̄ of π are equivalent.

36
2.1 Exercises

Exercise 2.13. Show that the left and right representations l and r of a
group G (in any Lp (G) space) are equivalent.
Exercise 2.14. If πand π 0 are two representations of the same group
G (acting in respective Hilbert spaces H and H 0 ), show that the matrix
coefficients of π ⊗ π 0 (with respect to bases (ei ) in H and (e0j ) in H 0
and ei ⊗ e0j in H ⊗ H 0 ) are products of matrix coefficients of πand π 0
(Kronecker product of matrices).
Exercise 2.15. Let 11n denote the identity representation of the group
G in dimension n (the space of this identity representation is thus Cn
and 1 n (s) = idCn for all s ∈ G). Show that for any representation πof
G,
π ⊗ 1 n is equivalent to π ⊕ π ⊕ · · · ⊕ π (n terms)

37
Exercise 2.16. (Schur’s lemma) Let k be an algebraically closed field,
V a finite dimensional vector space over k and Φ any irreducible set of
operators in V (the only invariant subspaces, relatively to all operators
belonging to Φ are V and {0}). Then, if an operator A commutes with
all operators in Φ, A is a multiple of the identity operator (i.e. A is a
scalar operator).
Hint: Take an eigenvalue a in the algebraically closed field k and
consider A − a · I, which still commutes with all operators of Φ. Show
that the Ker(A − a · I)(6= {0}) is an invariant subspace.

38
3 Finite dimensional representations of
compact groups (Peter-Weyl theorem)
Theorem 3.17 (Peter-Weyl). Let G be a compact group. for any
s 6= e in G , there exists a finite dimensional irreducible representation
π of G such that π(s) 6= 11.

Proof. We start with two Lemmas.

Lemma 3.18. Let G be a compact group, k : G × G → C a continuous
function and K : L2 → C(G) the operator with kernel k, namely:
Z
(Kf )(x) = k(x, y)f (y)dy
G

Then K is a compact operator. Moreover if k(x, y) = k(y, x) identically

on G × G, K is a Hermitian as an operator from L2 (G) to C(G).

39
Lemma 3.19. Let K be a compact Hermitian operator (in some Hilbert
space H ). Then the spectrum S of K consists of eigenvalues. Each
eigenspace Hλ with respect to a non-zero eigenvalue λ ∈ S is finite
dimensional and the number of eigenvalues outside any neighborhood of
0 is finite. Moreover, S ⊆ R and

||K|| = sup{|λ| : λ ∈ S}

and the eigenspaces associated to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal, i.e

Hλ ⊥ Hµ for λ 6= µ in S

40
Proof of Theorem 3.17: Assume that s 6= e in G and take an open
symmetric neighborhood V = V −1 of e in G such that s ∈
/ V 2 . There
exists a positive continuous function f such that

f (e) > 0 , f (x) = f (x−1 ) = fˇ(x) , Supp(f ) ⊆ V

where Supp(f ) denotes the support of f , namely the complement of the

largest open set on which f vanishes. Consider the function ϕ = f ∗ f
defined as Z
ϕ(x) = f (y)f (y −1 x)dy
G

The support of ϕ is contained in V 2 and

/ V 2 ) , ϕ(e) = ||f ||2 > 0.

ϕ(s) = 0 (s ∈

41
We also see that l(s)ϕ 6= ϕ. But the operator K with kernel
k(x, y) = f (y −1 x) is compact (see Lemma 3.18) and the convergence in
quadratic mean of
X
f = f0 + fi , fi ∈ Ker(K − λi ) = Hi (λi ∈ Spec(K))

implies that
X X
ϕ = Kf = Kfi = λi fi
where
1
fi = Kfi ∈ Im(K) ⊆ C(G)
λi
where we have uniform convergence holding in the series above. Since
l(s)ϕ 6= ϕ, we must have l(s)fi 6= fi for at least one index i. However
the definition of the kernel k shows that

k(sx, sy) = k(x, y) = f (y −1 x) (s, x, y ∈ G)

42
The consequence of these identities is the translation invariance of all
the eigenspaces Hi of K. The left regular representation restricted to a
suitable finite dimensional subspace Hi (for any i, with l(s)fi 6= fi ) will
furnish an example of a finite dimensional representation π with
π(s) 6= e.
The corollaries of this theorem are numerous and important.
Corollary 3.20. A compact group is commutative if and only if all its
finite dimensional irreducible representations have dimension 1.

Proof. Exercise.

43
Corollary 3.21 (Peter-Weyl). Any continuous function on a compact
group is a uniform limit of (finite) linear combinations of coefficients of
irreducible representations.

Proof. Let π be a (finite dimensional) irreducible representation of the

compact group G and take a basis in the representation space of π in
order to be able to identify in π : G → Gln (C), the coefficients of π
being the continuous functions on G defined as

cij : g −→ cij (g) = hei , π(g)ej i

More generally if u and v are elements of H, we can define the

(function) coefficient cuv of π on G by

g −→ cuv (g) = hu, π(g)vi

44
These functions are obviously finite linear combinations of the previously
defined matrix coefficients cij . Introduce the subspace V (π) of C(G)
spanned by the cij , or equivalently by all cuv for v, u ∈ Hπ . Observe that
the subspaces of C(G) attached in this way to two equivalent
representations π and π 0 coincide namely, V (π) = V (π 0 ). Thus we can
form the algebraic sum (a priori this algebraic sum is not a direct sum)
M
AG = Vπ ⊆ C(G)

where the summation index π runs over all (classes of) finite
dimensional irreducible representations of G . The corollary can be
restated in the following form:
AG is a dense subspace of the Banach space C(G) in the
uniform norm

45
But this algebraic sum AG is a subalgebra of C(G) (the product of two
continuous functions being the usual pointwise product). The product of
the coefficients
cuv of π and γts of σ
is a coefficient of the representation π ⊗ σ (the coefficient of this
representation with respect to the two vectors u ⊗ s and v ⊗ t). Taking
π and σ to be finite dimensional representations of G , π ⊗ σ will be
finite dimensional, hence completely reducible and all its coefficients (in
particular the product of cvu and γts ) are finite linear combinations of
coefficients of (finite dimensional) irreducible representations of G .
This subalgebra AG of C(G) contains the constants, is stable under
complex conjugation (because π is irreducible precisely when π̄ is
irreducible) and separates points of G by the main Theorem 3.17. By
the Stone-Weistrass theorem the proof is complete.

46
3.1 Exercises

Exercise 3.22. Let G be a compact totally discontinuous group. Show

that AG is the algebra of all locally constant functions on G . (Observe
that a locally constant function on G is uniformly locally constant, hence
can be identified with a function on a quotient G/H where H is some
open subgroup of G . Conversely any finite dimensional representation
of G must be trivial on an open subgroup H of G . )
Exercise 3.23. Let G be any compact group. Show that AG consists of
the continuous functions f on G for which the left and right translates
of f generate a finite dimensional subspace of C(G). In particular if G1
and G2 are two compact groups, any continuous homomorphism
h : G1 → G2 has a transpose th : A2 → A1 where Ai = AGi , defined by
th (f ) = f ◦ h. A priori this transpose is a linear mapping
th : C(G2 ) → C(G1 ).

47
Exercise 3.24. Let G = Un (C) with its canonical representation π in
V = Cn . Since π is unitary, we can identify π̄ with the contragredient
of π : it acts in the dual V ∗ of V .
(a) Let Apq denote the space of linear combinations of coefficients of the
representation

π pq = π̄ ⊗p ⊗ π ⊗q in (V ∗ )⊗p ⊗ V ⊗q = Tqp (V )

Prove that the sum of the subspaces Apq of C(G)is an algebra A (show
p
that Apq Ars ⊆ Apr
qs ), stable under conjugation (show that A q
q = Ap ),
which separates the points of G . Using the Stone-Weierstrass theorem,
conclude that A is dense in C(G).
(b) Show that A = AG . (use part(a) to prove that any irreducible
representation of G appears as a subrepresentation of some π pq , or in
other words can be realized on a space of mixed tensors.)

48
Exercise 3.25. Let G be a closed subgroup of Un (C). Using the fact
that any finite dimensional representation of G appears in the restriction
of some finite dimensional representation of Un (C) (this is a
consequence of the theory of induced representations), show that G is a
real algebraic subvariety of Un (C). (The transpose of the embedding
G ,→ Un (C) is the operation of restriction on polynomial functions and
is surjective. Hence AG is a quotient of the polynomial algebra A of
Un (C). By the exercise 3.24, A is generated by the coordinate functions

Un (C) −→ C , x = (xij ) 7−→ xij

and their conjugates. )

49
4 Decomposition of the regular
representation

Lemma 4.1. Let V ⊆ L2 (G) be a finite dimensional subspace which is

invariant under the right regular representation of G. Then V consists of
(classes of) continuous functions and each f ∈ V can be written as

f (x) = Tr(Aπ(x)) for some A ∈ End(V )

Here π denotes the restriction of the right regular representation to V .

50
Proof. Take an orthonormal basis (χi ) of V and recall the coefficients cij
of π defined as
X j
π(x)χi = ci (x)χj , x∈G
j

i
P
For f = i a χi , we have
X X
π(x)f = i
a π(x)χi = ai cji (x)χj
i i,j

Hence
X
f (x) = [r(x)f ](e) = cji (x)aij (with aij = ai χj (e))
i,j

Thus,
f (x) = Tr(Aπ(x))
as claimed.

51
Let (π, V ) be any finite dimensional representation of the compact
group G. For any endomorphism A ∈ End(V), we define the
corresponding coefficient cA of π by cA (x) = T r(A · π(x)). The right
translates of these coefficients are easily identified as

[r(s)cA ](x) = cA (xs) = T r(Aπ(x)π(s))

= T r(π(s) · Aπ(x)) = T r(Bπ(x)) = cB (x)

where B = π(s) · A.
Consider the representation of G in End(V ) defined by

lπ (s)A = π(s) · A (s ∈ G, A ∈ End(V ))

The above computations show that A → cA is a G-morphism

c : End(V ) −→ C(G) ⊆ L2 (G)

(intertwining lπ and r.)

52
Suppose now that (π, V ) is an irreducible finite dimensional
representation of the compact group G.
Write L2 (G, π) for the image of End(V ) under the map c. Note that
the vector space L2 (G, π) only depends on the equivalence class of π.
The representation (lπ , End(V )) is equivalent to π ⊕ · · · ⊕ π (n times,
where n = dim(V )) and L2 (G, π) is r-invariant, so the restriction of r
to L2 (G, π) is equivalent to π ⊕ · · · ⊕ π (m times for some m ≤ n).
Thus, L2 (G, π) has dimension mn ≤ n2 .
If V 0 is a r-invariant subspace of L2 (G) such that the restriction of r to
V 0 is equivalent to π, then V 0 is a subspace of L2 (G, π) by Lemma 4.1.
Hence, L2 (G, π) is the sum of all subrepresentations of (L2 (G), r) which
are equivalent to π.

53
Definition 4.2. Let π be a finite dimensional irreducible representation
of a compact group G. The space L2 (G, π) consisting of the sum of all
subspaces of the right regular representation which are equivalent to π is
called the isotypical component of π in L2 (G).
Note that a function f ∈ L2 (G) belongs to L2 (G, π) precisely when the
right translates of f generate an invariant subspace (of the right regular
representation) equivalent to a finite multiple of π (that is, a finite
direct sum of subrepresentations equivalent to π).

54
We shall now prove that the dimension of an isotypical component
L2 (G, π) is exactly (dim π)2 .

55
Recall the G-morphism c : End(V) → L2 (G) , A 7→ cA := T r(Aπ). The
fact that cA 6= 0 for A 6= 0 will be deduced from a computation of the
quadratic norm of these coefficient functions. It is easier to start with
the case of rank ≤ 1 linear mappings. We use the isomorphisms

V̌ ⊗ V −→ End(V ) (V̌ = dual of V )

defined as follows: If u ∈ V̌ and v ∈ V , the operator corresponding to

u ⊗ v is
u ⊗ v : x → u(x)v = hu, xiv

56
The image of u ⊗ v consists of multiples of v, and u ⊗ v has rank 1
when u and v are non-zero (quite generally, decomposable tensors
corresponding to operators of rank ≤ 1). The coefficient cA with respect
to the operator A = u ⊗ v coincides with the previously defined
coefficient
cuv = hu, π(x)vi = cu⊗v (x)

57
Lemma 4.3. Let π and σ be two representations of a compact group G
and A : Vπ → Vσ be a linear mapping. Then
Z
A\ = σ(g)Aπ(g)−1 dg
G

is a G-morphism from Vπ to Vσ , namely A\ ∈ HomG (Vπ , Vσ ).

Proof. We have
Z Z
A\ π(s) = σ(g)Aπ(g)−1 π(s)dg = σ(g)Aπ(s−1 g)−1 dg

and replacing g by sg (i.e. s−1 g by g)

Z
A\ π(s) = σ(sg)Aπ(g)−1 dg = σ(s)A\

58
Thus the averaging operation (given by the Haar integral) of Lemma 4.3
leads to a projector

\ : Hom(Vπ , Vσ ) → HomG (Vπ , Vσ ) , A → A\

In particular when π and σ are disjoint, i.e HomG (Vπ , Vσ ) = 0, we

must have A\ = 0. This is certainly the case when π and σ are
non-equivalent irreducible representations (Schur’s lemma). Another
case of special interest is π = σ, finite dimensional and irreducible.
Schur’s lemma gives HomG (Vπ , Vσ ) = C and thus A = λA id is a scalar
operator.

59
Proposition 4.4. If π is a finite dimensional irreducible representation
of the compact group G in V , the projector

End(V ) → EndG (V ) = C id, A → A\ = λA id,

is given explicitly by the following formula:

Z
T r(A)
A\ = π(g)Aπ(g)−1 dg = idV
G dimV

Proof. Since we know a priori that the operator A\ is a scalar operator

λA id, we can determine the value of the scalar by taking traces in the
defining equalities
Z  Z
−1 −1


λA T r(idV ) = T r π(g)Aπ(g) dg = T r π(g)Aπ(g) dg
G G
Z
= T r(A)dg = T r(A)
G

60
Theorem 4.5 (Schur’s orthogonality relations). Let G be a compact
group and π, σ be a two finite dimensional irreducible representations of
G. Assume that π and σ are unitary. Then
(a) If π and σ are non-equivalent, L2 (G, π) and L2 (G, σ) are
orthogonal in L2 (G).
(b) If π and σ are equivalent, L2 (G, π) = L2 (G, σ) and the inner
product of the two coefficients of this space is given by
Z
hcuv , cxy i = hu, π(g)vihx, π(g)yidg = hu, xihv, yi/dimV
G

(c) More generally in the case π = σ, the inner product of general

coefficients is given by
Z
hcA , cB i = T r(Aπ(g))T r(Bπ(g))dg = T r(A∗ B)/dimV
G

61
Proof. (a) follows from Lemma 4.3 and (b) follows similarly from
Proposition 4.4. It will be enough to show how (b) is derived. For this
purpose, we consider the particular operators v̄ ⊗ y (v̄ ∈ V̄π , y ∈ Vπ )
and apply the result of the proposition
T r(v̄ ⊗ y) hv, yi
Z
π(g)(v̄ ⊗ y)π(g)−1 dg = idV = idV
G dim V dimV
Let us apply this operator to the vector u and take the inner product
with the vector x
hv, yi hu, xihv, yi
Z
−1
hx, π(g)(v̄ ⊗ y)π(g) u dgi = hx, ui =
G dimV dimV

62
But we have
π(g)(v̄ ⊗ y)π(g)−1 u = π(g)hv, π(g −1 )uiy
= hπ(g)v, uiπ(g)y = hu, π(g)viπ(g)y
hence
Z Z
hx, π(g)(v̄ ⊗ y)π(g)−1 u dgi = hu, π(g)vihx, π(g)yi dg = hcuv , cxy i
G G

as expected. Finally (c) follows from (b) by linearity since the operators
v̄ ⊗ y (of rank ≤ 1) generate End(V ).

In particular we see that if 0 6= A ∈ End(V ),

||cA ||2 = T r(A∗ A)/ dim V 6= 0
and the mapping c : End(V ) → L2 (G, π) is one-to-one and onto. The
dimension of this isotypical component is thus (dim V )2 .

63
Corollary 4.6. The Hilbert space L2 (G) is the Hilbert sum of all
isotypical components
M
2
L (G) = L2 (G, π)
d

The summation index π runs over equivalence classes of finite

dimensional irreducible representations of the compact group G.

64
Proof. We have already seen that the isotypical subspaces L2 (G, π) are
mutually orthogonal to each other. Thus our corollary will be proved if
we show that the algebraic sum
M
AG = L2 (G, π) ⊆ C(G)

is dense in the Hilbert space L2 (G).

But AG consists of coefficients of finite dimensional representations of G
(we have proved that all finite dimensional representations are
completely reducible), and the Peter-Weyl theorem 3.17 has shown that
AG is dense in C(G) for the uniform norm. A fortiori AG will be dense in
L2 (G) for the quadratic norm.

65
Corollary 4.7. Any (continuous, topologically) irreducible representation
of a compact group G in a Banach space is finite dimensional.

Proof. Let σ : G → Gl(E) be such a representation and let E 0 denote

the (topological) dual of E, namely E 0 is the Banach space of
continuous linear forms on E. By the Hahn-Banach theorem, for each
0 6= x ∈ E, there is a continuous linear form x0 ∈ E 0 with x0 (x) 6= 0. For
u ∈ E 0 and v ∈ E we can consider the corresponding coefficient of σ

cuv ∈ C(G) : g → cuv (g) = hu, σ(g)vi

66
Letting v vary in E, we get a linear mapping

Q : E → C(G) ⊆ L2 (G) , v → cuv

Since G is compact and the mappings g → σ(g)v are continuous (by the
definition of continuous representations), the sets σ(G)v are compact,
hence bounded in E (for each v ∈ E). By the uniform boundedness
principle (Banach-Steinhaus theorem), the set σ(G) of operators in E is
equicontinuous and bounded

sup ||σ(g)|| = M < ∞

g∈G

Hence

||Qv|| = sup |cuv (g)| = sup |hu, σ(g)vi|

g∈G g∈G

≤ ||u||E0 sup ||σ(g)v||E ≤ M ||u||E0 ||v||E

g∈G

67
This proves that Q is continuous from E into C(G) (equipped with the
uniform norm); it’s kernel is a proper and closed subspace F 6= E if
u 6= 0 (in this case u(v) 6= 0 for some v ∈ E and thus
cuv (e) = hu, vi = u(v) 6= 0).
Take v ∈ E with Q(v) 6= 0, and apply the orthogonal Hilbert sum
decomposition of the preceding corollary to Q(v).
X
Pπ (Qv) = Qv 6= 0

with

Pπ = orthogonal projector from L2 (G) onto L2 (G, π)

68
This implies that there is a π (finite dimensional irreducible
representation of G) with Pπ Qv 6= 0. For this π, we consider the
composite
Q Pπ
E −→ L2 (G) −→ L2 (G, π)
and its kernel which is a proper closed subspace Fπ 6= E. But Q is a
G-morphism (intertwining σ and the right regular representation)

cuσ (x)v (g) = hu, σ(g)σ(x)vi = cuv (gx)

which implies that Q(σ(x)v) = ρ(x)Q(v). Since Pπ is also a

G-morphism, the kernel Fπ of the composite Pπ Q must be an invariant
subspace of E. However E is irreducible by assumption so that
Fπ = {0}, and the composite Pπ Q is one-to-one (into):

dim E ≤ dim L2 (G, π) = (dim V )2

69
Definition 4.8. The dual G b of a compact group G is the set of
equivalence classes of irreducible representations of G.
Let π be an irreducible representation of the compact group G and,
$ = [π] its equivalence class ($ ∈ G).
b We say that π is a model of $
in this case i.e. when π ∈ $. The dimension of $ is defined as
dim (π) = dim (Vπ ) independently from the model chosen. Similarly
the isotypical component of $ (in the right regular representation) is
defined as L2 (G, $) = L2 (G, π) independently from the model π
chosen for $. By the finiteness of the dimension of the irreducible
representations of the compact group G namely Corollaries 4.6 and 4.7
M
2
L (G) = L2 (G, $)
d
$∈Ĝ

Instead of π ∈ $ ∈ G
b we shall write more simply π ∈ G.
b

70
Proposition 4.9. Let G be a compact group. Then the following
properties are equivalent
(i) The dual G b is countable.
(ii) L2 (G) is separable.
(iii) G is metrizable.

Proof. The equivalence between (i) and (ii) is obvious since L2 (G) is the
Hilbert sum of the finite dimensional isotypical components L2 (G, $)
over the index set G.
b Moreover G can always be embedded in a product

with U (π) ∼
Y
U (π) = Udim (π ) (C) (metrizable group)
G
b

71
Since any countable product of metrizable topological spaces is
metrizable, we see that (i)⇒(iii). Finally, the implication (iii)⇒(ii) is a
classical application of the Stone-Weirstrass theorem.

72
4.1 Exercises

Exercise 4.10. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and V̌ be its

dual and for u ∈ V̌ , u ∈ V denote by u ⊗ v the operator x → u(x)v as
defined in the beginning of this Section. Show
(a) T r(u ⊗ v) = hu, vi = u(v) (intrinsic definition of T r),
(b) (u ⊗ v) · (x ⊗ y) = hu, yix ⊗ v,
(c) t Au ⊗ Bv = B · (u ⊗ v) · A for A, B ∈ End(V ).
Moreover, identifying the dual of V̌ ⊗ V with the dual of V ⊗ V̌ in the
obvious canonical way show
(d) t (u ⊗ v) = v ⊗ u
Assume now that V is now a representation space for a group G. Using
(a) and (c) prove
(e) cu⊗v = cuv ( i.e. T r(π(x) · u ⊗ v) = hu, π(x)vi).

73
Exercise 4.11. Let G be a compact group and (π, V ) be a finite
dimensional representation of G. We denote by V G the subspace of
invariants of V :

V G = {v ∈ V : π(g)v = v ∀g ∈ G}
R
(a) Check that the operator P = G π(g)dg is a projector from V onto
V G . If π is unitary, P is the orthogonal projector on this subspace.
(b) For two finite dimensional representations π and σ of G, consider
Hom(Vπ , Vσ ) as a representation space of G via the action

g · A = π(g) · Aσ(g)−1

Observe that
Hom(Vπ , Vσ )G = HomG (Vπ , Vσ )
and deduce a proof of the Lemma 4.3 from this observation.

74
(c) Using the G-isomorphism

V̌π ⊗ Vσ −→ Hom(Vπ , Vσ )

with V̌π ⊗ Vσ being equipped with the representation π̌ ⊗ σ, conclude

that the projector \ : V̌π ⊗ Vσ → (V̌π ⊗ Vσ )G is given by
R
G
(π̌ ⊗ σ)(g)dg

75
5 Convolution, Plancherel formula and
Fourier Inversion

Definition 5.1 (Convolution). On a compact group G, the convolution

of two continuous functions f and g is defined as
Z
f ∗ g(x) = f (y)g(y −1 x)dy
G

Defining f ∗ (x) = f (x−1 ), we can also write

Z Z
f ∗ g(x) = f (xy)g(y −1 )dy = f (xy −1 )g(y)dy
ZG G

= f ∗ (yx−1 )g(y)dy = hr(x−1 )f ∗ , gi

G

76
The Cauchy-Schwartz inequality gives:

|f ∗ g(x)| ≤ ||f ∗ ||2 ||g||2 = ||f ||2 ||g||2

whence
||f ∗ g||∞ = sup |f ∗ g(x)| ≤ ||f ||2 ||g||2
x∈G

Consequently the convolution product can be extended by continuity

from C(G) to L2 (G) and by definition

∗ : L2 (G) × L2 (G) → C(G), , (f, g) → f ∗ g

is a continuous bilinear mapping still satisfying the above inequality. On

the other hand the preceding formulas show:

hf, gi = f ∗ ∗ g(e) , ||f ||22 = f ∗ ∗ f (e)

77
The convolution product for functions in L1 (G) can be defined by the
same integral formula, but this will not converge for every x ∈ G and the
result will no longer be continuous in general. To see what happens,
take f, g ∈ L1 (G). By Fubini’s theorem,
Z Z Z
|f ∗ g(x)|dx ≤ dx dy|f (y)g(y −1 x)|
Z Z
= dy|f (y)| dx|g(y −1 x)|
Z
= ||g||1 |f (y)|dy = ||f ||1 ||g||1 < ∞

78
These inequalities prove that f (y)g(y −1 x)dy converges absolutely for
R

almost all x ∈ G and the result f ∗ g ∈ L1 (G) satisfies:

||f ∗ g||1 ≤ ||f ||1 ||g||1

This convolution product is associative and L1 (G) is an algebra for

convolution. This algebra has no unit element in general (more precisely,
it has no unit when G is not discrete i.e. G is not finite). We shall see
that this algebra L1 (G) is commutative exactly when G is commutative.

79
5.1 Integration of representations

Assume that π is a unitary representation of the compact group G in a

Hilbert space H. We can “extend” π to a representation of L1 (G) by
the formula
Z
π 1 (f ) = f (x)π(x)dx (f ∈ L1 (G))
G

These integrals converge absolutely in norm: ||π(x)|| = 1 implies

Z Z
||f (x)π(x)||dx = |f (x)|dx = ||f ||1

Thus,
||π 1 (f )|| ≤ ||f ||1 (f ∈ L1 (G))

80
Although G is not really embedded in L1 (G) (when G is infinite), we
consider π 1 as an extension of π. Later on we shall even drop the index
1, writing π instead of π 1 . The association

π : G → Gl(H) ; π 1 : L1 (G) → End(H)

can even be made when π is a representation in a Banach space since

π(G) is always a bounded set of End(H): being weakly compact, it is
uniformly bounded.

81
5.2 Comparison of several norms

Let A ∈ End(V ) be any endomorphism in V . Take any orthonormal

basis (ei ) of V and assume that A is represented by the matrix (aij ) in
the basis (ei ). Obviously
X
2
||A||HS = |aij |2
i,j

defines a norm on End(V ) called the Hilbert-Schmidt norm (a priori this

norm depends on the choice of the orthonormal basis (ei )).

82
If B is another endomorphism, represented by the matrix (bij ) (in the
same basis), a small computation shows that
X
∗
T r(A B) = āij bij
ij

This shows that the Hilbert-Schmidt norm is derived from the

Hilbert-Schmidt inner product
X
hA, BiHS = āij bij = T r(A∗ B)
i,j

on End(V ), and is in particular independent from the choice of the

orthonormal basis (ei ) of V .

83
Return to a compact group G and a unitary irreducible representation
π∈G b in some finite dimensional Hilbert space V = Vπ . The spaces

V̌ ⊗ V , End(V ) , L2 (G, π)

are G-isomorphic. We shall give explicit isomorphisms between them

keeping track of the various norms involved.

84
We have introduced the coefficients

cuv (x) = hu, π(x)vi (u ∈ V̌ , v ∈ V )

and the more general coefficients (linear combinations of the preceding

ones)
cA (x) = T r(Aπ(x)) (A ∈ End(V ))
with the relation
cA = cuv for A=u⊗v

85
For fixed u ∈ V , the linear mapping

cu : V → L2 (G, π) , v → cuv

is a G-morphism form π to r, the right regular representation.

86
Similarly if v ∈ V is fixed,

l(s)cuv (x) = cuv (s−1 x) = hu, π(s−1 )π(x)vi

= ht π(s−1 )u, π(x)vi = cπ̌ (s)u (x)
v

shows that the linear mapping

cv : V̌ → L2 (G, π) , u → cuv

is a G-morphism from π̌ to l (the left regular representation). Summing

up,
c : V̌ ⊗ V → L2 (G, π) , u ⊗ v → cuv
is a π̌ ⊗ π to l × r (biregular representation) G × G-morphism.

87
Note that

[l × r(s, t)]cA (x) = cA (s−1 xt) = T r(Aπ(s−1 )π(x)π(t))

= T r(π(t)Aπ(s)−1 π(x)) = cπ (t)Aπ (s)−1 (x)

So, the corresponding action of G × G on End(V ) is defined by

(s, t) · A = π(t)Aπ(s)−1

88
In the following diagram of G-morphisms, V̌ ⊗ V is equipped with the
inner product
hu ⊗ v, x ⊗ yi = hu, xihv, yi
(We use the Riesz isomorphism between V̌ and V̄ ). This inner product
corresponds to the Hilbert-Schmidt norm

hu ⊗ v, x ⊗ yi = T r((u ⊗ v)∗ x ⊗ y)

89
90
Schur’s orthogonality relations (Theorem 4.5) say
1
hcuv , cxy i = hu, xihv, yi (dim π = dim V ),
dim π
and hence
√ −1
c:u⊗v → cuv is dim π × an isometry map

91
The inverse of c is nearly the extension π 1 of π. Let us compute
π 1 (cuv ). For this purpose, we apply this operator to a vector y and
compute the inner product of the result with a vector x
Z
hx, π 1 (cuv )yi = cuv (s)hx, π(s)yids = hc̄uv , cxy i

This quantity will vanish when π̄ is not equivalent to π.

92
However, Schur’s relations give

hx, π 1 (c̄uv )yi = hcuv , cxy i = (dim π)−1 hu, xihv, yi

= (dim π)−1 hx, hv, yiui = hx, (dim π)−1 v ⊗ u(y)i

This implies
π 1 (c̄uv ) = (dim π)−1 v ⊗ u
and by linearity
π 1 (c̄A ) = (dim π)−1 A∗

93
Since the c̄A are the coefficients of π̄, we see that on L2 (G, π̄),
f → π 1 (f ) is of the form
1
 √ −1
π L2 (G,π̄ ) = dim π × an isometry map

The composite:
conj
End(V ) → L2 (G, π) −→ L2 (G, π̄) → End(V̌ )
A → cA c̄A = f → π 1 (f )
can be identified with

(dim π)−1 · (A → A∗ ) = (dim π)−1 × an isometry map

94
NOTE: From now on, we write π 1 (f ) as simply π(f ).
Theorem 5.2 (Plancherel theorem). Let G be a compact group. For
π ∈ Ĝ denote by Pπ : L2 (G) → L2 (G, π), the orthogonal projector on
the isotypical component of π, and for f ∈ L2 (G), let fπ = Pπ (f ) so
that the series Ĝ fπ converges to f in L2 (G). Then
P

(a) fπ (x) = dim π · T r(π(fˇ)π(x)). Here fˇ(x) = f (x−1 )

(b) ||fπ ||22 = dim π · ||π(fˇ)||2HS (Hilbert-Schmidt norm on RHS).
2
(c) ||f ||2 = π ∈Ĝ dim π · ||π(f )||22
P
(Parseval equality)

95
Proof. The orthogonal projection fπ of f in L2 (G, π), is the element
cA of this space having the same inner product with all elements cB of
L2 (G, π). Let us determine A as a function of f . We must have

hcB , f i = hcB , fπ i = hcB , cA i = (dim π)−1 T r(B ∗ A)

But
Z Z
hcB , f i = cB (x)f (x)dx =T r(Bπ(x))f (x)dx
Z Z
= T r(π(x−1 )B ∗ )f (x)dx = T r(B ∗ π(x−1 )f (x)dx)

= T r(B ∗ π(fˇ))

Comparing the two results obtained for all B, we indeed find

A = (dim π) · π(fˇ)

96
This gives

fπ (x) = cA (x) = T r(Aπ(x)) = (dim π) · T r(π(fˇ)π(x))

as asserted in part (a). Moreover Schur’s relations show that

||fπ ||22 = ||cA ||22 = (dim π)−1 ||A||2HS = (dim π) · ||π(fˇ)||2HS

Thus (b) is proved and (c) follows from the observation that f and fˇ
have the same L2 (G): we can interchange f and fˇ. Also observe that
the dimensions of π and π̌ are the same.

97
5.3 Exercises

Exercise 5.3. Let G be a compact group, f, g ∈ L1 (G). For any

representation σ of G (in a Banach space), prove

σ(f ∗ g) = σ(f ) · σ(g)

If σ is unitary, prove also σ(f ) = σ(f ∗ ). (recall that f ∗ (x) = f (x−1 ))

Exercise 5.4. Show that the “extensions” of the regular representations
of a compact group G are given by

l(f )(ϕ) = f ∗ ϕ , r(g)(ϕ) = ϕ ∗ ǧ

where f, g ∈ L1 (G) and ϕ ∈ L2 (G) (recall that ǧ(x) = g(x−1 )).

Conclude from this that

||f ∗ ϕ||2 ≤ ||f ||1 ||ϕ||2

98
Moreover using exercise 5.3 deduce the associativity
(f ∗ g) ∗ ϕ = f ∗ (g ∗ ϕ)
Here f, g ∈ L1 (G) and ϕ ∈ L2 (G) or all three functions in C(G). Also
check that for any representation σ of G
σ(l(x)f ) = σ(x)σ(f ) , σ(r(x)f ) = σ(f )σ(x−1 )
Exercise 5.5. Let G be a compact group and denote by
L1inv = L1inv (G) the closure of L1 (G) of the subspace of continuous
functions f satisfying f (xy) = f (yx) (or equivalently f (y −1 xy) = f (x))
for all x, y ∈ G. Show that L1inv is contained in the center of L1 (G) (as
convolution algebra: prove that f ∗ g = g ∗ f for f, g ∈ L1inv ). For any
irreducible representation π : G → Gl(V ) prove that
π(f ) = (dim π)−1 hχ, f i1V (f ∈ L1inv )
R
where χ(g) = T r(π(g)) and hχ, f i = χ(g)f (g)dg.

99
Hint: Use Schur’s lemma to prove that π(f ) is a scalar operator and
then take traces to determine the value of the constant in this multiple
of the identity.
Exercise 5.6. Let σ : G → Gl(V ) be a unitary representation of a
compact group G. Check that σ(1) = P (here 1 is the constant
function 1 in L1 (G)) is the orthogonal projector V → V G on the
subspace of G-invariants of V . (Hint: show that 1 ∗ 1 = 1 and 1∗ = 1 in
1
R
L (G); more generally 1 ∗ f = f ∗ 1 is the constant function f (x)dx.)
Exercise 5.7. Show that the “extended” left regular representation

l = l1 : L1 (G) → End(L2 (G))

has trivial kernel {0}. (Hint: Let 0 6= f ∈ L1 (G) and construct a

R
sequence (gn ) ⊆ C(G) with gn ≥ 0, gn (x)dx = 1 and
l(f )(gn ) = f ∗ gn → f 6= 0). Conclude that if 0 6= f ∈ L1 (G), there
exists a π ∈ Ĝ such that π(f ) 6= 0. (continued on the next page)

100
Finally prove that

L1 (G) commutative ⇐⇒ G commutative

Exercise 5.8. Let G be a compact group, π ∈ Ĝ and consider the

adjoint representation of G in End(V ) (V = Vπ ) defined by the
following composition
Ad: G −→ G×G −→ End(V )
s −→ (s,s) −→ (A → π(s)Aπ(s)−1 )
(s,t) −→ (A → π(t)Aπ(s)−1 )
Prove that the multiplicity of the identity representation in this adjoint
representation is 1. (This identity representation acts on the subspace of
scalar operators: Schur’s lemma).

101
Exercise 5.9. The decomposition of the biregular representation of a
compact group G in L2 (G) gives the decomposition of the left (resp.
right) regular representation simply by the composition with

i1 : G → G×G (resp. i2 : G → G×G

s → (s, e) s → (e, s))
Conclude that
l ∼
= ˆ π̌ ⊗ 1
⊕ ∼
= ˆ
⊕dim π · π̌ = dim π · π
r ∼
= ˆ ⊗π
⊕1 ∼
= ˆ
⊕dim π·π

102
6 Characters and Group algebras

Let (π, V ) be a finite dimensional representation of a compact group G.

The character χ = χπ of π is the (complex valued) continuous function
on G defined by
χ(x) = T r(π(x))
Note that this is the function cA for A = idV ∈ End(V ).
When dim (V ) = 1, χ and π can be identified. In this case χ is a
homomorphism.
Quite generally, since the trace satisfies the identity T r(AB) = T r(BA),
we see that the characters of two equivalent representations are equal.

103
Moreover, characters satisfy

χ(xy) = χ(yx) as χ(y −1 xy) = χ(x) (x, y ∈ G)

Thus characters are invariant functions

χ ∈ Cinv = {f ∈ C(G) : f (y −1 xy) = f (x), x and y ∈ G}

Observe that

L1inv = closure of C(G) in L1 (G)

L2inv = closure of C(G) in L2 (G)

Invariant functions are also called central functions, they belong to the
center L1 (G) with respect to convolution.

104
Still quite generally, the character of the contragredient π̌ of π is given
by

χπ̌ (x) = T r(π̌(x)) = T r(t π(x−1 )) = T r(π(x−1 )) = χ(x−1 )

hence χπ̌ = χ̌
When π is unitary, π(x−1 ) = π(x)∗ (π̌ is equivalent to π̄) and χ̌ is the
complex conjugate of χ.

105
One can also check without difficulty that for two finite dimensional
representations π and σ of G

χπ ⊕σ = χπ + χσ , χπ ⊗σ = χπ · χσ

106
When π is irreducible, Schur’s lemma shows that the elements z in the
center Z of G are mapped to scalar operators by π: π(z) = λz idV so
that χ(z) = λz dim (V ). Thus the restriction of (dim V )−1 χ to the
center Z is a homomorphism

λ : Z −→ C×

This is the central character of π: it is independent of the special

model chosen in the equivalence class of π.
In particular if λ(z) is not contained in {±1} , π and π̄ are not
equivalent: their central characters are different.
Also observe that χ(e) = dim (V ) (= dim π)

107
Proposition 6.1. Any continuous central function f ∈ Cinv on a
compact group G is a uniform limit of linear combinations of characters
of irreducible representations of G.

108
Proof. Let  > 0. By the Peter-Weyl theorem 3.17, we know that there
is a finite dimensional representation of (σ, V ) and a A ∈ End(V ) with

|f (x) − T r(Aσ(x))| <  (x ∈ G)

In this representation, replace x by one of its conjugates yxy −1 :

|f (x) − T r(Aσ(yxy −1 ))| = |f (x) − T r(σ(y −1 )Aσ(y)σ(x))| < 

Integrating over y, we have

Z
|f (x) − T r(Bσ(x))| <  where B = σ(y −1 )Aσ(y)dy

By the invariance of the Haar measure, the operator B commutes with

all the operators σ(x).

109
Hence, if we decompose σ into isotypical components
∼ ∼
M M
σ= nπ π = π ⊗ 1nπ
π π
the operator B will have the form
M
B= iddim π ⊗ Bπ

and

= σ(x)B ∼
M
Bσ(x) = π ⊗ Bπ
X
T r(Bσ(x)) = aπ χπ (x) (aπ = T r(Bπ ))

This shows that

X
|f (x) − aπ χπ (x)| < 
finite

110
Theorem 6.2. Let π and σ be two finite dimensional representations of
a compact group G with respective characters χπ and χσ . Then

hχπ , χσ i = dim HomG (Vπ , Vσ )

111
Proof. By Lemma 4.3, we know that the integral
Z
π̌(x) ⊗ σ(x)dx

is an expression for the projector

\ : V̌π ⊗ Vσ −→ (V̌π ⊗ Vσ )G
Hom(Vπ , Vσ ) −→ HomG (Vπ , Vσ )

The dimension of the image space is the trace of this projector. Thus
Z
hχπ , χσ i = χπ (x)χσ (x)dx = dim HomG (Vπ , Vσ )

112
Corollary 6.3. Let π be a finite dimensional representation of G. Then
p
π is irreducible ⇐⇒ ||χπ ||2 = hχπ , χπ i = 1

Corollary 6.4. Let π, σ ∈ Ĝ. Then

hχπ , χσ i = δπσ (= 1 if π is equivalent to σ, 0 otherwise)

113
Corollary 6.5. Let σ be a finite dimensional representation of G and
L
σ = I nπ π (summation over a finite subset I ⊆ Ĝ) be a
decomposition into irreducible components. Then
(a) nπ = hχπ , χσ i is well determined
2
P 2
(b) ||χσ || = I nπ

Proof. Let Vσ = (Vτ ⊗ Cnτ ). Since each G-morphism Vσ → Vπ

L

must vanish on all isotypical components Vτ ⊗ Cnτ where τ is not

equivalent to π, we have

HomG (Vσ , Vπ ) = HomG (Vπ ⊗ Cnπ , Vπ )

= Cnπ ⊗ HomG (Vπ , Vπ ) = Cnπ

This proves assertion (a). Moreover (b) follows from Pythagoras

theorem and Corollary 6.3

114
Corollary 6.6. The set of characters (χπ )π ∈Ĝ is an orthonormal basis
of the Hilbert space L2 (G)inv . Every function f ∈ L2 (G)inv can be
expanded in the series
X
f= hχπ , f iχπ (convergence in L2 (G))
Ĝ

115
Theorem 6.7. Let G be a compact group. For π ∈ Ĝ, let Pπ denote
the projector L2 (G) → L2 (G, π) onto the isotypical component of π (in
the right regular representation). Then Pπ is given by the convolution
with the normalized character ϑπ = dim π · χπ
Pπ : f → fπ = Pπ f = f ∗ ϑπ

Proof. We have already seen that

fπ (x) = dim π · T r(π(fˇ)π(x))
Thus
Z 
fπ (x) = dim π · T r f (y −1 )π(y)π(x)dy
Z
= dim π · f (y)T r(π(y −1 x))dy = f ∗ ϑπ (x)

116
Exercise 6.8. Let H1 and H2 be two Hilbert spaces. Prove that for any
operator A in H1 ⊗ H2 which commutes to all operators T ⊗ 1
T ∈ End(H1 ) can be written in the form 1 ⊗ B for some B ∈ End (H2 ).
(Hint: Introduce an orthonormal basis (ei ) of H1 and write A as an
matrix of blocks with respect to this basis
X
A(ej ⊗ x) = ei ⊗ Aij x (Aij ∈ End(H2 )).
i

Using the commutations (Pj ⊗ 1)A = A(Pj ⊗ 1) where Pj is the

orthogonal projector on Cej , conclude that Aij = 0 for i 6= j. Finally,
using the commutation relations of A with the operators Uji ⊗ 1

Uji (ei ) = ej , Uji (ek ) = 0 for k 6= i,

conclude that Aii = B ∈ End(H2 ) is independent of i.)

117
Exercise 6.9. Check that the formula
X
f= hχπ , f iχπ

coincides with the Fourier inversion formula.

118
7 Induced representations and
Frobenius-Weil reciprocity

Suppose that K is a closed (hence compact) subgroup of G.

Recall that K\G is the space of right cosets Kg, g ∈ G.

119
Suppose for the moment that K\G is finite, i.e.
K\G = {Kg1 , . . . , Kgn } for some n so that G is the disjoint union of
Kg1 , . . . , Kgn .
For each s ∈ G we have an associated permutation π(s) of {1, . . . , n}
that sends i to the unique j with Kgi s−1 = Kgj .
We can define an representation ρ of G on Cn by

ρ(s)(a1 , . . . , an ) := (aπ −1 (1) , . . . , aπ −1 (n) )

120
Equivalently, if we think of Cn as the space of functions from K\G into
C, then, for s ∈ G and a coset L ∈ K\G,

ρ(s)f (L) = f (Ls)

The space of functions from K\G into C can be identified with the
space of functions from G to C that are constant on right cosets of K,
that is, with the space of functions f : G → C such that

f (kx) = f (x), k ∈ K, x ∈ G

Note that ρ is just the right regular representation for G restricted to

this subspace.
Can we build other representations of G by similar constructions?

121
We return to the case where K is an arbitrary closed subgroup of G (so
that K\G is not necessarily finite).

122
 p
The canonical projection G → K\G pushes the Haar measure ds on G
forward to a measure dẋ on K\G characterized by
Z Z
f (ẋ)dẋ = f (p(s))ds (f ∈ C(K\G))
K\G G

Lemma 7.1. Negligible sets in K\G (relative to the measure dẋ) are
those sets N for which p−1 (N ) is negligible in G (relative to the Haar
measure ds of G). Moreover, for any f ∈ C(G) (or by extension for any
f ∈ L1 (G))
Z Z  Z
f (kx) dk dẋ = f (x)dx
K\G K G

In particular, the measure dẋ is invariant under left translations from G

in K\G.

Proof. Exercise.

123
Now let (σ, Vσ ) be a unitary representation of K. We define the Hilbert
space L2 (G, Vσ ) as the completion of the space C(G, Vσ ) of continuous
functions G → Vσ with the norm
Z
||f ||2 = ||f (x)||2 dx
G

The norm under the integral sign is computed in Vσ .

Note that L2 (G, Vσ ) is a Hilbert space with inner product
Z
hf, gi = hf (x), g(x)idx
G

The inner product under the integral sign is computed in Vσ .

124
The elements

f ∈ L2 (G, Vσ ) such that f (kx) = σ(k)f (x) for all k ∈ K

constitute a subspace H ⊆ L2 (G, Vσ ).

Since ||f (x)|| only depends on the coset Kx of x for f ∈ H (σ is
assumed to be unitary), we can take the norm and inner product on H
to be defined by
Z
||f ||2H = ||f (ẋ)||2 dẋ
K\G
Z
hf, giH = hf (ẋ), g(ẋ)i dẋ
K\G

As before, the norm and the inner product under the integral sign are
computed in Vσ .

125
Note that if f ∈ H, r is the analogue of the right regular representation
of G on L2 (G, Vσ ) (that is, (r(s)h)(x) = h(xs) for h ∈ L2 (G, Vσ ) and
s, x ∈ G) and k ∈ K, then

(r(s)f )(kx) = f (kxs) = σ(k)f (xs) = σ(k)(r(s)f )(x),

so that r(s)f ∈ H also. That is, H is r-invariant.

The induced representation ρ = IndG K (σ) is by definition the “right
regular representation” r of G restricted to H ⊆ L2 (G, Vσ ).
The induced representation is unitary.
For example, if σ is the identity representation of K (in dimension 1),
Vσ = C, L2 (G, Vσ ) = L2 (G), then H is simply L2 (K \ G) and we get
the construction considered at the start of this section.

126
Write H G for the G-fixed elements in H (with respect to the action
given by ρ).
As before, write VσK for the K-fixed elements of Vσ (with respect to the
action given by σ).
Proposition 7.2. (1) The linear map H G → VσK given by f → f (e) is
an isomorphism of vector spaces.
(2) Let (π, Hπ ) be a unitary representation of G. Then there is an
equivalence
∼
π ⊗ IndG G
K (σ) → IndK ( π|K ⊗ σ) : ˆ →H
Hπ ⊗H e

given by v ⊗ f → ϕ with ϕ(x) = [π(x)v] ⊗ f (x)

127
Proof. The elements of H G are certainly functions f : G → Vσ which
are (equal nearly everywhere to a) constant

f (x) = f (ex) = r(x)f (e) = f (e)

In particular,
f (k) = f (e), k∈K
By definition of H, f ∈ H implies

f (k) = f (ke) = σ(k)f (e), k∈K

Thus, f (e) = σ(k)f (e) for all k ∈ K and so f (e) ∈ VσK , giving part (1)
of the proposition.

128
To check part (2), let us first show that the functions ϕ (as defined in
the proposition) belong to the space of the induced representation
IndG
K ( π|K ⊗ σ)

ϕ(kx) = [π(kx)v] ⊗ f (kx) = [π(k)π(x)v] ⊗ [σ(k)f (x)]

= [[ π|K ⊗ σ](k)](ϕ(x))

129
Next we show that v ⊗ f → ϕ is a G-morphism (intertwining π ⊗ ρ) and
ρ̃ = IndG
K ( π|K ⊗ σ), which we recall is the restriction of the the right
regular representation to H̃. Note that

[π ⊗ ρ](s)(v ⊗ f ) = [π(s)v] ⊗ [ρ(s)f ]

is mapped to the function on G given by

x 7→ [π(x)π(s)v] ⊗ [(ρ(s)f )(x)] = [π(xs)v] ⊗ f (xs)

= (ρ̃(s)ϕ)(x)

as desired.

130
Now we check that v ⊗ f → ϕ is isometric and hence injective. If (ei ) is
an orthonormal basis of Hπ , every element of Hπ ⊗Hˆ can be written
||fi ||2 < ∞, and such an element has its
P P
uniquely as ei ⊗ fi with
P
image the function ϕ = ϕi given by
X
x 7→ π(x)ei ⊗ fi (x)

The norm of ϕ is
Z Z X
||ϕ||2H̃ = 2
||ϕ(x)|| dẋ = || π(x)ei ⊗ fi (x)||2 dẋ
K\G K\G
Z X XZ
= ||fi (x)||2 dẋ = ||fi (x)||2 dẋ
K\G K\G
X X
= ||fi ||2H = || ei ⊗ fi ||2

The third equality is justified by the fact that π(x)ei is also an

orthonormal basis of Hπ , since π is unitary.

131
Finally to see that v ⊗ f → ϕ is onto, it is enough to see that all
continuous functions Φ ∈ H̃ belong to the image. The function Φ has a
unique expansion in the orthonormal basis (π(x)ei ) of Hπ :
X
Φ(x) = π(x)ei ⊗ fi (x) (fi (x) ∈ V )
X
2
||Φ(x)|| = ||fi (x)||2

Therefore
X
π(kx)ei ⊗ fi (kx) = Φ(kx) = [π(k) ⊗ σ(k)]Φ(x)
X
= [π(k)π(x)ei ] ⊗ [σ(k)fi (x)]

The uniqueness of the decomposition gives fi (kx) = σ(k)fi (x). Thus,

fi ∈ H, as required.

132
Note that if we consider C as a trivial G- or K- space, then

HomG (C, H) ∼
= HG

and
HomK (C, Vσ ) ∼
= VσK
(We identify A ∈ HomG (C, H) with the image h ∈ H of 1 ∈ C and
observe that the assumption that A intertwines with the induced
representation H is equivalent to the assumption that ρ(g)h = h for all
g ∈ G. A similar comment holds for HomK (C, Vσ ).)
Therefore, the isomorphism of part (1) of the preceding proposition can
be written as
∼
HomG (C, H) → HomK (C, Vσ )
This form admits the following generalization.

133
Theorem 7.3 (Frobenius-Weil). Let (π, Hπ ) be a unitary
representation of a compact group group G and (σ, Vσ ) a unitary
representation of one of its closed subgroups K. Put ρ = IndG
K (σ) and
H = Hρ . Then there is a canonical isomorphism
∼
MorG (Hπ , Hρ ) → MorK (Hπ , Vσ )

where we take for morphisms between two representations spaces, the

Hilbert-Schmidt morphisms. (If our spaces are finite dimensional, then
MorG is what we have written before as HomG and, similarly, MorK is
just HomK .)

134
Proof. We have seen in finite dimensions that in the identification
∼
Ȟπ ⊗ Hρ → Hom(Hπ , Hρ )

the representation π̌ ⊗ ρ is transformed into the representation

A → ρ(s)Aπ(s)−1 (s ∈ G, A ∈ Hom(Hπ , Hρ ))

Much the same thing happens for infinite dimensional unitary

representations , we complete the algebraic tensor product of Hilbert
spaces and get an isomorphism with the space of Hilbert-Schmidt
operators.
∼
ˆ ρ→
Ȟπ ⊗H MorHS (Hπ , Hρ )

135
 ˆ ρ.
Thus G-morphisms Hπ → Hρ correspond to G-invariants in Ȟπ ⊗H
In other words,
MorG (Hπ , Hρ ) ∼ ˆ ρ )G
= (Ȟπ ⊗H
ˆ ρ = H̃ can be identified with the space of the
Since Ȟπ ⊗H
representation of G induced from the representation π|K ⊗ σ of K (part
(2) of Proposition 7.2), we infer from part (1) of Proposition 7.2 that

ˆ ρ )G ∼
(Ȟπ ⊗H = H̃ G ∼ ˆ σ )K
= (Ȟπ ⊗V

The conclusion follows from the identity

ˆ σ )K ∼
(Ȟπ ⊗V = MorK (Hπ , Vσ )

136
Corollary 7.4. Consider (π, Hπ ) ∈ Ĝ and (σ, Vσ ) ∈ K̂. Then the
multiplicity of π in IndG
K (σ) is the same as the multiplicity of σ in π|K

Proof. Denote the (infinite dimensional in general) space of

ρ = IndG
K (σ) by Hρ .

Any G-morphism Hπ → Hρ must send Hπ into the isotypical

component π in Hρ : this isotypical component is isomorphic to a
⊕I Hπ whence
M M
MorG (Hπ , ⊕I Hπ ) = MorG (Hπ , Hπ ) = C
I I

by Schur’s lemma.

137
On the other hand, every K-morphism Hπ → Vσ must vanish off of
those components of Hπ into a direct sum of irreducibles (for K) which
are not equivalent to (σ, Vσ ).
Let us write the direct sum of the copies of (σ, Vσ ) in Hπ as Vσ ⊗ Cm .
Then
∼
MorK (Hπ , Vσ ) = MorK (Vσ ⊗ Cm , Vσ ) → Mor(Cm , MorK (Vσ , Vσ ))

138
To see the isomorphism
∼
MorK (Vσ ⊗ Cm , Vσ ) → Mor(Cm , MorK (Vσ , Vσ )),

note that if (ei ) is a basis for Cm we can write any element of Vσ ⊗ Cm

as i vi ⊗ ei . Any map A ∈ MorK (Vσ ⊗ Cm , Vσ ), is specified by the m
P

maps v 7→ A(v ⊗ ei ) = Ai belonging to MorK (Vσ , Vσ ), and we can

think of these m maps as a single map from Cm to MorK (Vσ , Vσ )
defined by ei 7→ Ai .

139
Since MorK (Vσ , Vσ ) = CidV (Schur’s lemma), we have

MorK (Hπ , Vσ ) ∼
= dual of Cm

The isomorphism of the theorem implies equality of the dimension of the

spaces. They are respectively

Card(I) = multiplicity of π in ρ = IndG

K (σ)

m = multiplicity of σ in π|K

140
8 Representations of the symmetric group

8.1 Young subgroups, tableaux and tabloids

If λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λl ) is a partition of n, then write λ ` n. We also use

P
the notation |λ| = i λi , so that a partition of n satisfies |λ| = n
Definition 8.1. Suppose λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λl ) ` n. The Ferrers diagram
or shape, of λ is an array of n dots having l left-justified rows with row i
containing λi dots for 1 ≤ i ≤ l.
Definition 8.2. For any set T , let ST be the set of permutations of T .
Let λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ) ` n. Then the corresponding Young subgroup
of Sn is

Sλ = S{1,2,...λ1 } × S{λ1 +1,λ1 +2,...,λ1 +λ2 } × S{n−λl +1,n−λl +2,...,n}

141
Now consider the representation (1 ↑SSnλ ), by which we mean the
representation of Sn induced by the trivial representation of the subgroup
Sλ . If π1 , π2 , . . . , πk is a transversal for Sλ , then the vector space

V λ = C{π1 Sλ , π2 Sλ , . . . , πk Sλ }

is a module for our induced representation .

Definition 8.3. Suppose λ ` n. A Young tableau of shape λ, is an array
t obtained by replacing the dots of the Ferrers diagram with the numbers
1, 2, . . . , n bijectively.
Definition 8.4. Two λ-tableaux t1 and t2 are row equivalent, t1 ∼ t2 , if
the corresponding rows of the two tableaux contain the same elements.
A tabloid of shape λ or λ-tabloid is then

{t} = {t1 |t1 ∼ t}

where shape(t) = λ

142
Now π ∈ Sn acts on a tableau t = (ti,j ) of shape λ ` n as follows:

πt = (π(ti,j ))

This induces an action on tabloids by letting

π{t} = {πt}

Exercise: Check that this is well defined, namely independent of the

choice of t.
Definition 8.5. Suppose λ ` n. Let

M λ = C{{t1 }, . . . , {tk }}

where {t1 }, . . . , {tk }, is a complete list of λ-tabloids. Then M λ is called

the permutation module corresponding to λ.

143
Definition 8.6. Any G-module M is cyclic if there is a v ∈ M such that

M = CGv

where Gv = {gv|g ∈ G}. In this case we say that M is generated by v.

Proposition 8.7. If λ ` n, then M λ is cyclic, generated by any given
λ-tabloid. In addition, dim M λ = n!/λ!, the number of λ-tabloids.
Theorem 8.8. Consider λ ` n with the Young subgroup Sλ and tabloid
{tλ }, as before. Then V λ = CSn Sλ and M λ = CSn {tλ } are isomorphic
as Sn -modules.

Proof. Let π1 , π2 , . . . , πk be a transversal for Sλ . Define a map:

θ : V λ → Mλ

by θ(πi Sλ ) = {πi tλ } for i = 1, 2, . . . , k and linear extension. It is not

hard to verify that θ is the desired Sn -isomorphism of modules.

144
8.2 Dominance and Lexicographic ordering

Definition 8.9. Suppose λ = (λ1 , . . . , λl ) and µ = (µ1 , µ2 , . . . , µm ) are

partitions of n. Then λ dominates µ, written as λ  µ if

λ1 + λ2 + . . . + λi ≥ µ1 + µ2 + . . . µi

for all i ≥ 1. If i > l (respectively, i > m), then we take λi (respectively,

µi ) to be zero.

145
Lemma 8.10 (Dominance lemma for partitions). Let tλ and sµ be
tableaux of shape λ and µ respectively. If for each index i, the elements
of row i of sµ are all in different columns in tλ , then λ  µ.

Proof. By hypothesis, we can sort the entries in each column of tλ so

that the elements of rows 1, 2, . . . , i of sµ all occur in the first i rows of
tλ .
Now note that

λ1 + λ 2 + · · · + λ i = number of elements in the first i rows of tλ

≥ number of elements of sµ in the first i rows of tλ
= µ1 + µ2 + · · · + µi

146
Definition 8.11. Let λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λl ) and µ = (µ1 , µ2 , . . . , µm ) be
partitions of n. Then λ < µ in lexicographic order if for some index i,

λj = µj for j < i and λi < µi

Proposition 8.12. If λ, µ ` n with λ  µ then λ ≥ µ

Proof. If λ 6= µ, then find the first index i where they differ. Thus,
Pi−1 Pi−1 Pi Pi
j=1 λj = j=1 µj and j=1 λj > j=1 µj (since λ  µ). So
λ i > µi .

147
8.3 Specht Modules

Definition 8.13. Suppose now that the tableau t has rows

R1 , R2 , . . . Rl and columns C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck . Then

Rt = SR1 × SR2 × . . . × SRl

and
Ct = SC1 × SC2 × . . . × SCk
are the row-stabilizer and column-stabilizer of t respectively.
Note that our equivalence classes can be expressed as {t} = Rt t.

148
In general, given a subset H ⊆ Sn , we can form the group algebra
elements X
+
H = π
π∈H
and X
−
H = sgn(π)π
π∈H

For a tableau t, the element Rt+ is already implicit in the corresponding

tabloid by the remark at the end of the previous paragraph. However we
will also need to make use of
def
X
−
κt = Ct = sgn(π)π
π∈Ct

Note that if t has columns C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck , then κt factors as

κt = κC 1 κC 2 . . . κ C k

149
Definition 8.14. If t is a tableau, then the associated polytabloid is

et = κt {t}

150
Lemma 8.15. Let t be a tableau and π be a permutation. Then
1. Rπt = πRt π −1
2. Cπt = πCt π −1
3. κπt = πκt π −1
4. eπt = πet

Proof. 1. We have the following equivalent statements:

σ ∈ Rπt ←→ σ{πt} = {πt}

←→ π −1 σπ{t} = {t}
←→ π −1 σπ ∈ Rt
←→ σ ∈ πRt π −1

The proofs of 2 and 3 are similar to that of part 1.

151
4. We have

eπt = κπt {πt} = πκt π −1 {πt} = πκt {t} = πet

Definition 8.16. For any partition λ, the corresponding Specht module,

S λ is the submodule of M λ spanned by the polytabloids et , where t is of
shape λ

152
Proposition 8.17. The S λ are cyclic modules generated by any given
polytabloid.

Proof. This follows from part 4 of Lemma 8.15

153
8.4 The Submodule theorem
−
P
Recall that H = π∈H (sgn π)π for any subset H ⊆ Sn . If H = {π},
then we write π − for H − . We need the unique inner product on M λ for
which
h{t}, {s}i = δ{t},{s} (8.1)

154
Lemma 8.18 (Sign Lemma). Let H ≤ Sn be a subgroup. Then
1. If π ∈ H, then
πH − = H − π = (sgn π)H −
Equivalently, π − H − = H − .
2. For any u, v ∈ M λ ,

hH − u, vi = hu, H − , vi

3. If the transposition (b, c) ∈ H, then we can factor

H − = k( − (b, c))

where k ∈ C[Sn ]
4. If t is a tableau with b, c in the same row of t and (b, c) ∈ H, then

H − {t} = 0

155
Proof. Exercise

156
Corollary 8.19. Let t = tλ be a λ-tableau and s = sµ be a µ-tableau,
6 0, then λ  µ. And if λ = µ, then
where λ, µ ` n. If κt {s} =
κt {s} = ±et

Proof. Suppose b and c are two elements in the same row of sµ . Then
they cannot be in the same column of tλ , for if so then κt = k( − (b, c))
and κt {s} = 0 by parts 3 and 4 in the preceding lemma. Thus the
dominance lemma 8.10 yields λ  µ.
If λ = µ, then we must have {s} = π{t} for some π ∈ Ct by the same
argument that established the dominance lemma. Using part 1 of the
preceeding lemma yields

κt {s} = κt π{t} = (sgn π)κt {t} = ±et

157
Corollary 8.20. If u ∈ M µ and shape t = µ, then κt u is multiple of et .
P
Proof. We can write u = i ci {si }, where the si are µ-tableaux. By
P
the previous corollary, κt u = i ±ci et .

158
Theorem 8.21 (Submodule Theorem). Let U be a submodule of
M µ . Then
U ⊇ Sµ or U ⊆ S µ⊥
In particular the S µ are irreducible.

Proof. Consider u ∈ U and a µ-tableau t. By the preceding corollary, we

know that κt u = f et for some field element f . There are two cases,
depending on which multiples can arise.
Suppose that there exists a u and a t with f 6= 0. Then since u is in the
submodule U , we have f et = κt u ∈ U . Thus et ∈ U (since f is
nonzero) and S µ ⊆ U (since S µ is cyclic).

159
On the other hand, suppose we always have κt u = 0. We claim that this
forces U ⊆ S µ⊥ . Consider any u ∈ U . Given an arbitrary µ- tableau t,
we can apply part 2 of the sign lemma to obtain

hu, et i = hu, κt {t}i = hκt u, {t}i = h0, {t}i = 0

Since the et span S µ , we have u ∈ S µ⊥ , as claimed.

160
Proposition 8.22. Suppose θ ∈ HomSn (S λ , M µ ) is nonzero. Then
λ  µ. Moreover, if λ = µ, then θ is multiplication by a scalar.

Proof. Since θ 6= 0, there is some basis vector et such that θ(et ) 6= 0.

Because h·, ·i is an inner product with complex scalars, M λ = S λ ⊕ S λ⊥ .
Thus we can extend θ to an element of HomSn (M λ , M µ ) by setting
θ(S λ⊥ ) = 0. So
X
0 6= θ(et ) = θ(κt {t}) = κt θ({t}) = κt ( ci {si })
i

where the si are µ-tableaux. By Corollary 8.19, we have λ  µ.

In the case λ = µ, Corollary 8.20 yields θ(et ) = cet for some constant c.
So for any permutation π,

θ(eπt ) = θ(πet ) = πθ(et ) = π(cet ) = ceπt

Thus θ is multiplication by c.

161
Theorem 8.23. The S λ for λ ` n form a complete list of irreducible
Sn -modules.

Proof. The S λ are irreducible by the submodule theorem.

Since we have the right number of modules for a full set, it suffices to
show that they are pairwise inequivalent. But if S λ ∼
= S µ , then there is a
nonzero homomorphism θ ∈ HomSn (S λ , M µ ), since S µ ⊆ M µ . Thus
λ  µ (Proposition 8.22). Similarly µ  λ, so λ = µ.

162
8.5 Standard Tableaux and a Basis for S λ

Definition 8.24. A tableau t is standard if the rows and columns of t

are increasing sequences. In this case we also say that the corresponding
tabloid and polytabloid are standard.
Theorem 8.25. The set

{et : t is a standard λ-tableau}

is a basis for S λ .

Proof. Omitted

163
8.6 The Branching Rule

Definition 8.26. If λ is a diagram, then an inner corner of λ is a node

(i, j) ∈ λ whose removal leaves the Ferrers diagram of a partition. Any
partition obtained by such a removal is denoted by λ− . An outer corner
of λ is a node (i, j) ∈
/ λ whose addition produces the Ferrers diagram of
a partition. Any partition obtained by such an addition is denoted by λ+

164
Lemma 8.27. We have
λ−
X
λ
f = f
λ−

Proof. Every standard tableau of shape λ ` n consists of n in some

inner corner together with a standard tableau of shape λ− ` n − 1. The
result follows.

165
Theorem 8.28 (Branching Rule). If λ ` n, then
−
λ ∼
1. S ↓Sn−1 = λ− S λ , and
L
λ Sn+1 ∼ λ+
L
2. S ↑ = λ+ S

Proof. 1. Let the inner corners of λ appear in rows r1 < r2 < · · · < rk .
For each i, let λi denote the partition of λ− obtained by removing the
corner cell in row ri . In addition, if n is at the end of row ri of tableau t
(respectively, in row ri of tabloid {ti }), then ti (respectively, {ti } ) will
be the array obtained by removing the n.
Now given any group G with module V and submodule W , it is easy to
see that
V ∼= W ⊕ (V /W ),
where V /W is the quotient space. Thus it suffices to find a chain of
subspaces
{0} = V (0) ⊂ V (1) ⊂ V (2) ⊂ · · · ⊂ V (k) = S λ

166
 (i)
such that V /V (i−1) ∼ λi
= S as Sn−1 modules for 1 ≤ i ≤ k. Let V (i)
be the vector space spanned by the standard polytabloids et where n
appears in t at the end of one of rows r1 through ri . We show that the
V (i) are our desired modules as follows.
i
Define maps θi : M λ → M λ by linearly extending

 {t } if n in row r of {t},
θi i i
{t} →
 0 otherwise.

Verify that θi is an Sn−1 -homomorphism. Furthermore, for standard t

we have

 e i if n is in row r of t,
θi t i
et →
 0 if n is in row rj of t, where j < i.

167
This is because any tabloid appearing in et , t standard, has n in the
same row or higher than in t.
Since the standard polytabloids form a basis for the corresponding
Specht module,
(i) λi
θi V =S
and
V (i−1) ⊆ kerθi .
We can construct the chain

{0} = V (0) ⊆ V (1) ∩kerθ1 ⊆ V (1) ⊆ V (2) ∩kerθ2 ⊆ V (2) ⊆ · · · ⊆ V (k) = S λ

But
V (i) (i) λi
dim (i) = dim θi V = f
V ∩ kerθi

168
By the preceding lemma, the dimensions of these quotients add up to
dim S λ . Since this leaves no space to insert extra modules, the chain
must have equality for the first, third, etc. containments. Furthermore,

V (i) ∼ V (i) ∼ λi
= (i) =S
V (i−1) V ∩ kerθi
as desired.
2. We will show that this part follows from the first by Frobenius
reciprocity. In fact, parts 1 and 2 can be shown to be equivalent by the
same method.
Let χλ be the character of S λ . If S λ ↑Sn+1 ∼
= ⊕µ`n+1 mµ S µ , then by
λ Sn+1 ∼
= µ`n+1 mµ χµ .
P
taking characters, χ ↑

169
The multiplicities are given by

mµ = hχλ ↑Sn+1 , χµ i
= hχλ , χµ ↓Sn i
X −
λ
= hχ , χµ i
µ−

 1 if λ = µ−
=
 0 otherwise

 1 if µ = λ+
=
 0 otherwise

170
9 Symmetric Functions

9.1 Symmetric functions in general

Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . .) be a set of indeterminates. A homogeneous
symmetric function of degree n over Q is a formal power series
X
f (x) = cα xα
α

(a) α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) ranges over all sequence of non-negative integers

that sum to n (i.e. weak compositions of n)
(b) cα ∈ Q
(c) xα stands for the monomial xα1 α2
1 x2 . . .

(d) f (xw(1) , xw(2) , . . .) = f (x1 , x2 , . . .) for every permutation w of the

positive integers.

171
The set of all homogeneous symmetric functions of degree n over Q is
denoted as Λn .
If f ∈ Λm and g ∈ Λn , then it is clear that f g ∈ Λm+n (where f g is a
product of the formal power series). Hence if we define

Λ = Λ0 ⊕ Λ 1 ⊕ · · · (vector space direct sum)

Then Λ has the structure of a Q-algebra

172
9.2 Monomial Symmetric Functions

Given λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . .) ` n, define a symmetric function mλ (x) ∈ Λn by

X
mλ = xα
α

where the sum ranges over all distinct permutations α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) of

the entries of the vector λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . .).
We call mλ a monomial symmetric function. Clearly if
f = α cα xα ∈ Λn then f = λ`n cλ mλ . The set {mλ : λ ` n} is a
P P

(vector space) basis for Λn and hence that

dim Λn = p(n)

the number of partitions of n. Moreover the set {mλ : λ ∈ Par} is a

basis for Λ.

173
9.3 Elementary Symmetric Functions

We define the elementary symmetric functions eλ for λ ∈ Par by the

formula
X
en = m1n = xi1 · · · xin , n ≥ 1 (with e0 = m∅ = 1)
i1 <...<in

eλ = eλ1 eλ2 · · · , if λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . .)

174
Suppose that A = (aij )i,j≥1 is an integer matrix with finitely many
nonzero entries with row and column sums
X
ri = aij
j
X
cj = aij
i

Define the row-sum vector row(A) and column-sum vector col(A) by

row(A) = (r1 , r2 , . . .)
column(A) = (c1 , c2 , . . .)

A (0, 1)-matrix is a matrix all of whose entries are either 0 or 1.

175
Proposition 9.1. Let λ ` n, and let α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) be a weak
composition of n. Then the coefficient Mλα of xα in eλ is equal to the
number of (0, 1)-matrices A = (aij )i,j≥1 satisfying row(A) = λ and
col(A) = α. That is,
X
eλ = Mλµ mµ (9.1)
µ`n

176
Corollary 9.2. Let Mλµ be given by Equation (9.1). Then Mλµ = Mµλ .
That is, the transition matrix between the bases {mλ : λ ` n} and
{eλ : λ ` n} is a symmetric matrix.

177
Proposition 9.3. We have
Y X
(1 + xi yj ) = Mλµ mλ (x)mµ (y) (9.2)
i,j λ,µ
X
= mλ (x)eλ (y) (9.3)
λ

Here λ and µ range over Par. (It suffices to take |λ| = |µ|, since
otherwise Mλµ = 0.)

178
 β1 β2
Proof. A monomial xα 1
1 α2
x2 · · · y α β
1 y2 · · · = x y appearing in the
Q
expansion of (1 + xi yj ) is obtained by choosing a (0, 1)-matrix
A = (aij ) with finitely many 1’s, satisfying
Y
(xi yj )aij = xα y β
i,j

But
(xi yj )aij = xrow(A) y col(A)
Y

i,j
α β
Q
so the coefficient of x y in the product (1 + xi yj ) is the number of
(0, 1)-matrices satisfying row(A) = α and col(A) = β. Hence equation
(9.2) follows. Equation (9.3) is then a consequence of (9.1)

179
Theorem 9.4. Let λ, µ ` n. Then Mλµ = 0 unless λ0  µ, while
Mλλ0 = 1. Hence the set {eλ : λ ` n} is a basis for Λn (so
{eλ : λ ∈ Par} is a basis for Λ). Equivalently, e1 , e2 , . . . are algebraically
independent and generate Λ as a Q-algebra, which we write as

Λ = Q[e1 , e2 , . . .]

180
Proof. Suppose Mλµ 6= 0 so by Proposition 9.1 there is a (0, 1)-matrix
A with row(A) = λ and col(A) = µ. Let A0 be the matrix with
row(A0 ) = λ and with its 10 s left justified, i.e. A0ij = 1 precisely for
1 ≤ j ≤ λi . For any i the number of 10 s in the first i columns of A0
clearly is not less than the number of 10 s in the first i columns of A, so
by definition of dominance order we have col(A0 )  col(A) = µ.
But col(A0 ) = λ0 , so λ0  µ as desired. Moreover it is easy to see that
A0 is the only (0, 1)-matrix with row(A0 ) = λ and col(A0 ) = λ0 , so
Mλ,λ0 = 1.

181
The previous argument shows the following. Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λp(n) be an
ordering of Par(n) that is compatible with the dominance order and such
that the “reverse conjugate” order (λp(n) )0 , . . . , (λ2 )0 , (λ1 )0 is also
compatible with the dominance order. (Exercise: give an example of
such an order). Then the matrix (Mλµ ), with the row order λ1 , λ2 , . . .
and column order (λ1 )0 , (λ2 )0 , . . . is upper triangular with 10 s on the
main diagonal. Hence it is invertible, so {eλ : λ ` n} is a basis for Λn .
(In fact it is a basis for ΛnZ since the diagonal entries are actually 10 s,
and not merely nonzero.)

182
The set {eλ : λ ∈ Par} consists of all monomials ea1 1 ea2 2 . . . (where
P
ai ∈ N, ai < ∞). Hence the linear independence of {eλ : λ ∈ Par} is
equivalent to the algebraic independence of e1 , e2 , . . . as desired

183
9.4 Complete Homogeneous Symmetric functions

Define the complete homogeneous symmetric functions (or just complete

symmetric functions) hλ for λ ∈ Par by the formulas
X X
hn = mλ = xi1 · · · xin (with h0 = m∅ = 1)
λ`n i1 ≤...≤in

(9.4)
hλ = hλ1 hλ2 · · · if λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . .)

184
Proposition 9.5. Let λ ` n, and let α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) be a weak
composition of n. Then the coefficient Nλα of xα in hλ is equal to the
number of N-matrices A = (aij ) satisfying row(A) = λ and col(A) = α.
That is,
X
hλ = Nλµ mµ , (9.5)
µ`n

185
Corollary 9.6. Let Nλµ be given by Equation (9.5). Then Nλµ = Nµλ ,
i.e the transition matrix between the bases {mλ : λ ` n} and
{hλ : λ ` n} is a symmetric matrix.
Note that by a Corollary in the next section (Corollary 9.9), it follows
that the set {hλ : λ ` n} is indeed a basis.

186
Proposition 9.7. We have
Y X
−1
(1 − xi yj ) = Nλµ mλ (x)mµ (y) (9.6)
i,j λ,µ
X
= mλ (x)hλ (y) (9.7)
λ

where λ and µ range over Par (and where it suffices to take |λ| = |µ|).

187
9.5 An Involution

Since Λ = Q[e1 , e2 , . . .], an algebra endomorphism f : Λ → Λ is

determined uniquely by its values f (en ), n ≥ 1; and conversely any
choice of (f (en )) ∈ Λ determines an endomorphism f . Define an
endomorphism ω : Λ → Λ by ω(en ) = hn , n ≥ 1. Thus (since ω
preserves multiplication), ω(eλ ) = hλ for all partitions λ.
Theorem 9.8. The endomorphism ω is an involution i.e. ω 2 = 1 (the
identity automorphism), or equivalently ω(hn ) = en . (Thus, ω(hλ ) = eλ
for all partitions λ.)

188
Proof. Consider the formal power series
X
H(t) := hn tn ∈ Λ [[t]]
n≥0
X
E(t) := en tn ∈ Λ [[t]]
n≥0

Check the identities

Y
H(t) = (1 − xn t)−1 (9.8)
n
Y
E(t) = (1 + xn t) (9.9)
n

Hence H(t)E(−t) = 1. Equating the coefficients of tn on both sides

yields
Xn
0= (−1)i ei hn−i , n≥1 (9.10)
i=0

189
 Pn
Conversely, if i=0 (−1)i ui hn−i = 0 for all n ≥ 1, for certain ui ∈ Λ
with u0 = 1, then ui = ei . Now apply ω to Equation (9.10) to obtain
n
X n
X
0= (−1)i hi ω(hn−i ) = (−1)n (−1)i ω(hi )hn−i ,
i=0 i=0

whence ω(hi ) = ei as desired.

190
Corollary 9.9. The set {hλ : λ ` n} is a basis for Λn (so {hλ : λ ∈ Par}
is a basis for Λ). Equivalently, h1 , h2 , . . . are algebraically independent
and generate Λ as a Q-algebra, which we write as

Λ = Q[h1 , h2 , . . .]

Proof. Theorem 9.8 shows that the endomorphism ω : Λ → Λ defined

by ω(en ) = hn is invertible (since ω = ω −1 ), and hence is an
automorphism of Λ. The proof now follows from Theorem 9.4.

191
9.6 Power Sum Symmetric Functions

We define a fourth set pλ of symmetric functions indexed by λ ∈ Par

and called the power sum symmetric functions as follows:
X
pn = mn = xni , n ≥ 1 (with p0 = m∅ = 1)
i
pλ = pλ1 pλ2 · · · if λ = (λ1 , λ2 , . . .)

192
Proposition 9.10. Let λ = (λ1 , . . . , λl ) ` n, where l = l(λ), and set
X
pλ = Rλµ mµ (9.11)
µ`n

Let k = l(µ). Then Rλµ is equal to the number of ordered partitions

π = (B1 , B2 , . . . Bk ) of {1, . . . , l} such that
X
µj = λi , 1 ≤ j ≤ k (9.12)
i∈Bj

193
Proof. Rλµ is the coefficient of xµ = xµ1 1 xµ2 2 . . . in
X X
λ1
pλ = ( xi )( xλi 2 ) · · ·

To obtain the monomial xµ in the expansion of the product, we choose

λj P λj Q λj
the term xij from each factor xi so that j xij = xµ . Define
Br = {j : ij = r}. Then (B1 , . . . Bk ) will be an ordered partition of
{1, . . . , l} satisfying Equation (9.12), and conversely every such ordered
partition gives rise to a term xµ .

194
Corollary 9.11. Let Rλµ be as in Equation (9.11). Then Rλµ = 0
unless µ  λ, while
Y
Rλλ = mi (λ)! (9.13)
i

where λ = h1m1 (λ) 2m2 (λ) · · · i. Hence {pλ : λ ` n} is a basis for Λn (so
{pλ : λ ∈ Par} is a basis for Λ). Equivalently, p1 , p2 , . . . are algebraically
independent and generate Λ as a Q-algebra, i.e.

Λ = Q[p1 , p2 , . . .]

195
We now consider the effect of the involution ω on pλ . For any partition
λ = h1m1 (λ) 2m2 (λ) · · · i define

zλ = 1m1 m1 !2m2 m2 ! · · · (9.14)

If w ∈ Sn , then the cycle type ρ(w) of w is the partition

ρ(w) = (ρ1 , ρ2 , . . .) ` n such that the cycle lengths of w (in its
factorization into disjoint cycles) are ρ1 , ρ2 , . . .. The number of
permutations w ∈ Sn of a fixed cycle type ρ = h1m1 2m2 · · · i is given by
n!
#{w ∈ Sn : ρ(w) = ρ} = m1
1 m1 !2m2 m2 ! · · ·
= n!zρ−1 (9.15)

The set {v ∈ Sn : ρ(v) = ρ} is just the conjugacy class in Sn containing

w. For any finite group G, the order #Kw of the conjugacy class Kw is
equal to the index [G : C(w)] of the centralizer of w.

196
Hence:
Proposition 9.12. Let λ ` n. Then zλ is equal to the number of
permutations v ∈ Sn that commute with a fixed wλ of cycle type λ.

197
For a partition λ = h1m1 2m2 · · · i, define

ελ = (−1)m2 +m4 +··· = (−1)n−l(λ) (9.16)

Thus for any w ∈ Sn , εp(w) is +1 if w is an even permutation and −1

otherwise, so the map Sn → {±1} defined by w 7→ εp(w) is the usual
“sign homomorphism”

198
Proposition 9.13. We have
Y X1
−1
(1 − xi yj ) = exp pn (x)pn (y)
i,j
n
n≥1
X
= zλ−1 pλ (x)pλ (y) (9.17)
λ
Y X1
(1 + xi yj ) = exp (−1)n−1 pn (x)pn (y)
i,j
n
n≥1
X
= zλ−1 ελ pλ (x)pλ (y) (9.18)
λ

199
Proof. We have
Y X
−1
log (1 − xi yj ) = log(1 − xi yj )−1
i,j i,j
XX 1
= xni yjn
i,j
n
n≥1
! 
X1 X X
n 
= xi yjn 
n i j
n≥1
X1
= pn (x)pn (y)
n
n≥1

200
Proposition 9.14. Let λ ` n. Then

ωpλ = ελ pλ

In other words, pλ is an eigenvector for ω corresponding to the

eigenvalue ελ .

Proof. Regard ω as acting on symmetric functions in the variables

y = (y1 , y2 , . . .). Those in the variables x are regarded as scalars.

201
Apply ω to Equation (9.17). We obtain
X Y
−1
ω zλ pλ (x)pλ (y) = ω (1 − xi yj )−1
λ i,j
X
= mv (x)ωhv (y) (by (9.6))
v
X
= mv (x)ev (y) ( by Theorem 9.8)
v
Y
= (1 + xi yj ) (by (9.2))
i,j
X
= zλ−1 ελ pλ (x)pλ (y) (by 9.18)
λ

Since the pλ (x)’s are linearly independent, their coefficients in the first
and last sums of the above chain of equalities must be the same. In
other words, ωpλ (y) = ελ pλ (y), as desired.

202
Proposition 9.15. We have
X
hn = zλ−1 pλ (9.19)
λ`n
X
en = ελ zλ−1 pλ (9.20)
λ`n
(9.21)

Proof. Substituting y = (t, 0, 0, . . .) in Equation (9.17) immediately

yields Equation (9.19). Equation (9.20) is similiarly obtained from
(9.18), or by applying ω to (9.19).

203
9.7 A Scalar product

Define a scalar product on Λ by requiring that {mλ } and {hµ } be dual

bases i.e.
hmλ , hµ i = δλµ (9.22)
for all λ, µ ∈ Par. Notice that h·, ·i respects the grading of Λ, in the
sense that if f and g are homogeneous then hf, gi = 0 unless
deg f = deg g.

204
Proposition 9.16. The scalar product h·, ·i is symmetric, i.e.
hf, gi = hg, f i for all f, g ∈ Λ.

Proof. The result is equivalent to Corollary 9.6. More specifically, it

suffices by linearity to prove hf, gi = hg, f i for some bases {f } and {g}
of Λ. Take {f } = {g} = {hλ }. Then
* +
X
hhλ , hµ i = Nλν mν , hµ = Nλµ (9.23)
ν

Since Nλµ = Nµλ by Corollary 9.6, we have hhλ , hµ i = hhµ , hλ i as

desired.

205
Lemma 9.17. Let {uλ } and {vλ } be bases of Λ such that for all λ ` n
we have uλ , vλ ∈ Λn . Then {uλ } and {vλ } are dual bases if and only if
X Y
uλ (x)vλ (y) = (1 − xi yj )−1
λ i,j

206
 P P
Proof. Write mλ = ρ ζλρ uρ and hµ = ν ηµν vν . Thus
X
δλµ = hmλ , hµ i = ζλρ ηµν huρ , vν i (9.24)
ρ,ν

For each fixed n ≥ 0, regard ζ and η as matrices indexed by Par(n), and

let A be the matrix defined by Aρν = huρ , vν i. Then (9.24) is equivalent
to I = ζAη t , where t denotes the transpose and I is the identity matrix.
Therefore

{uλ } and {vλ } are dual bases ⇐⇒ A = I

⇐⇒ I = ζη t
⇐⇒ I = ζ t η
X
⇐⇒ δρν = ζλρ ηλν (9.25)
λ

207
Now by Proposition 9.7 we have
Y X
−1
(1 − xi yj ) = mλ (x)hλ (y)
i,j λ
! !
X X X
= ζλρ uρ (x) ηλν vν (y)
λ ρ ν
!
X X
= ζλρ ηλν uρ (x)vν (y)
ρ,ν λ

Since the power series uρ (x)vν (y) are linearly independent over Q, the
proof follows from (9.25).

208
Proposition 9.18. We have

hpλ , pµ i = zλ δλµ (9.26)

Hence the pλ ’s form an orthogonal basis of Λ. (They don’t form an

orthonormal basis, since hpλ , pλ i =
6 1)

Proof. By Proposition 9.13 and Lemma 9.17 we see that {pλ } and
{pµ /zµ } are dual bases, which is equivalent to (9.26).

209
Corollary 9.19. The scalar product h·, ·i is positive definite i.e.
hf, f i ≥ 0 for all f ∈ Λ, with equality if and only if f = 0.
P
Proof. Write (uniquely) f = λ cλ pλ .
Then
X
hf, f i = c2λ zλ

The proof follows since each zλ > 0.

210
Proposition 9.20. The involution ω is an isometry, i.e.
hωf, ωgi = hf, gi for all f, g ∈ Λ.

Proof. By the bilinearity of the scalar product, it suffices to take f = pλ

and g = pµ . The result then follows from Propositions 9.14 and
9.18.

211
9.8 The Combinatorial Definition of Schur Functions

The fundamental combinatorial objects associated with Schur functions

are semistandard tableaux. Let λ be a partition. A semistandard
(Young) tableaux (SSYT) of shape λ is an array T = (Tij ) of positive
integers of shape λ (i.e., 1 ≤ i ≤ l(λ), 1 ≤ j ≤ λi ) that is weakly
increasing in every row and strictly increasing in every column. The size
of an SSYT is its number of entries.

212
If T is an SSYT of shape λ then we write λ = sh(T ). Hence the size of
T is just |sh(T )|. We may also think of an SSYT of shape λ as the
Ferrers diagram of λ whose boxes have been filled with positive integers
(satisfying certain conditions).

213
We say that T has type α = (α1 , α2 , . . .), denoted α = type(T ), if T
has αi = αi (T ) parts equal to i. For any SSYT T of type α (or indeed
for any multiset on P with possible additional structure), write
α (T ) α2 (T )
xT = x1 1 x2 ···

214
There is a generalization of SSYTs of shape λ that fits naturally into the
theory of symmetric functions. If λ and µ are partitions with µ ⊆ λ (i.e.
µi ≤ λi for all i), then define a semistandard tableau of (skew) shape
λ/µ to be an array T = (Tij ) of positive integers of shape λ/µ (i.e.
1 ≤ i ≤ l(λ), µi < j ≤ λi ) that is weakly increasing in every row and
strictly increasing in every column.

215
We can similarly extend the definition of a Ferrers diagram of shape λ to
one of shape λ/µ. Thus an SSYT of shape λ/µ may be regarded as a
Ferrers diagram of shape λ/µ whose boxes have been filled with positive
integers (satisfying certain conditions), just for “ordinary shapes” λ.

216
The definitions of type(T ) and xT carry over directly from SSYTs T of
ordinary shape to those of skew shape.
Definition 9.21. Let λ/µ be a skew shape. The skew Schur function
sλ/µ = sλ/µ (x) of shape λ/µ in the variables x = (x1 , x2 , . . .) is the
formal power series
X
sλ/µ (x) = xT
T

summer over all SSYTs T of shape λ/µ. If µ = ∅, then we call sλ (x)

the Schur function of shape λ.

217
Theorem 9.22. For any skew shape λ/µ, the skew Schur function sλ/µ
is a symmetric function.

Proof. It suffices to show that sλ/µ is invariant under interchanging xi

and xi+1 . Suppose that |λ/µ| = n and that α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) is a weak
composition of n. Let

α̃ = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αi−1 , αi+1 , αi , αi+2 , . . .).

If Tλ/µ,α denotes the set of all SSYTs of shape λ/µ and type α, then we
seek the bijection ϕ : Tλ/µ,α → Tλ/µ,α̃ .

218
Let T ∈ Tλ/µ,α . Consider the parts of T equal to i or i + 1. Some
columns of T will contain no such parts, while some others will contain
two such parts, viz., one i and i + 1. These columns we ignore. The
remaining parts equal to i or i + 1 occur once in each column, and
consist of rows with a certain number r of i’s followed by a certain
number s of i + 1’s. (Of course r and s depend on the row in question.)
For example, a portion of T could loook as follows:
i
i i i|{z}i i+1 i+1 i+1 i+1 i+1
| {z }
r=2 s=4
i+1 i+1

219
In each such row convert the r i0 s and s i + 1’s to s i’s and r i + 1’s
i
i i i| i {z i }i i+1 i+1 i+1
| {z }
s=4 r=2
i+1 i+1
It’s easy to see that the resulting array ϕ(T ) belongs to Tλ/µ,α̃ , and that
ϕ establishes the desired bijection.

220
If λ ` n and α is a weak composition of n, then let Kλα denote the
number of SSYTs of shape λ and type α. Kλα is called a Kostka
number. By Definition 9.21 we have
X
sλ = Kλα xα
α

summed over all weak compositions α of n, so by Theorem 9.22 we have

X
sλ = Kλµ mµ (9.27)
µ`n

221
More generally, we can define the skew Kostka number Kλ/ν,α as the
number of SSYTs of shape λ/ν and type α, so that if |λ/ν| = n then
X
sλ/ν = Kλ/ν,µ mµ (9.28)
µ`n

222
Consider the number Kλ,1n , also denoted by f λ . By definition, f λ is the
number of ways to insert the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n into the shape λ ` n,
each number appearing once, so that every row and column is increasing.
Such an array is called a standard Young tableau(SYT) (or just standard
tableau) of shape λ. The number f λ has several alternative
combinatorial interpretations as given by the following proposition.

223
Proposition 9.23. Let λ ∈ Par. Then the number f λ counts the
objects in items (a)-(e) below. We illustrate these objects with the case
λ = (3, 2).
(a) Chains of partitions. Saturated chains in the interval [∅, λ] of
Young’s lattice Y , or equivalently, sequences ∅ = λ0 , λ1 , . . . , λn = λ of
partitions (which we identify with their diagrams) such that λi is
obtained from λi−1 by adding a single square.
∅ ⊂ 1 ⊂ 2 ⊂ 3 ⊂ 31 ⊂ 32
∅ ⊂ 1 ⊂ 2 ⊂ 21 ⊂ 31 ⊂ 32
∅ ⊂ 1 ⊂ 2 ⊂ 21 ⊂ 22 ⊂ 32
∅ ⊂ 1 ⊂ 11 ⊂ 21 ⊂ 31 ⊂ 32
∅ ⊂ 1 ⊂ 11 ⊂ 21 ⊂ 22 ⊂ 32
(b) Linear extensions. Let Pλ be the poset whose elements are the
squares of the diagram of λ, with t covering s if t lies directly to the

224
right or directly below s(with no squares in between). Such posets are
just the finite order ideals of N × N. Then f λ = e(Pλ ), the number of
linear extensions of Pλ
(c) Ballot sequences. Ways in which n voters can vote sequentially in an
election for candidates A1 , A2 , . . . , so that for all i, Ai receives λi votes,
and so that Ai never trails Ai+1 in the voting. (We denote such a
voting sequence as a1 a2 · · · an , where the k-th voter votes for Aak .)

11122 11212 11221 12112 12121

(d) Lattice permutations. Sequences a1 a2 · · · an in which i occurs λi

times, and such that in any left factor a1 a2 · · · aj , the number of i’s is at
least as great as the number of i + 1’s (for all i). Such a sequence is
called a lattice permutation(or Yamanouchi word or ballot sequence) of
type λ.
11122 11212 11221 12112 12121

225
(e) Lattice paths. Lattice 0 = v0 , v1 , . . . , vn in Rl (where l = l(λ)) from
the orign v0 to vn = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λl ), with each step a unit coordinate
vector, and staying within the region (or cone) x1 ≥ x2 ≥ · · · ≥ xl ≥ 0.

226
Define a reverse SSYT or column-strict plane partition of (skew) shape
λ/µ to be an array of positive integers of shape λ/µ that is weakly
decreasing in rows and strictly decreasing in columns. Define the type α
of a reverse SSYT exactly as for ordinary SSYT.
Define K̂λ/µ,α to be the number of reverse SSYTs of shape λ/µ and
type α.
Proposition 9.24. Let λ/µ be a skew partition of n, and let α be a
weak composition of n. Then K̂λ/µ,α = Kλ/µ,α .

Proof. Suppose that T is a reverse SSYT of shape λ and type

α = (α1 , α2 , . . .). Let k denote the largest part of T . The
transformation Tij 7→ k + 1 − Tij shows that K b λα = Kλᾱ , where
ᾱ = (αk , αk−1 , . . . , α1 , 0, 0, . . .). But by Theorem 9.22 we have
Kλᾱ = Kλα , and the proof is complete.

227
Proposition 9.25. Suppose that µ and λ are partitions with |µ| = |λ|
and Kλµ 6= 0. Then λ  µ. Moreover Kλλ = 1.

Proof. Suppose Kλµ 6= 0. By definition, there exists an SSYT T of

shape λ and type µ. Suppose that a part Tij = k appears below the
k-th row (i.e. i > k). Then we have 1 ≤ T1k < T2k < · · · < Tik = k for
i > k, which is impossible. Hence the parts 1, 2, . . . , k all apppear in the
first k rows, so that µ1 + µ2 + · · · + µk ≤ λ1 + λ2 + · · · + λk , as desired.
Moreover, if µ = λ then we must have Tij = i for all (i, j), so
Kλλ = 1.

228
Corollary 9.26. The Schur functions sλ with λ ∈ Par(n) form a basis
for Λn , so {sλ : λ ∈ Par} is a basis for Λ. In fact, the transition matrix
Kλµ which expresses the sλ ’s in terms of the mµ ’s, with respect to any
linear ordering of Par(n) that extends dominance order, is lower
triangular with 1’s on the main diagonal.

Proof. Proposition 9.25 is equivalent to the assertion about Kλµ . Since

a lower triangular matrix with 1’s on the main diagonal is invertible, it
follows that {sλ : λ ∈ Par(n)} is a Q-basis for Λn .

229
Corollary 9.27. The Schur functions sλ with λ ∈ Par(n) form a basis
for Λn , so {sλ : λ ∈ Par} is a basis for Λ. In fact, the transition matrix
Kλµ which expresses the sλ ’s in terms of the mµ ’s, with respect to any
linear ordering of Par(n) that extends dominance order, is lower
triangular with 1’s on the main diagonal.

Proof. Proposition 9.25 is equivalent to the assertion about Kλµ . Since

a lower triangular matrix with 1’s on the main diagonal is invertible, it
follows that {sλ : λ ∈ Par(n)} is a Q-basis for Λn .

230
9.9 The RSK Algorithm

The basic operation of the RSK algorithm consists of the row insertion
P ← k of a positive integer k into a nonskew SSYT P = (Pij ). The
operation P ← k is defined as follows: Let r be the largest integer such
that P1,r−1 ≤ k. (If P11 > k then let r = 1.) If P1r doesn’t exist (i.e. P
has r − 1 columns), then simply place k at the end of the first row. The
insertion process stops, and the resulting SSYT is P ← k. If on the
other hand, P has at least r columns, so that P1r exists, then replace
P1r by k. The element then “bumps” Pir := k 0 into the second row, i.e.
insert k 0 into the second row of P by the insertion rule just described.
Continue until an element is inserted at the end of a row (possibly as the
first element of the next row). The resulting array is P ← k.

231
Lemma 9.28. (a) When we insert k into an SSYT P , then the insertion
path moves to the left. More precisely, if (r, s), (r + 1, t) ∈ I(P ← k)
then t ≤ s.
(b) Let P be an SSYT, and let j ≤ k. Then I(P ← j) lies strictly to the
left of I((P ← j) ← k). More precisely, if (r, s) ∈ I(P ← j) and
(r, t) ∈ I((P ← j) ← k), then s < t. Moreover, I((P ← j) ← k) does
not extend below the bottom of I(P ← j). Equivalently

#I((P ← j) ← k) ≤ #I(P ← j)

232
Proof. (a) Suppose that (r, s) ∈ I(P ← k). Now either Pr+1,s > Prs
(since P is strictly increasing in columns) or else there is no (r + 1, s)
entry of P . In the first case, Prs cannot get bumped to the right of
column s without violating the fact that the rows of P ← k are weakly
increasing, since Prs would be to the right of Pr+1,s on the same row.
The second case is clearly impossible, since we would otherwise have a
gap in row r + 1. Hence (a) is proved.
(b) Since a number can only bump a strictly larger number, it follows
that k is inserted in the first row of P ← j strictly to the right of j.
Since the first row of P is weakly increasing, j bumps an element no
larger than the element k bumps. Hence by induction I(P ← j) lies
strictly to the left of I((P ← j) ← k).

233
The bottom element b of I(P ← j) was inserted at the end of its row.
By what was just proved, if I((P ← j) ← k) has an element c in this
row, then it lies to the right of b. Hence c was inserted at the end of the
row, so the insertion procedure terminates. It follows that
I((P ← j) ← k) can never go below the bottom of I(P ← j).

234
Corollary 9.29. If P is an SSYT and k ≥ 1, then P ← k is also an
SSYT.

Proof. It is clear that the rows of P ← k are weakly increasing. Now a

number a can only bump a larger number b. By Lemma 9.28(a), b does
not move to the right when when it is bumped. Hence b is inserted
below a number that is strictly smaller than b, so P ← k remains an
SSYT.

235
Now let A = (aij ) be a N-matrix with finitely many nonzero entries. We
will say that A is an N-matrix of finite support. We can think of A as
either an infinite matrix or as an m × n matrix when aij = 0 for i > m
and j > n.

236
Associate with A a generalized permutation of two-line array wA defined
by  
i1 i2 i3 . . . im
wA =   (9.29)
j1 j2 j3 . . . jm
where (a) i1 ≤ i2 ≤ · · · ≤ im
(b) if ir = is , and r ≤ s, then jr ≤ js ,
(c) for each pair (i, j), there are exactly aij values of r for which
(ir , jr ) = (i, j)

237
It is easily seen that A determines a unique two line array wA satisfying
(a) − (c), and conversely any such array corresponds to a unique A.

238
We now associate with A (or wA ) a pair (P, Q) of SSYTs of the same
shape, as follows. Let wA be given by (9.29). Begin with
(P (0), Q(0)) = (∅, ∅) (where ∅ denotes the empty SSYT). If t < m and
(P (t), Q(t)) are defined, then let
(a) P (t + 1) = P (t) ← jt+1 ;
(b) Q(t + 1) be obtained from Q(t) by inserting it+1 (leaving all parts of
Q(t) unchanged) so that P (t + 1) and Q(t + 1) have the same shape.
The process ends at (P (m), Q(m)), and we define
A
(P, Q) = (P (m), Q(m)). We denote this correspondence by A → (P, Q)
and call it the RSK algorithm. We call P the insertion tableau and Q
the recording tableau of A or of wA

239
Theorem 9.30. The RSK algorithm is a bijection between N-matrices
A = (aij )i,j≥1 of finite support and ordered pairs (P, Q) of SSYT of the
same shape. In this correspondence,
X
j occurs in P exactly aij times (9.30)
i
X
i occurs in Q exactly aij times (9.31)
j

(These last two conditions are equivalent to type(P ) = col(A),

type(Q) = row(A)).

240
Proof. By Corollary 9.29, P is an SSYT. Clearly, by definition of the
RSK algorithm P and Q have the same shape, and also (9.30) and
(9.31) hold. Thus we must show the following: (a) Q is an SSYT , and
(b) the RSK algorithm is a bijection, i.e., given (P, Q) , one can uniquely
recover A.
To prove (a), first note that since the elements of Q are inserted in
weakly increasing order, it follows that the rows and columns of Q are
weakly increasing. Thus we must show that the columns of Q are
strictly increasing, i.e. no two equal elements of the top row of wA can
end up in the same column of Q. But if ik = ik+1 in the top row, then
we must jk ≤ jk+1 . Hence by Lemma 9.28(b), the insertion path of
jk+1 will always lie strictly to the right of the path for jk , and will never
extend below the bottom of jk ’s insertion path. It follows that the
bottom elements of the two insertion paths lie in different columns, so
the columns of the Q are strictly increasing as desired.

241
The above argument establishes an important property of the RSK
algorithm: Equal elements of Q are inserted strictly left to right.
It remains to show that the RSK algorithm is a bijection. Thus given
(P, Q) = (P (m), Q(m)), let Qrs be the rightmost occurrence of the
largest entry of Q (where Qrs is the element of Q in row r and column
s). Since equal elements of Q are inserted left to right, it follows that
Qrs = im , Q(m − 1) = Q(m) \ Qrs (i.e., Q(m) with the element Qrs
deleted), and that Prs was the last element of P to be bumped into
place after inserting jm into P (m − 1). But it is then easy to reverse the
insertion procedure P (m − 1) ← jm .

242
Prs must have been bumped by the rightmost element Pr−1,t of row
r − 1 of P that is smaller than Prs . Hence remove Prs from P , replace
Pr−1,t with Prs , and continue by replacing the rightmost element of row
r − 2 of P that is smaller than Pr−1,t with Pr−1,t ,etc. Eventually some
element jm is removed from the first row of P . We have thus uniquely
recovered (im , jm ) and (P (m − 1), Q(m − 1)). By iterating this
procedure we recover the entire two-line array wA . Hence the RSK
algorithm is injective.

243
To show surjectivity, we need to show that applying the procedure of the
previous paragraph to an arbitrary pair (P, Q) of SSYTs of the same
shape always yields a valid two-line array

 
i1 i2 i3 ... im
wA =   (9.32)
j1 j2 j3 ... jm

Clearly, i1 ≤ i2 ≤ · · · ≤ im , so we need to show that if ik = ik+1 then

jk ≤ jk+1 . Let ik = Qrs and ik+1 = Quv , so r ≥ u and s < v. When
we begin to apply inverse bumping to Puv , it occupies the end of its row
(row u).

244
Hence when we apply inverse bumping to Prs , its “inverse insertion
path” intersects row u strictly to the left of the column v. Thus at row
u the inverse insertion path of Prs lies strictly to the left of that of Puv .
By a simple induction argument (essentially the “inverse” of Lemma
9.28(b)), the entire inverse insertion path of Prs lies strictly to the left
of that of Puv . In particular, before removing ik+1 the two elements jk
and jk+1 appear in the first row with jk to the left jk+1 . Hence
jk ≤ jk+1 as desired, completing the proof.

245
When the RSK algorithm is applied to a permutation matrix A (or a
permutation w ∈ Sn ), the resulting tableaux P, Q are just standard
Young tableaux (of the same shape). Conversely, if P and Q are SYTs
RSK
of the same shape, then the matrix A satisfying A → (P, Q) is a
permutation matrix. Hence the RSK algorithm sets up a bijection
between the symmetric group Sn and pairs (P, Q) of SYTs of the same
shape λ ` n. In particular, if f λ denotes the number of SYTs of shape
λ, then we have the fundamental identity
X
(f λ )2 = n! (9.33)
λ`n

246
Although permutation matrices are very special cases N-matrices of finite
support, in fact the RSK algorithm for arbitrary N-matrices A can be
reduced to the case of permutation matrices. Namely, given the two line
array wA , say of length n, replace the first row by 1, 2, . . . , n. Suppose
the second row of wA has ci i’s. Then replace the 1’s in the second row
from left-to-right with 1, 2, . . . , c1 , next the 2’s from left to-right with
c1 + 1, c2 + 1, . . . , c1 + c2 etc. until the second row becomes a
permutation of 1, 2, . . . , n. Denote the resulting two-line array by w̃A .

247
Lemma 9.31. Let
 
i1 i2 i3 ... in
wA =  
j1 j2 j3 ... jn

be a two-line array, and let

 
1 2 3 ... n
w̃A =  
j̃1 j̃2 j̃3 . . . j̃n

RSK
Suppose that w̃A → (P̃ , Q̃). Let (P, Q) be the tableaux obtained from
P̃ and Q̃ by replacing k in P̃ by ik , and j̃k in Q̃ by jk . Then
RSK
wA → (P, Q). In other words, the operation wA 7→ w̃A “commutes”
with the RSK algorithm.

248
Proof. Suppose that when the number j is inserted into a row at some
stage of the RSK algorithm, it occupies the k-th position in the row. If
this number j were replaced by a larger number j + , smaller than any
element of the row which is greater than j, then j +  would also be
inserted in at the k-th position. From this we see that the insertion
procedure for elements j1 , j2 , . . . , jn exactly mimics that for
j̃1 , j̃2 , . . . j̃n , and the proof follows.
The process of replacing wA with w̃A , P with P̃ , etc is called
standardization

249
9.10 Some consequences of the RSK algorithm

Theorem 9.32 (Cauchy identity). We have

Y X
−1
(1 − xi yj ) = sλ (x)sλ (y) (9.34)
i,j λ

Proof. Write
 
Y Y X
−1
(1 − xi yj ) =  (xi yj )aij  (9.35)
i,j i,j aij ≥0

A term xα y β in this expansion is obtained by choosing an N-matrix

At = (aij )t (the transpose of A) of finite support with row(A) = α and
col(A) = β.

250
Hence the coefficient of xα y β in (9.35) is the number of Nαβ of
N-matrices A with row(A) = α and col(A) = β. This statement is also
equivalent to (9.6). On the other hand the coefficient of xα y β in
P
λ sλ (x)sλ (y) is the number of pairs (P, Q) of SSYT of the shape λ
such that type(P ) = α and type(Q) = β. The RSK algorithm sets up a
bijection between the matrices A and the tableau pairs (P, Q), so the
proof follows.

251
Corollary 9.33. The Schur functions form an orthonormal basis for Λ,
i.e. hsλ , sµ i = δλµ

Proof. Combine Corollary 9.27 and Lemma 9.17.

252
Corollary 9.34. Fix partitions µ, ν ` n. Then
X
Kλµ Kλν = Nµν = hhµ , hν i
λ`n

where Kλµ and Kλν denote Kostka numbers, and Nµν is the number
N-matrices A with row(A) = µ and col(A) = ν.

Proof. Take the coefficient of xµ y ν on both sides of (9.34).

253
Corollary 9.35. We have
X
hµ = Kλµ sλ (9.36)
λ

In other words, if M (u, v) denotes the transition matrix from the basis
P
{vλ } to the basis {uλ } of Λ (so that uλ = µ M (u, v)λµ vµ ), then

M (h, s) = M (s, m)t

We give three proofs of this corollary, all essentially equivalent

P
First proof. Let hµ = λ aλµ sλ . By Corollary 9.33, we have
aλµ = hhµ , sλ i. Since hhµ , mν i = δµν by definition (9.22) of the scalar
product h, i, we have from Equation (9.27) that hhµ , hsλ i = Kλµ .

254
Second Proof. Fix µ. Then

xcol(A)
X
hµ =
A
X
= xQ by the RSK algorithm
(P,Q)
X X
= Kλµ xQ
λ Q
X
= Kλµ sλ
λ

where (i) A ranges over all N-matrices with row(A) = µ

(ii) (P, Q) ranges over all pairs of SSYT of the same shape with
type(P ) = µ and
(iii) Q ranges over all SSYT of shape λ.

255
Third proof Take the coefficient of mµ (x) on both sides of the identity
X X
mλ (x)hλ (y) = sλ (x)sλ (y)
λ λ

The two sides are equal by (9.7) and (9.34)

256
Corollary 9.36. We have
X
hn1 = f λ sλ (9.37)
λ`n

Proof. Take the coefficients of x1 x2 . . . xn on both sides of (9.34). To

RSK
obtain a bijective proof, consider the RSK algorithm A → (P, Q) when
col(A) = h1n i.

257
9.11 Symmetry of the RSK algorithm

Theorem 9.37. Let A be an N-matrix of finite support, and suppose

RSK RSK
that A → (P, Q). Then At → (Q, P ), where t
denotes the
transpose.

u


Proof. Let wA = v be the two-line array associated to A. Hence
0 v v



wA = u sorted i.e., sort the columns of u so that the columns are
weakly increasing in lexicographic order. It follows from Lemma 9.31
that we may assume u and v have no repeated elements.

258
Consider    
u1 ... un u
wA =  = 
v1 ... vn v
Suppose the ui ’s and vj ’s are distinct, define the inversion poset
u u



I = I(A) = I( v ) as follows. The vertices of I are the columns of v .
a
For notational convenience, we denote a column b as ab. Define ab < cd
in I if a < c and b < d.

259
Lemma 9.38. The map ϕ : I(A) → I(At ) defined by ϕ(ab) = ϕ(ba) is
an isomorphism of posets.

260
Now given the inversion poset I = I(A), define I1 to be the set of
minimal elements of I, then I2 to be the set of minimal elements of
I − I1 , then I3 to be the set of minimal elements of I − I1 − I2 etc.
Note that since Ii is an antichain of I, its elements can be labeled

(ui1 , vi1 ), (ui2 , vi2 ), . . . , (uini , vini ) (9.38)

where ni = #Ii such that

ui1 < ui2 < . . . < uini

(9.39)
vi1 > vi2 > ... > vini

261
Lemma 9.39. Let I1 , . . . , Id be the (nonempty) antichains defined
RSK
above, labeled as in (9.39). Let A → (P, Q). Then the first row of P
is v1n1 v2n2 · · · vdnd , while the first row of Q is u11 u21 · · · ud1 . Moreover,
if (uk , vk ) ∈ Ii , then vk is inserted into the i-th column of the first row
of the tableau P (k − 1) in the RSK algorithm.

Proof. Induction on n, the case n = 1 being trivial. Assume the

assertion for n − 1, and let
       
u u u2 · · · un ũ u u2 · · · un−1
 = 1 ,  = 1 
v v1 v2 · · · vn ṽ v1 v2 · · · vn−1

262
Let P (n − 1), Q(n − 1) be the tableaux obtained after inserting
0 ũ


v1 , . . . , vn−1 , and let the antichains Ii := Ii ( ṽ ), 1 ≤ i ≤ e (where
e = d − 1 or e = d), be given by (ũi1 , ṽi1 ), . . . , (ũimi , ṽimi ) where
ũi1 < · · · < ũimi and ṽi1 > · · · ṽimi . By the induction hypothesis, the
first row of P (n − 1) is ṽ1m1 ṽ2m2 · · · ṽeme , while the first row of Q is
ũ11 ũ21 · · · ũe1 . Now we insert vn into P (n − 1). If ṽimi > vn , then
0 u u



Ii ∪ (un , vn ) is an antichain of I( v ). Hence (un , vn ) ∈ Ii ( v ) if i is
the least index for which ṽimi > vn . If there is no such i, then (un , vn )
u u



is the unique element of the antichain Id ( v ) of I( v ). These
conditions mean that vn is inserted into the i-th column of P (n − 1), as
claimed. We start a new i-th column exactly when vn = vd1 , in which
case un = ud1 , so un is inserted into the i-th column of the first row of
Q(n − 1), as desired.

263
 u


Proof. of Theorem 9.37 If the antichain Ii ( ) is given by 9.38 such
v
v


that (264) is satisfied, then by Lemma 9.38 the antichain Ii ( u ) is just

(vimi , uimi ), . . . (vi2 , ui2 ), (vi1 , ui1 , )

where
vimi < ... < vi2 < vi1
uimi > . . . ui2 > > ui1
RSK
Hence by Lemma 9.39, if At → (P 0 , Q0 ), then the first row of P 0 is
u11 u21 · · · ud1 , and the first row of Q0 is vim1 v2m2 · · · vdmd . Thus by
Lemma 9.39, the first rows of P 0 and Q0 agree with the first rows of P
and Q, respectively.

264
 u


When the RSK algorithm is applied to , the element vij , 1 ≤ j < mi ,
v
gets bumped into the second row of P before the element 1 ≤ s < mr ,
if and only if ui,j+1 < ur,s+1 . Let P̄ and Q̄ denote P and Q with their
first rows removed. It follows that
   
a u12 · · · u1m1 u22 · · · u2m2 · · · ud2 · · · udmd
  :=  
b v11 · · · v1m1 −1 v21 · · · v2m2 −1 · · · vd1 · · · vdmd −1
sorted
RSK
→ (P̄ , Q̄)

265
Similarly let (P̄ 0 , Q̄0 ) denote P 0 and Q0 with their first rows removed.
v u



Applying the same argument to u rather than v yields

   
0
a v1m1 −1 · · · v11 v2m2 −1 · · · v21 · · · vdmd −1 · · · vd1
  :=  
b0 u1m1 · · · u12 u2m2 · · · u22 · · · udmd · · · ud2
sorted
RSK
→ (P̄ 0 , Q̄0 )

a b0



But =b a0 sorted ,
so by induction on n (or on the number of rows)
0 0
we have (P̄ , Q̄ ) = (Q̄, P̄ ) and the proof follows.

266
Corollary 9.40. Let A be a N-matrix of finite support, and let
RSK RSK
A → (P, Q). Then A → (P, Q). Then A is symmetric i.e. (A = At )
if and only if P = Q.
RSK
Proof. Immediete from the fact that At → (Q, P ).

267
 RSK
Corollary 9.41. Let A = At and A → (P, P ), and let
P
α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) where αi ∈ N and αi < ∞. Then the map A 7→ P
establishes a bijection between symmetric N-matrices with row(A) = α
and SSYTs of type α.

Proof. Follows from Corollary 9.40 and Theorem 9.30.

268
Corollary 9.42. We have
1 X
Q Q = sλ (x) (9.40)
i (1 − xi ) · i<j (1 − xi xj )
λ

summed over all λ ∈ Par.

Proof. The coefficient of xα on the left side is the number of symmetric

N-matrices A with row(A) = α while the coefficient of xα on the right
hand side is the number of SSYTs of type α. Now apply Corollary
9.41.

269
Corollary 9.43. We have
X
f λ = #{w ∈ Sn : w2 = 1}
λ`n

the number of involutions in Sn .

RSK
Proof. Let w ∈ Sn and w → (P, Q) where P and Q are SYT of the
same shape λ ` n. The permutation matrix corresponding to w is
symmetric if and only if w2 = 1. By Theorem 9.37 this is the case if and
only if P = Q, and the proof follows.
Alternatively, take the coefficient of x1 , · · · xn on both sides of
(9.40)

270
9.12 The dual RSK Algorithm

There is a variation of the RSK algorithm that is related to the product

Q
(1 + xi yj ) in the same way that the RSK algorithm itself is related to
(1 − xi yj )−1 . We call this variation the dual RSK algorithm and
Q
RSK ∗
denote it by A → (P, Q). The matrix A will now be a (0, 1) matrix of
finite support. Form the two line array wA just as before. The RSK ∗
algorithm proceeds exactly like the RSK algorithm, except that an
element i bumps the leftmost element ≥ i, rather than the leftmost
element > i. (In particular, RSK and RSK∗ agree for permutation
matrices.) It follows that each row of P is strictly increasing.

271
Theorem 9.44. The RSK∗ algorithm is a bijection between
(0, 1)-matrices A of finite support and pairs (P, Q) such that P t (the
transpose of P ) and Q are SSYTs with sh(P ) = sh(Q). Moreover,
col(A) = type(P ) and row(A) = type(Q).

272
Theorem 9.45. We have
Y X
(1 + xi yj ) = sλ0 (x)sλ (y)
i,j λ

273
Lemma 9.46. Let ωy denote ω acting on the y variables only (so we
regard the xi ’s as constants commuting with ω). Then

Y Y
−1
ωy (1 − xi yj ) = (1 + xi yj )

Proof. We have
Y X
−1
ωy (1 − xi yj ) = ωy mλ (x)hλ (y) ( by Proposition 9.7)
λ
X
= mλ (x)eλ (y) ( by Theorem 9.8 )
λ
Y
= (1 + xi yj ) ( by Proposition 9.3 )

274
Theorem 9.47. For every λ ∈ Par we have

ωsλ = sλ0

Proof. We have
X Y
sλ (x)sλ0 (y) = (1 + xi yj ) ( by Theorem 9.45)
λ
Y
= ωy (1 − xi yj )−1 ( by Lemma 9.46)
X
= ωy sλ (x)sλ (y) ( by Theorem 9.32)
λ
X
= sλ (x)ωy (sλ (y))
λ

Take the coefficient of sλ (x) on both sides. Since the sλ (x)’s are linearly
independent, we obtain sλ0 (y) = ωy (sλ (y)), or just sλ0 = ωsλ .

275
9.13 The Classical definition of the Schur functions

Let α = (α1 , α2 , . . . αn ) ∈ Nn and w ∈ Sn . As usual write

xα = xα αn
1 · · · xn and define
1

α α
w(xα ) = x1 w(1) · · · xnw(n)

Now define
X
aα = aα (x1 , . . . , xn ) = εw w(xα ) (9.41)
w∈Sn

where 
 1 if w is an even permutation
εw =
 −1 if w is an odd permutation

276
Note that the right-hand side of equation (9.41) is just the expansion of
a determinant, namely
α
aα = det(xi j )ni,j=1

Note also that aα is skew-symmetric, i.e. w(aα ) = εw aα , so aα = 0

unless all the αi ’s are distinct. Hence assume that
α1 > α2 > · · · > αn ≥ 0, so α = λ + δ, where λ ∈ Par, l(λ) ≤ n, and
δ = δn = (n − 1, n − 2, . . . , 0). Since αj = λj + n − j, we get
 n
λj +n−j
aα = aλ+δ = det xi (9.42)
i,j=1

277
For instance,
 
 x4 x21 x11 
 1
 
a421 = a211+210 =  x42 x22 1 
x2 
 4 
 x3 x23 x31 

Note in particular that

Y
aδ = det(xn−j
i ) = (xi − xj ) (9.43)
1≤i<j≤n

the Vandermonde determinant. If for some i 6= j we put xi = xj in aα ,

then because aα is skew-symmetric (or because the i-th row and j-th
row of the determinant (9.42) become equal), we obtain 0.

278
Hence aα is divisible by xi − xj and thus by aδ (in the ring
Z[x1 , . . . xn ]). Thus aα /aδ ∈ Z[x1 , . . . , xn ]. Moreover, since aα and aδ
are skew-symmetric, the quotient is symmetric, and is clearly
|λ|
homogeneous of degree |α| − |δ| = |λ|. In other words, aα /aδ ∈ Λn .

279
Theorem 9.48. We have

aλ+δ /aδ = sλ (x1 , . . . , xn )

280
Proof. There are many proofs of this result. We give one that can be
extended to give an important result on skew Schur functions(Theorem
9.51).
Applying ω to 9.36 and replacing λ by λ0 yields
X
eµ = Kλ0 µ sλ
λ

Since the matrix (Kλ0 µ ) is invertible, it suffices to show that

X aλ+δ
eµ (x1 , . . . , xn ) = Kλ µ0
aδ
or equivalently (always working with n variables),
X
aδ eµ = Kλ0 µ aλ+δ (9.44)
λ

281
Since both sides of (9.44) are skew-symmetric, it is enough to show that
the coefficient of xλ+δ in aδ eµ is Kλ0 µ . We multiply aδ by eµ by
successively multiplying eµ1 , eµ2 , . . .. Each partial product aδ eµ1 · · · eµk
is skew-symmetric, so any term xi11 · · · xinn appearing in aδ eµ1 · · · eµk has
all exponents ij distinct. When we multiply such a term xi11 · · · xinn by a
term xm1 · · · xmj from eµk+1 (so j = µk+1 ), either two exponents
become equal, or the exponents maintain their relative order. If two
exponents become equal then that term disappears from aδ eµ1 · · · eµk+1 .
Hence to get the term xλ+δ , we must start with the term xδ in aδ and
α1 α2
successively multiply by a term x of eµ1 , then x of eµ2 etc., keeping
the exponents strictly decreasing. The number of ways to do this is the
coefficient of xλ+δ in aδ eµ .

282
 1 2
Given the terms xα , xα , . . . as above, define an SSYT
T = T (α1 , α2 , . . .) as follows: Column j of T contains an i if the
αi
variable xj occurs in x (i.e. the j-th coordinate of αi is equal to 1).
For example, suppose n = 4, λ = 5332, λ0 = 44311, λ + δ = 8542, µ =
α1 α2 α3 α4 α5
3222211, x = x1 x2 x3 , x = x1 x2 , x = x3 x4 , x = x1 x2 , x =
α6 α7
x1 x4 , x = x1 , x = x3 . Then T is given by

1113
2235
447
5
6

283
It is easy to see that the map (α1 , α2 , . . .) 7→ T (α1 , α2 , . . .) gives a
bijection between ways of building up the term xλ+δ from xδ (according
to the rules above) and SSYT of shape λ0 and type µ, so the proof
follows.

284
From the combinatorial definition of Schur functions it is clear that
sλ (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0 if l(λ) > n. It is not hard to check thatt
dim (Λn ) = #{λ ∈ Par : l(λ) ≤ n}. It follows that the set
{sλ (x1 , . . . , xn ) : l(λ) ≤ n} is a basis for Λn . (This also follows frm a
simple extension of the proof of Corollary 9.27). We define on Λn a
scalar product h, in by requiring that {sλ (x1 , . . . , xn )} is an orthonormal
basis. If f, g ∈ Λ, then we write hf, gin as short for
hf (x1 , . . . .xn ), g(x1 , . . . , xn )in . Thus

hf, gi = hf, gin

provided that every monomial appearing in f involves at most n distinct

variables e.g., if deg f ≤ n

285
Corollary 9.49. If f ∈ Λn , l(λ) ≤ n, and δ = (n − 1, n − 2, . . . , 1, 0),
then
hf, sλ in = [xλ+δ ]aδ f
the coefficient of xλ+δ in aδ f .

Proof. All functions will be in the variables x1 , . . . , xn . Let

P
f = l(λ)≤n cλ sλ . Then by Theorem 9.48 we have
X
aδ f = cλ aλ+δ ,
l(λ)≤n

so
hf, sλ in = cλ = [xλ+δ ]aδ f.

286
Let us now consider a “skew generalization” of Theorem 9.48. We
continue to work in n variables x1 , . . . , xn . For any
λν ∈ Par, l(λ) ≤ n, l(ν) ≤ n, consider the expansion
X 0
sν eµ = Lλν 0 µ sλ ,
λ

or equivalently (multiplying by aδ ),
X 0
aν+δ eµ = Lλν 0 µ aλ+δ (9.45)
λ

λ0
Arguing as in the proof of Theorem 9.48 shows that Lν 0 µ is equal to the
number of ways to write

λ + δ = ν + δ + α1 + α2 + · · · + αk ,

287
Here l(µ) = k, each αi is a (0, 1)-vector with µi 1’s, and each a partial
sum ν + δ + α1 + · · · + αi has strictly decreasing coordinates. Define a
skew SSYT T = Tλ0 /ν 0 (α1 , . . . , αk ) of shape λ0 /ν 0 and type µ by the
condition that i appears in column j of T if the j-th coordinate of αi is
0
a 1. This establishes a bijection which shows that Lλν 0 µ is equal to the
skew Kostka number Kλ0 /ν 0 ,µ , the number of skew SSYTs of shape
λ0 /ν 0 and type µ (see Equation (9.28)). (If ν 0 * λ0 then this number is
0.)
Corollary 9.50. We have
X
sν eµ = Kλ0 /ν 0 ,µ sλ . (9.46)
λ

Proof. Divide (9.45) by aδ and let n → ∞.

288
Theorem 9.51. For any f ∈ Λ, we have

hf sν , sλ i = hf, sλ/ν i.

In other words, the two linear transformations Mν : Λ → Λ and

Dν : Λ → Λ defined by Mν f = sν f and Dν sλ = sλ/ν are adjoint with
respect to the scalar product h·, ·i. In particular

hsµ sν , sλ i = hsµ , sλ/ν i. (9.47)

289
Proof. Apply ω to (9.46) and replace ν by ν 0 and λ by λ0 . We obtain
X
sν hµ = Kλ/ν,µ sλ
λ

Hence
hsν hµ , sλ i = Kλ/ν,µ = hhµ , sλ/ν i, (9.48)
by (9.28) and the fact that hhµ , mρ i = δµρ by definition of h·, ·i. But
equation (9.48) is linear in hµ , so since {hµ } is a basis for Λ, the proof
follows.

290
Theorem 9.52. For any λ, ν ∈ Par we have ωsλ/ν = sλ0 /ν 0 .

Proof. By equation (9.47) and the fact that ω is an isometry, we have

hω(sµ sν ), ωsλ i = hωsµ , ωsλ/ν i.

Hence by Theorem 9.47 we get

hsµ0 sν 0 , sλ0 i = hsµ0 , ωsλ/ν i (9.49)

On the other hand, substituting λ0 , µ0 , ν 0 for λ, µ, ν respectively in (9.47)

yields
hsµ0 sν 0 , sλ0 i = hsµ0 , sλ0 /ν 0 i (9.50)
From Equations (9.49) and (9.50) there follows ωsλ/ν = sλ0 /ν 0

291
9.14 The Jacobi-Trudi Identity

Theorem 9.53. Let λ = (λ1 , . . . , λn ) and µ = (µ1 , . . . , µn ) ⊆ λ. Then

sλ/µ = det(hλi −µj −i+j )ni,j=1 (9.51)

where we set h0 = 1 and hk = 0 for k < 0.

292
Proof. Let cλµν = hsλ , sµ sν i, so
X X
sµ sν = cλµν sλ sλ/µ = cλµν sν
λ ν

Then
X X
sλ/µ (x)sλ (y) = cλµν sν (x)sλ (y)
λ λ,ν
X
= sν (x)sµ (y)sν (y)
ν
X
= sµ (y) hν (x)mν (y)
ν

293
Let y = (y1 , . . . , yn ). Multiplying by aδ (y) gives
!
X X
sλ/µ (x)aλ+δ (y) = hν (x)mν (y) aµ+δ (y)
λ ν
! !
X X
α
= hα (x)y εw y w(µ+δ)
α∈Nn w∈Sn
X X
= εw hα (x)y α+w(µ+δ)
w∈Sn α

Now take the coefficient of y λ+δ on both sides (so we are looking for
terms where λ + δ = α + w(µ + δ)). We get
X
sλ/µ (x) = εw hλ+δ−w(µ+δ) (x) (9.52)
w∈Sn
= det(hλi −µj −i+j (x))ni,j=1

294
Corollary 9.54 (Dual Jacobi-Trudi identity). Let µ ⊆ λ with λ1 ≤ n.
Then
sλ/µ = det(eλ0 −µ0j −i+j )ni,j=1 (9.53)

295
Let f λ/µ be the number of SYT of shape λ/µ.
Corollary 9.55. Let |λ/µ| = N and l(λ) ≤ n. Then
 n
1
f λ/µ = N !det (9.54)
(λi − µj − i + j)! i,j=1

296
9.15 The Murnaghan-Nakayama Rule

A skew shape λ/µ is connected if the interior of the diagram of λ/µ,

regarded as a union of solid squares, is a connected (open) set. A border
strip (or rim hook or ribbon) is a connected skew shape with no 2 × 2
square.
Given positive integers a1 , . . . , ak , there is a unique border strip λ/µ (up
to translation) with ai squares in row i (i.e. ai = λi − µi ). It follows
that the number of border strips of size n (up to translation) is 2n−1 .
Define the height ht(B) of a border strip B to be one less than its
number of rows.

297
Theorem 9.56. For any µ ∈ Par and r ∈ N we have

(−1)ht(λ/µ) sλ ,
X
sµ pr = (9.55)
λ

summed over all partitions λ ⊇ µ for which λ/µ is a border strip of size
r.

298
Proof. Let δ = (n − 1, n − 2, . . . , 0), and let all functions be in the
variables x1 , . . . , xn . In equation 9.41 let α = µ + δ and multiply by pr .
We get
X n
aµ+δ pr = aµ+δ+rj , (9.56)
j=1

where j is the sequence with a 1 in the j-th place and 0 elsewhere.

Arrange the sequence µ + δ + rj in descending order. If it has two
terms equal, then it will contribute nothing to (9.56). Otherwise there is
some p ≤ q for which

µp−1 + n − p + 1 > µq + n − q + r > µp + n − p,

in which case aµ+δ+rj = (−1)q−p aλ+δ , where λ is the partition

λ = (µ1 , . . . , µp−1 , µq + p − q + r, µp + 1, . . . , µq−1 + 1, µq+1 , . . . , µn )

299
Such partitions are precisely those for which λ/µ is a border strip B of
size r, and q − p is just ht(B). Hence

(−1)ht(λ/µ) aλ+δ
X
aµ+δ pr =
λ

Divide by aδ and let n → ∞ to obtain 9.55

300
Let α = (α1 , α2 , . . .) be a weak composition of n. Define a border-strip
tableaux (or rim-hook tableaux) of shape λ/µ (where |λ/µ| = n) and
type α to be an assignment of positive integers to the squares of λ/µ
such that
(a) every row and column is weakly increasing
(b) the integer i appears αi times, and
(c) the set of squares occupied by i forms a border strip.
Equivalently, one may think of a border-strip tableau as a sequence
µ = λ0 ⊆ λ1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ λr ⊆ λ of partitions such that each skew shape
λi /λi+1 is a border strip of size αi (including the empty border-strip ∅
when αi = 0).

301
Define the height ht(T ) of a border-strip tableau T to be

ht(T ) = ht(B1 ) + ht(B2 ) · · · + ht(Bk )

where B1 , . . . , Bk are the (nonempty) border strips appearing in T .

302
Theorem 9.57. We have
X
sµ pα = χλ/µ (α)sλ , (9.57)
λ

where
(−1)ht(T)
X
λ/µ
χ (α) = (9.58)
T

summed over all border-strip tableaux of shape λ/µ and type α

303
Corollary 9.58. We have
X
pα = χλ (α)sλ (9.59)
λ

where χλ (α) is given by (9.58) with µ = ∅.

304
Corollary 9.59. We have
X
sλ/µ = zν−1 χλ/µ (ν)pν , (9.60)
ν

where χλ/µ (ν) is given by (9.58).

Proof. We have from (9.57) that

χλ/µ (ν) = hsµ pν , sλ i

= hpν , sλ/µ i,

and the proof follows from Proposition 9.18.

305
The orthogonality properties of the bases {sλ } and {pλ } translate into
orthogonality relations satisfied by the coefficients χλ (µ).
Proposition 9.60. (a) Fix µ, ν. Then
X
χλ (µ)χλ (ν) = zµ δµν
λ

(b) Fix λ, µ. Then

X
zν−1 χλ (ν)χµ (ν) = δλµ
ν

Proof. (a) Expand pµ and pν by (9.59) and take hpµ , pν i.

(b) Expand sλ and sµ by (9.60) and take hsλ , sµ i.

306
10 Characters of the Symmetric and Unitary
Groups

10.1 Characters of the Symmetric Group

Let CFn denote the set of all class functions (i.e. functions constant on
conjugacy classes) f : Sn → Q. Recall that CFn has a natural scalar
product defined by
1 X
hf, gi = f (w)g(w)
n!
w∈Sn

Sometimes by abuse of notation we write hφ, γi instead of hf, gi when φ

and γ are representations of Sn with characters f and g.

307
If α = (α1 , . . . , αl ) is a vector of positive integers and
|α| := α1 + · · · + αl = n, then recall the Young subgroup Sα ⊆ Sn given
by
Sα = Sα1 × Sα2 × · · · × Sαl
where Sα1 permutes 1, 2, . . . , α1 ; Sα2 permutes
α1 + 1, α1 + 2, . . . α1 + α2 etc.

308
Consider the following linear transformations ch : CFn → Λn called the
Frobenius characteristic maps. If f ∈ CFn , then
1 X
ch f = f (w)pρ(w)
n!
w∈Sn
X
= zµ−1 f (µ)pµ
µ

where f (µ) denotes f (w) for any type ρ(w) = µ. Equivalently, extending
the ground field Q to the algebra Λ and defining Ψ(w) = pρ(w) , we have

ch f = hf, Ψi (10.1)

309
Note that if fµ is the class function defined by

 1, if ρ(w) = µ,
fµ (w) =
 0, otherwise.

then chfµ = zµ−1 pµ .

NOTE. Let ϕ : Sn → GL(V ) be a representation of Sn with character
χ. Some times by abuse of notation we will write ch ϕ or ch V instead
of ch χ.

310
Proposition 10.1. The linear transformation ch is an isometry i.e.,

hf, giCFn = hch f, ch giΛn .

Proof. We have (using Proposition 9.18)

X X
−1
hch f, ch gi = h zλ f (λ)pλ , zµ−1 g(µ)pµ i
µ µ
X
= zλ−1 f (λ)g(λ)
λ
= hf, gi

311
We now want to define a product on class functions that will correspond
to the ordinary product of symmetric functions under the characteristic
map ch . Let f ∈ CFm and g ∈ CFn . Define the pointwise product
f × g ∈ CF(Sm × Sn ) by

(f × g)(u, v) = f (u)g(v).

If f and g are characters of representations of ϕ and ψ, then f × g is

just the character of the tensor product representation ϕ ⊗ ψ of
Sm × Sn . Now define the induction product f ◦ g of f and g to be the
induction of f × g to Sm+n where as before Sm permutes 1, 2, . . . , m
while Sn permutes m + 1, m + 2, . . . , m + n. in symbols
Sm+n
f ◦ g = indSm ×Sn (f × g).

312
Let CF = CF0 ⊕ CF1 ⊕ · · · , and extend the scalar product on CFn to
all of CF by setting hf, gi = 0 if f ∈ CFm , g ∈ CFn , and m 6= n.
The induction product on characters extends to all of CF by
(bi)linearity. It is not hard to check that this takes CF into an
associative commutative graded Q-algebra with the identity 1 ∈ CF0 .
Similarly we can extend the characteristic map ch to a linear
transformation ch : CF → Λ.

313
Proposition 10.2. The characteristic map ch : CF → Λ is a bijective
algebra homomorphism, i.e. ch is one-to-one and onto, and satisfies

ch (f ◦ g) = (ch f )(ch g)

314
Proof. Let resG
H f denote the restriction of the class function f on G to
the subgroup H. We then have
S
m+n
ch (f ◦ g) = ch (indSm ×Sn (f × g))
S
= hindSm+n
m ×Sn
(f × g), Ψi by (10.1)
S
m+n
= hf × g, resSm ×Sn ΨiSm ×Sn (by Frobenius reciprocity)
1 X X
= f (u)g(v)Ψ(uv)
m!n!
u∈Sm v∈Sn
1 X X
= f (u)g(v)Ψ(u)Ψ(v)
m!n!
u∈Sm v∈Sn

= hf, ΨiSm hg, ΨiSn

= (ch f )(ch g)

315
Moreover, from the definition of ch and the fact that the power sums
pµ form a Q-basis for Λ it follows that ch is bijective.

316
Note that by Equation (9.19) and the definition of ch we have
X
ch 1Sn = zλ−1 pλ = hn (10.2)
λ`n

Corollary 10.3. We have ch 1SSnα = hα

Proof. Since 1SSnα = 1Sα1 ◦ 1Sα2 ◦ · · · ◦ 1Sαl , the proof follows from
Proposition 10.2 and Equation (10.2).

317
Now let Rn denote the set of all virtual characters of Sn , i.e. functions
of Sn that are the difference of two characters (= integer linear
combinations of irreducible characters). Thus Rn is a lattice (discrete
subgroup of maximum rank) in the vector space CFn . The rank of Rn
is p(n), the number of partitions of n, and a basis consists of the
irreducible characters of Sn . This basis is the unique orthonormal basis
of Rn up to sign and order, since the transition matrix between two such
bases must be a integral orthogonal matrix and hence a signed
permutation. Define R = R0 ⊕ R1 ⊕ · · · .

318
Proposition 10.4. The image of R under the characteristic map ch is
ΛZ . Hence ch : R → ΛZ is a ring isomorphism.

319
Proof. It will suffice to find integer linear combinations of the characters
η α of the representations 1SSnα that are irreducible characters of Sn . The
Jacobi-Trudi identity (Theorem 9.53) suggests we define the (possibly
virtual) characters ψ λ = det(η λi −i+j ), where the product used in
evaluating the determinant is the induction product. Then by the
Jacobi-Trudi identity and Proposition 10.1 we have

ch (ψ λ ) = sλ (10.3)

Since ch is an isometry (Proposition 10.1) we get hψ λ , ψ µ i = δλµ . As

pointed out above, this means that the class functions ψ λ are, up to
sign, the irreducible characters of Sn . Hence the ψ λ for λ ` n form a Z
basis for Rn , and the image of Rn is the Z-span of the sλ ’s which is
just ΛnZ as claimed.

320
Theorem 10.5. Regard the functions χλ (where λ ` n) of Section 9.15
as functions on Sn given by χλ (w) = χλ (µ), where w has cycle type µ.
Then the χλ are the irreducible characters of the symmetry group Sn .

321
By the Murnaghan-Nakayama rule (Corollary 9.59 ), we have
X
λ
ch (χ ) = zµ−1 χλ (µ)pµ = sλ
µ

Hence by Equation (10.3), we get χλ = ψ λ . Since the ψ λ , up to sign,

are the irreducible characters of Sn , it remains only to determine wether
χλ or −χλ is a character. But χλ (1n ) = f λ , so χλ is an irreducible
character.

322
By definition, η λ is the character of the module M λ . It can be shown
that χλ is the character of the Specht module S λ .
Proposition 10.6. Let α be a composition of n and λ ` n. Then the
multiplicity of the irreducible character χλ in the character η α is just the
Kostka number Kλα . In symbols

hη α , χλ i = Kλα .

Proof. By Corollary 10.3 we have ch η α = hα . Then the proof follows

from Corollary 9.35 and Theorem 10.5.

323
10.2 The characters of GL(n, C)

A linear representation of GL(V ) is a homomorphism

ϕ : GL(V ) → GL(W ), where W is a complex vector space. From now
on we assume that all representations are finite dimensional i.e
dim (W ) < ∞. We call dim (W ) the dimension of the representation ϕ,
denoted dim (ϕ).

324
The representation ϕ is a polynomial representation if, after choosing
ordered bases for V and W , the entries of ϕ(A) are polynomials in the
entries of A ∈ GL(n, C). It is clear that the notion of polynomial
representations is independent of the choice of ordered bases of V and
W , since linear combinations of polynomials remain polynomials.

325
Fact: If ϕ is a polynomial representation of GL(V ), then there is a
symmetric polynomial char ϕ in dim V variables such that

T rϕ(A) = char ϕ(θ1 , . . . , θn )

for all A ∈ GL(V ), where θ1 , . . . , θn are the eigenvalues of A.

326
Theorem 10.7. The irreducible polynomial representations ϕλ of GL(V)
can be indexed by partitions λ of length at most n so that

char ϕλ = sλ (x1 , . . . , xn )

327
Examples:
• If ϕ(A) = 1 (the trivial representation), then char ϕ = s∅ = 1.
• If ϕ(A) = A (the defining representation), then
char ϕ = x1 + · · · + xn = s1 .
• If ϕ(A) = (detA)m for an positive integer m, then
char ϕ = (x1 · · · xn )m = smn .

328
Proof. (Sketch) Let V be an n-dimensional complex vector space.
Then GL(V ) acts diagonally on the k-th tensor power V ⊗k i.e

A · (v1 ⊗ · · · vk ) = (A · v1 ) ⊗ · · · ⊗ (A · vk ), (10.4)

and the symmetric group Sk acts on V ⊗k by permuting tensor

coordinates, i.e.

w · (v1 ⊗ · · · vk ) = vw−1 (1) ⊗ · · · vw−1 (k) (10.5)

329
The actions of GL(V ) and Sk commute, so we have an action of
Sk × GL(V ) on V ⊗k . A crucial fact is that the actions of GL(V ) and
Sk centralize each other. i.e the (invertible) linear transformations
V ⊗k → V ⊗k that commute with the Sk action are just those given by
Eqn. (10.4), while conversely the linear transformations that commute
with the GL(V ) actions are those generated (as a C algebra) by Eqn
(10.5). From this it can be shown that V ⊗k decomposes into irreducible
Sk × GL(V )-modules as follows
M
⊗k
V = (M λ ⊗ F λ ) (10.6)
L
where denotes the direct sum (the “double commutant theorem”).

330
Here the Mλ ’s are nonisomorphic irreducible Sk modules, the F λ ’s are
nonisomorphic irreducible GL(V ) modules, and λ ranges over some
index set. We know (Theorem 10.5) that the irreducible representations
of Sk are indexed by partitions λ of k, so we choose the indexing so that
M λ is the irreducible Sk module corresponding to λ ` k via Theorem
10.5. Thus we have constructed irreducible (or possibly 0)
GL(V )-modules F λ . These modules afford polynomial representations
ϕλ , and the nonzero ones are inequivalent.

331
Next we compute the character of ϕλ . Let w × A be an element of
Sk × GL(V ), and let tr(w × A) denote the trace of w × A acting on
V ⊗k . Then by Equation (10.6) we have
X
tr(w × A) = χλ (w) · tr(ϕλ (A)).
λ

Let A have eigenvalues θ = (θ1 , . . . , θn ). A straightforward computation

shows that tr(w × A) = pρ(w) (θ), so
X
pρ(w) (θ) = χλ (w)(char ϕλ )(θ)
λ

But we know (Corollary 9.59) that

X
pρ(w) = χλ (w)sλ
λ

332
Since the χλ ’s are linearly independent, we conclude char ϕλ = sλ .
A separate argument shows that there are no other irreducible
polynomial characters.

333
Fact: The ϕλ remain irreducible when restricted to U (V ) because the
(dim V )2 entries of a general unitary matrix are algebraically
independent, and so every irreducible polynomial representation of
GL(V ) is still irreducible when restricted to U (V ).

334
11 Eigenvalues of random matrices

For n ∈ N, let Mn be a random n × n unitary matrix with distribution

given by Haar measure on the unitary group. The eigenvalues of Mn lie
on the unit circle T of the complex plane C. Write Ξn for the random
measure on T that places a unit mass at each of the eigenvalues of Mn .
That is, if the eigenvalues are {νn1 , . . . , νnn }, then
Z X
Ξn (f ) := f dΞn = f (νnj )
T j

335
Note that if f : T → C has Fourier expansion f (e ) = j∈Z fˆj eijθ ,
iθ
P

then
∞
X ∞
X
Ξn (f ) = nfˆ0 + fˆj Tr (Mnj ) + fˆ−j Tr (Mnj ),
j=1 j=1

where Tr denotes the trace.

Questions about the asymptotic behaviour of cn (Ξn (fn ) − E[Ξn (fn )])
for a sequence of test functions {fn } and sequence of norming constants
{cn } may therefore be placed in the larger framework of questions about
P∞
the asymptotic behaviour of j=1 (anj Tr (Mnj ) + bnj Tr (Mnj )) for
arrays of complex constants {anj : n ∈ N, j ∈ N} and
{bnj : n ∈ N, j ∈ N}.

336
Definition 11.1. A complex random variable is said to be standard
complex normal if the real and imaginary parts are independent centred
(real) normal random variables with common variance 12 .

337
11.1 Moments of Traces
Theorem 11.2. a) Consider a = (a1 , . . . , ak ) and b = (b1 , . . . , bk )
with aj , bj ∈ {0, 1, . . .}. Let Z1 , Z2 , . . . Zk be independent standard
complex normal random variables. Then for
Pk Pk
n ≥ ( j=1 jaj ) ∨ ( j=1 jbj ),
 
k  bj k
Y a Y
Tr (Mnj ) Tr (Mnj )  = δab j aj aj !
j


E
j=1 j=1
 
k 
Y aj p bj
p
= E jZj jZj  .
j=1

b) For any j, k,
h i
E Tr (Mnj ) Tr (Mnk ) = δjk (j ∧ n).

338
Proof. (a) Define the simple power sum symmetric function pj to be the
symmetric function pj (x1 , . . . , xn ) = xj1 + · · · + xjn . Let µ be the
partition (1a1 , 2a2 , . . . , k ak ) of the integer K = 1a1 + 2a2 + · · · + kak
Q aj
and set pµ = j pj to be the corresponding compound power sum
symmetric function. Associate µ with the conjugacy class of the
symmetric group on K letters that consists of permutations with aj
j–cycles for 1 ≤ j ≤ k. We have the expansion
X
pµ = χλµ sλ ,
λ`K

339
Here the sum is over all partitions of K, the coefficient χλµ is the
character of the irreducible representation of the symmetric group
associated with the partition λ evaluated on the conjugacy class
associated with the partition µ, and sλ is the Schur function
corresponding to the partition λ

340
Given an n × n unitary matrix U , write sλ (U ) (resp. pµ (U )) for the
function sλ (resp. pµ ) applied to the eigenvalues of U . Writing `(λ) for
the number of parts of the partition λ (that is, the length of λ), the
functions U 7→ sλ (U ) are irreducible characters of the unitary group
when `(λ) ≤ n and sλ (U ) = 0 otherwise. Thus
h i
E sλ (Mn )sπ (Mn ) = δλπ 1(`(λ) ≤ n),

Set ν = (1b1 , 2b2 , . . . , k bk ) and L = 1b1 + 2b2 + · · · + kbk .

341
We have
 
k  bj
Y a j
Tr (Mnj )
j


E Tr (Mn ) 
j=1
h i
= E pµ (Mn )pν (Mn )
 ! ! (11.1)
X X
=E  χλµ sλ (Mn ) χπν sπ (Mn ) 
λ`K π`L
X
= δKL χλµ χλν 1(`(λ) ≤ n).
λ`K

342
When K ≤ n, all partitions of K are necessarily of length at most n,
and so, by the second orthogonality relation for characters of the
symmetric group, the rightmost term of (11.1) becomes
k
Y k
Y
δKL δµν j aj aj ! = δab j aj aj !,
j=1 j=1
√
which coincides with the claimed mixed moment of jZj , 1 ≤ j ≤ k.

343
(b) We have from (11.1) that
h i X  2
E Tr (Mnj ) Tr (Mnk ) = δjk χλ(j)  1(`(λ) ≤ n),

λ`j

where (j) is the partition of j consisting of a single part of size j. Now

χλ(j) = 0 unless λ is a hook partition (that is, a partition with at most
one part of size greater than 1), in which case

χλ(j) = (−1)`(λ)−1

Since there are j ∧ n hook partitions of j of length at most n, part (b)

follows.

344
11.2 Linear combination of Traces

Theorem 11.3. Consider an array of complex constants

{anj : n ∈ N, j ∈ N}. Suppose there exists σ 2 such that
∞
X
lim |anj |2 (j ∧ n) = σ 2 .
n→∞
j=1

Suppose also that there exists a sequence of positive integers

{mn : n ∈ N} such that

lim mn /n = 0
n→∞

and
∞
X
lim |anj |2 (j ∧ n) = 0.
n→∞
j=mn +1

345
 P∞
Then j=1 anj Tr (Mnj ) converges in distribution as n → ∞ to σZ,
where Z is a complex standard normal random variable.

346
Proof. Recall from Theorem 11.2 that E[ Tr (Mnj )] = 0 and
E[ Tr (Mnj ) Tr (Mnk )] = δjk (j ∧ n). Consequently, the series
P∞ j 2
j=1 anj Tr (Mn ) converges in L for each n and
P∞
limn→∞ E[| j=mn +1 anj Tr (Mnj )|2 ] = 0.
−1
Pmn j
It therefore suffices to show that σ j=1 anj Tr (Mn ) converges in
distribution as n → ∞ to a complex standard normal random variable.
Let Z0 , Z1 , Z2 , . . . be a sequence of independent complex standard
normals.

347
From Theorem 11.2 we know that
 α  β 
 mn  X mn 
 X
anj Tr (Mnj ) anj Tr (Mnj ) 

E
   
j=1 j=1
 α  β 
 mn  X mn 
 X p p
= E anj jZj anj jZj


   
j=1 j=1
 
 1/2 α  1/2 β
 mn 
  mn 
 X 2 
 X  
= E

 |anj | j Z0  |anj |2 j  Z0 ,

 j=1 
 
 j=1 


provided that αmn ≤ n and βmn ≤ n. The result now follows by

convergence of moments for complex normal distributions and the
assumption that mn /n → 0.

348
Theorem 11.4. Consider arrays of complex constants
{anj : n ∈ N, j ∈ N} and {bnj : n ∈ N, j ∈ N}. Suppose there exist σ 2 ,
τ 2 , and γ such that
∞
X
lim |anj |2 (j ∧ n) = σ 2 ,
n→∞
j=1
∞
X
lim |bnj |2 (j ∧ n) = τ 2 ,
n→∞
j=1

and
∞
X
lim anj bnj (j ∧ n) = γ.
n→∞
j=1

Suppose also that there exists a sequence of positive integers

{mn : n ∈ N} such that
lim mn /n = 0
n→∞

349
and
∞
X
lim (|anj |2 + |bnj |2 )(j ∧ n) = 0.
n→∞
j=mn +1
P∞
Then j=1 (anj Tr (Mnj ) + bnj Tr (Mnj )) converges in distribution as
n → ∞ to X + iY , where (X, Y ) is a pair of centred jointly normal real
random variables with
1 2
E[X 2 ] = (σ + τ 2 + 2<γ),
2
1 2
E[Y ] = (σ + τ 2 − 2<γ),
2
2
and
E[XY ] = =γ.

350
Given f ∈ L2 (T) (where we define L2 (T) to be the space of real–valued
square–integrable functions), write
Z
1
fˆj := e−ijθ f (θ) dθ, j ∈ Z,
2π
for the Fourier coefficients of f .
Recall that a positive sequence {ck }k∈N is said to be slowly varying if
cbλkc
lim = 1, λ > 0,
k→∞ ck

351
Theorem 11.5. Suppose that f ∈ L2 (T) is such that the sequence
Pk
{ j=−k |fˆj |2 j}k∈N is slowly varying. Then

Ξn (f ) − E[Ξn (f )]
qP
n ˆ 2
j=−n |fj | |j|

converges in distribution to a standard normal random variable as

n → ∞.

352
 1
Let H2 denote the space of functions f ∈ L2 (T) such that
2

X
2
kf k 1 := |fˆj |2 |j| < ∞,
2
j∈Z

1
and define an inner product on H2 by2

X
hf, gi 12 := fˆj ˆ¯g|j|.
j
j∈Z

353
 1
Alternatively, H2 is the space of functions f ∈ L2 (T) such that
2

2
(f (φ) − f (θ))
ZZ
1
2
  dθ dφ < ∞, (11.2)
16π sin2 φ−θ 2

Moreover,
(f (φ) − f (θ)) (g(φ) − g(θ))
ZZ
1
hf, gi 12 =   dθ dφ
16π 2 sin 2 φ−θ
2

354
 1 R
Theorem 11.6. If f1 , . . . , fk ∈ H2 with E[Ξn (fh )] = n fj (θ) dθ = 0
2

for 1 ≤ h ≤ k, then the random vector (Ξn (f1 ), . . . , Ξn (fk )) converges

in distribution to a jointly normal, centred random vector
(Ξ(f1 ), . . . , Ξ(fk )) with E[Ξ(fh )Ξ(f` )] = hfh , f` i 21 .

355
For 0 ≤ α < β < 2π write Nn (α, β) for the number of eigenvalues of
Mn of the form eiθ with θ ∈ [α, β]. That is, Nn (α, β) = Ξn (f ) where f
is the indicator function of the arc {eiθ : θ ∈ [α, β]}. Note that
E[Nn (α, β)] = n(β − α)/2π.

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Theorem 11.7. As n → ∞, the finite–dimensional distributions of the
processes
Nn (α, β) − E[Nn (α, β)]
1
√ , 0 ≤ α < β < 2π,
π log n

converge to those of a centred Gaussian process

{Z(α, β) : 0 ≤ α < β < 2π} with the covariance structure

0 0


1, if α = α and β = β ,

1 0 0




 2 , if α = α and β 6
= β ,
E[Z(α, β)Z(α0 , β 0 )] = 21 , if α 6= α0 and β = β 0 ,

1 0

− , if β = α ,




 2

0, otherwise.

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